Publish o Pe ish:
,
The Scien i ic
Publica ions o Women Physicians in
La e Impe ial Russia
(*)
MICHELLE DENBESTE-BARNETT
(**)
SUMMARY
Types o Publica ions by Women Physicians. Hygiene and Women's Heal h: Elizabe h
D en el'n and Ma iia Volko a. Aleksand a Ekke and School Hygiene. E geniia
Se eb enniko a: Pionee ing Oph halmologis . Ma iia Pok o skaia: Physician, Feminis
and Public Heal h C usade . Anna Shabano a: Pedia ician and Women's Righ s Ac i is .
Impac o Women's Publica ions on he P o ession. Conclusions.
ABSTRACT
Women physicians in la e 19 h cen u y Russia eme ge jus as he Russian p o essions
begin a emp ing o achie e some deg ee o au onomy om bu eauc a ic in e e ence.
Women ook ad an age o his discou se o po ay hemsel es as compe en p o essionals
dedica ed o be e ing he li es o Russian people. Qui e o en hese a emp s o jus i y
hei wo k in he p o ession also mo i a ed hem o publish hei scien i ic indings so
~
ha hey could be iewed as legi ima e schola s and physicians.
This a icle concen a es on six women physicians, Elizabe h D en el'n, Aieksand a
Ekke , Ma ia Pok o skaia, E geniia Se eb enniko a, Anna Shabano a, and Ma ia Volko a
(*)
Much o he esea ch o his pape was conduc ed du ing wo esea ch ips o
he Na ional Lib a y o Medicine in Washing on D.C. Funding o he mos
ecen ip was p o ided by he Kennan Ins i u e o Ad anced Russian S udies o
he Wood ow Wilson Cen e . An ea lie ip was inanced by a Phi Alpha The a
G adua e s uden schola ship awa d. Ea ly d a s o he pape we e p esen ed a
he Sou he n Con e ence on Sla ic S udies, Chape1 Hill, No h Ca olina in
Ma ch 1998 and he B i ish Associa ion o Sla onic and Eas Eu opean S udies,
Fi zwilliam College, Camb idge, Ap il 1998.
("*)
Assis an P o esso , Russian His o y. A kansas Tech Uni e si y. Social Sciences
and Philosophy Dep ., WPN 255, Russell ille, AR 72801, USA.
DYNAMIS.
Ac a
Hisp.
Med.
Sci.
His .
Illus.
1999,
19,
215-240.
216
MICHELLE DENBESTE-BARNETT
who p o ide illus a i e case s udies o wha many o he women physicians we e doing.
Women physicians published on a wide a ie y o opics, om women's and child en's
heal h o a ious ypes o cance s and in ec ious diseases.
A
ew also used hei medical
aining o ad oca e o wo nen's poli ical and social igh s.
BIBLID
[O21 1-9536(1999) 19; 215-2401
Fecha de acep ación:
30
de no iemb e de
1998
By he beginning o he wen ie h cen u y, medical schools in Russia
had g adua ed la ge nuxnbe s o women physicians. The
1904
medical
egis e lis s
738
women physicians. By
1914,
3,352
women a e egis e ed
as p ac icing physicians. As hei numbe s g ew, hei in luence also
sp ead in he medical wo ld. Women pa icipa ed in medical cong esses,
gi ing epo s and speeches, and hei medical esea ch and expe ience
ea ing pa ien s ound i .s way in o impo an medical jou nals. Russian
women published p oli ically, especially when compa ed o women in
o he coun ies who o en an up agains se e e obs acles. While elsewhe e
women s uggled o p ac ice, o gain en ance o esea ch acili ies and
o join medical socie ies, in Russia women accomplished hese goals
ea ly and mo ed o in ol emen in shaping he u u e o Russia's medical
p o ession
(1).
In e es ingly, Russian women no only a ended medical school
ea lie han women om o he Eu opean coun ies bu hey also p ac iced,
published, and pa icipa ed in , hei p o ession on a much mo e equal
basis han women om o he coun ies. The na ional medical jou nal
V ach
egula ly ca ied a icles by and abou women physicians as did
o he egional and specialized medical jou nals. The English medical
jou nal
The Lance
by way o con as discussed women physicians only
when deba ing whe he o no hey should be allowed in o medical
school and wha ypes o es ic ions should be pu on hei p ac icing
(2).
(1)
Fo in o ma ion on womeil physicians in o he coun ies see
BONNER,
T.N.
To
he Ends
o
he Ea h: Women's Sea ch
o
Educa ion in Medicine,
Camb idge, Ha a d
Uni e si y P ess,
1992.
(2)
This is pa icula ly ue ea ly on
(1872-1876).
The Uni e si y o London opened
o women in
1877
and while publica ions by women do no appea un il la e , he
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Rlus.
1999,
19,
215-240.
The Scien i ic Publica ions o Women Physicians in La e Impe ial Russia
217
The published wo ks o Russian women physicians should be seen
no only as pa o hei a emp o join he p o ession on i s own e ms
bu also as a con ibu ion o he medical and social discou se su ounding
e o ms in medicine and medical issues. Thei w i ings added a eminine
(and some imes eminis ) oice o he deba e in he p ess, in he
medical li e a u e, and a p o essional cong esses no only o e women's
capaci y o p ac ice medicine bu also o e women's capabili ies and
ole in socie y. By placing hemsel es in he public a ena and publishing
hei scien i ic and li e a y achie emen s, hese women physicians, publicly
challenged common concep ions abou women's oles and capaci ies.
As Sidonie Smi h w i es, i a woman seeks a place in he public a ena,
«she ansg esses pa ia chal de ini ions o emale na u e by enac ing
he scena io o male sel hood. As she does so she challenges cul u al
concep ions o he na u e o women and he eby in i es public censu e
o he e o sn
(3).
Russian women a he end o he cen u y ansg essed
hese bounda ies wi h less opposi ion han women in o he coun ies.
Women physicians no only published bu we e ac i ely encou aged o
do so by male men o s.
Russian women ecei ed hei medical deg ees bo h a home and
ab oad bu in o de o p ac ice in Russia, al1 physicians had o pass he
s a e exam and be egis e ed on he lis o physicians.
A
combina ion o
ac o s led o la ge numbe s o Russian women s udying medicine. By
s udying and p ac icing medicine, Russian women could sa is y hei
ques o scien i ic s udy (emphasized by new in ellec ual mo emen s
such as nihilism) while a he same ime helping he peasan s, u ban
wo ke s, and he poo (a goal o o he mo emen s such as populism).
The inc edible in ellec ual and social e men in la e nine een h cen u y
Russia mean ha class and gende oles we e no i mly es ablished
and Russian women ook ad an age o his o y ou new possibili ies
o educa ion and employmen .
ea ly hos ili y owa d women in medicine g adually dissipa es. On he English
si ua ion see
BLAKE,
Ca iona.
The Cha ge o he Pa asols: Women's En o he
Medical P o ession,
London, The Women's P ess, 1990, pp. 178-199 and BONNER,
T.N.
Becoming a Physician,
New Yo k, Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 1995.
(3)
SMITH, Sidonie.
A Poe ics o Women's Au obiog aphy,
Blooming on, Indiana Uni e si y
P ess, 1987, p.
8.
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus.
1999,
19,
215-240.
218 MICHELLE DENBESTE-BARNETT
The w i ings o women physicians lea e us a aluable his o ical
eco d o hei achie emen s. Thei publica ions p o ide in o ma ion
on he medical deba es o he ime, women's s uggles o en e he
p o ession, daily p ac ice, and occasionally a peek in o hei p i a e
li es
(4).
Those women who published came om a wide a ie y o
medical special ies and included bo h egula physicians and women
wi h Ph.D.'s. Thei publica ions can be di ided in o se e a1 gen es:
memoi s, medical esea ch, sel -help o ins uc ional ma e ial designed
o a gene al audience, and li e a y wo ks.
Women physicians in la e nine een h cen u y Russia eme ge jus as
p o essionals begin a emp ing o achie e some deg ee o au onomy
om bu eauc a ic in e e ence. Women ook ad an age o his discou se
o po ay hemsel es as compe en p o essionals dedica ed o be e ing
he li es o Russian people. This same impulse o jus i y hei wo k in he
p o ession also mo i a ed hem o publish hei scien i ic indings so ha
hey could be iewed as legi ima e, p o essional, schola s and physicians. In
ac , since women s udied wi h op male physicians due o he associa ion
o he women's medical cou ses wi h he S . Pe e sbu g Medical-Su gical
Ins i u e ( he p emie medical school in Russia), women's schola ship
o en examined new and cccu ing edgen issues. A he same ime, women's
eques s o be e pay, independence in he wo k en i onmen , and
imp o emen s in public heal h igh ened a go e nmen al eady conce ned
abou adicalism among he newly eme ging p o essional classes.
TYPES OF PUBLICATIONS BY WOMEN PHYSICIANS
Abou hi y-se en pe cen o women's publica ions a e di ec ly
conce ned wi h women's and child en's heal h, he as majo i y
(4) My da abase consis s o 270 publica ions by 140 women physicians published
be ween 1870 and 1905. The da abase was compiled by sea ching medical pe iodicals
such as
V ach, Akushe ka, Medi sinskii Ves nik,
and
Ves nik O almologii
and by sea ching
GOLITSYN, N.N.
Bibliog a icheskii sloua ' usskikh pisa el'ni s,
S . Pe e sbu g, 1889;
PETROV, N.P.
Bibliopa icheskii ukaza el' usskikh disse a sii po medi sin,e i e e inam'i,
Vyp. 1, 1860-1892 and Vyp. 2, 1893-1898, S . Pe e sbu g, 1893; ZMEEV, L.F.
Russkie achi pisa eli s
1863
g.,
S . Pe e sbu g, '1888; and ZMIGORODSKII,
K.I.
Bibliog a icheskii ukaza el' ossiiskoi medi sinskoi li e a u y,
S . Pe e sbu g, 1890.
DYNAMZS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus.
1999,
19,
215-240.
The Scien i ic Publica ions
o
Women Physicians in La e Impe ial Russia
219
concen a ing on p egnancy and childbi h
(5).
Pa o he eason o
he la ge numbe s o wo ks on gynecology lies in he deg ees g an ed
o women physicians
(6).
O iginally, women could only o icially s udy
issues ela ed o women and child en (al hough hei p o esso s o en
lou ed he ule). Secondly, women could mo e easily p o ess legi imacy
in he medical p o ession i hey claimed o be specially sui ed o ca ing
o women and child en. Howe e , when wo king in he
zems o
and in
emo e a eas hey had o ea whoe e came in since o he doc o s
we e usually miles away. Ele en o he publica ions in my da abase a e
popula manuals in ended o women o use as e e ence manuals o
hemsel es and hei daugh e s. These manuals o en con ained illus a ions
and discussed he phases o a woman's li e and he ep oduc i e cycle.
Women physicians o his gen e conce ned hemsel es wi h educa ing
women abou he dange s o co se s, b eas eeding hei babies, and
basic in o ma ion on ep oduc ion and hygiene. These we e impo an
opics o many women who, ea ul o discussing such in ima e opics
wi h male physicians, li ed in igno ance. Women did no con ine esea ch
only women and child en.
A.G.
A khangelskaia w o e he i s o a
se ies o b ochu es pu ou by he Pi ogo socie y. He b ochu e explained
he impo ance o p omp medical a en ion, indica ions o su ge y,
wha doc o s migh do p io o and du ing su ge y, and he necessi y o
ollowing he doc o 's ins uc ions
('7).
Ano he la ge g oup o publica ions by women physicians (eigh
pe cen ) conce ns he p ac ice o medicine i sel . These include epo s
on medical cong esses, a icles abou o eign mee ings a ended, minu es
o bo h domes ic and o eign medical socie ies, and epo s on a ious
ypes o clinics and hospi als. Publica ions such as cThe condi ion o
(5)
A ew women physicians also published ic ional s o ies o w o e on opics un ela ed
o medicine.
1
ha e le such publica ions ou o his da abase.
(6)
When he women's medical cou ses opened in S . Pe e sbu g in 1872, hey we e
designed o be a ou yea cou se a e which s uden s ea ned he deg ee
uchenaia
akushe ka
(lea ned midwi e). In 1876 he cou ses expanded o i e yea s and
s uden s ecei ed ce i ica es s a ing ha hey we e quali ied o ea women and
child en. No un il 1880 did hey ecei e he i le
zhenskii ach
(woman physician).
(7) ARKHANGELSKAIA, A.G.
Dlia chego dok o a delaiu ope a sii i kakaia o ogo by ae
pol a bolhomu,
Moscow, Pi ogo Commission, 1897.
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med.
Sci.
His . lllus.
1999,
19,
215-240.

220
MICHELLE DENBESTE-BARNETT
medicine in he Wes . o «Sani a y condi ions in Moscow in 1889~
indica e he in eg a ion o women in o he p o ession (8). Women we e
no me ely passi e bys ande s as o he s de ined he medical p o ession.
Thei ac i i ies and hei w i ings helped o o m bo h he ques ions
and he possible answe s o he di ec ion Russian medicine should ake.
Women physicians also ook pa in non-medical cong esses on p os i u ion
and women's educa ion.
Many o he women who published on o he opics also published
memoi s o hei expe ience. These memoi s ha e en icing i les such
as «Wa wi h Bacillin, ~House Calls: A Day in he Li e o a Duma
Woman Doc o in S . Pe e sbu g~, and .A Mission Agains Chole an
(9).
Many o he a icles suppo ing medical educa ion o women con ained
i s hand accoun s by women s uden s a he cou ses which se ed
se e a1 pu poses
(10).
Fi s , hey publicized he ac i i ies and successes
o women physicians. Au obiog aphical w i ing o women se ed as a
way o a woman o shape he own a e by publicly de ining hei own
eali ies (11). Secondly, hey allowed indi idual women o w i e abou
pe sonal expe iences in he con ex o a p o essional accoun . Because
(8) ARKHANGELSKAIA, A.C.
S
sos oianii medi siny na zapade (iz pu ebykh pecha ienii).
T udy 7-go gube nskogo s"ezda achei Mosko skogo zems o. Ma ch
1883,
Moscow,
1884, pp. 148-64 and POKROVSKAIA, M. Sani a noe polozhenie Mosk y 1889
g. na osno anii dannylch poluchennykh iz o che o Mosko skikh go odskikh
sani a nykh achei.
Russkaia Medi sina,
1890, Nos. 41, 42, 43 and 45.
(9) DRAGNEVICH, Na alia. Iz ospominanii zhenschiny- acha.
Russkoe Boga s o,
June 1903, No. 1, pp. 61-74; GRIN,
S.
Voina s ba sillami: Iz zame ok zhenshchiny
acha.
Ves nik E opy,
1890,
5,
601-654; PAEVSKAIA, A. Komandi o ka na khole a:
Iz zame ok zhenshchiny . acha.
Russkoe Boga s o,
Nos. 7 and 8, July and Augus
1903, pp. 121-69 and pp. 49-93; and SLANSKAIA, Eka e ina. Den' dumskogo
zhenshchiny- ach
S.
Pe e bu ge.
Ves nik E opy,
1894,
3,
204-242.
(10) Fo ins ance, ARKHANGELSKAIA, Aleksand a. O che Tsiu ikhogo uni e si e e
za 1883 g.
D ug Zhenshchin,
1883, No. 9, pp. 82-88; OKUNKOVA-GOLDENGER,
Zinaida. Zhenshchina- ach za g ani sei.
Medi sinskoe Oboz enie,
1876,
5,
189; and
SHABANOVA, Anna. Zhenskoe achebnoe ob azo anoe Rossii.
Is o icheskii
Ves nik,
Ma ch 1913,
131,
952-961.
(11) Fo mo e on women's au obiog aphical w i ing see HELDT, Ba ba a.
Te ible
Pe ec ion,
Blooming on, Indiana Uni e si y P ess, 1987, p. 102 and CLYMAN,
Toby. Women Physicians Au obiog aphy in he Nine een h Cen u y.
In: Women
W i e s in Russian Li e a u e,
Wes po , CN, G eenwood P ess, 1994, pp. 111-126.
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . illus.
1999,
19,
215-240.
The Scien i ic Publica ions o Women Physicians in La e Impe ial Russia
22
1
many women began s udying medicine ou o a desi e o do some hing
use ul o o help o he s, hei memoi s se ed an educa ional pu pose.
As Anna Shabano a, a s uden in he i s g adua ing class o he Women's
Medical Cou ses, explained, «Bu why did he s udy o medicine a ac
women mo e han o he p o essions?
...
I seems o me ha medical
wo k a ac ed hem because o i s se ice o science and ies o al uis ic
asks- elie ing su e ing while allowing g ea e independence han
o he p o essions»
(12).
Women memoi is s desc ibe he appalling
condi ions o igno ance, di and ill heal h in which a la ge pe cen age
o Russia's popula ion li ed. They do so in o de o in o m a mo e
p i ileged sec ion o socie y and o p ess o heal h and hygiene e o ms
o la ge social e o ms.
O he women physicians published sel -help and ins uc ional manuals
o women, o en in conjunc ion wi h public lec u es, ypical o women
physicians in o he coun ies as well, o his ype o publica ion p o ided
an accep able place o hem in he p o ession e en among hos ile
elemen s
(13).
Elizabe h Blackwell, a pionee ing English physician ecalled
ha she was able o wa d o s a a ion and a ac possible clien s by
o e ing public lec u es. Many women who published ~se ious esea ch~
also w o e wo ks in ended o he gene al public. Va a a Kashe a o a-
Rudne a, he i s woman doc o educa ed in Russia w o e a ex book,
Hygiene o he Female O ganism in al1 Phases o Li e,
used by bo h medical
specialis s and non-medical pe sonnel o i s desc ip ions o emale
ana omy and hygiene
(14).
HYGlEIVE
ANO
WOMEN'S HEALTH: ELIZABETH DRENTELSVAhTD
MARILA
VOLKOVA
Elizabe h D en el'n, ano he o he ea ly women physicians, specialized
in sel -help li e a u e and es ablished he sel by w i ing and lec u ing
(12) SHABANOVA, no e 10,
p.
953.
(13) Fo one example see HERROLD, Maude.
Woman and Disease:
A
Collec ion o Fac s
o Women,
Kansas
Ci y,
MO, Published by he Au ho , 1896.
(14) KASHEVAROVA-RUDNEVA, Va a a.
Gigiena zhenskogo o ganizm uo usekh azisakh
zhizn,
Kha ko , 1884 and S . Pe e sbu g, 1892.
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His .
illus.
1999,
19,
215-240.
222
MICHELLE DENBESTE-BARNETT
Pho o on he opening page o Va a a
Kashe a o a-Rudne a's Au obiog aphy in he
anni e sa y yea book o he Medical-Su gical
Academy. «A obiog a iia»,
D ad sa pia le ie
achei bjl shikh s uden o impe a o skoi mediko-
khi u gicheskoi akademii
(S .
Pe e sbu g,
1893),
pp.
68-95.
on women's heal h and liygiene. She wan ed women o become mo e
knowledgeable abou hei own bodies in o de o dec ease hei ea
o
na u al occu ences such as childbi h and mens ua ion. O he a icles
on menopause, ene eal disease and he p ocesses o childbi h a e
published in
V ach
and
Akushe ka.
Elizabe h D en el'n appa en ly a ended
he S . Pe e sbu g Medical Cou ses and is lis ed on he medical egis e
o
1883.
She w o e and lec u ed on women's heal h and main ained a
p i a e p ac ice in S . Pe e sbu g on he Fon anka. He publica ions
included
The Heal h o Women: Fou Public Lec u es, The Necessi y o Medical
Supemision o Women in Women's Ins i u ions,
and
On P os i u ion
(15).
(15)
DRENTEL'N,
Elizabe h.
O
neobkhodimos i zhenskogo medi sinskogo nadzo a
u
zhenskikh
uchebnikh za edeniiakh,
Moscow,
1897;
O
p os i u sii s ochki z eniia dinamiki zhizni,
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus.
1999,
19,
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The Scien i ic Publica ions o Women Physicians in La e Impe ial Russia
223
D en el'n held ai ly conse a i e iews abou he impac o educa ion
on women's heal h, no ing ha physicians s ill disag eed on whe he
s udying and educa ion in ensi ied women's su e ing du ing mens ua ion
and childbi h. She a o ed educa ing young women abou hei heal h
and ep oduc ion bu also el ha hey should be closely wa ched o
any ha m ul a ec s o oo much ac i i y. D en el'n s ongly opposed
keeping young women in he da k abou hei own heal h and she
discussed he e o o mens ua ion o young women, igh ened by
he sudden appea ance o blood, unawa e o wha is happening o hei
body, and oo emba assed o ask. She ci es he example o one young
gi l who, ala med by he sudden appea ance o blood, an ou side in o
he snow and emained si ing he e hoping ha he cold would s op
he bleeding. D en el'n hoped ha ha ing emale medical pe sonnel in
he schools migh gi e gi ls he oppo uni y o ask mo e ques ions and
o seek medical a en ion when necessa y.
In
ac , she exp essed
disappoin men ha mo e women doc o s had no gone in o his line
o wo k. She emphasized ha only ou pe cen o women doc o s had
ound wo k a eaching ins i u ions whe eas la ge numbe s had been
a ac ed o zems o wo k
(16).
She belie ed ha he esponsibili ies o
an ins i u ional doc o (uchilishchnyi) should be b oad, o include bo h
eaching and mo e pe sonal discussions wi h he pupils in o de o
acili a e g ea e openness.
.A
school doc o should no ha e a na ow
special y
...
bu should ha e a b oad medical educa ionn
(17).
Acco ding
o D en el'n, he school doc o should discuss clo hing and i s e ec s
upon physiology, especially co se s, hygiene, and mens ua ion.
In D en el'n's public lec u es she discussed such issues as women's
ana omy, di e ences be ween men and women, g ow h ( om gi l o
woman), mens ua ion, p egnancy and childbi h, women's diseases,
and diseases esul ing om p egnancy and childbi h. He published
e sion o hese lec u es included d awings o women's o gans, he
u e us, eggs, and ep oduc i e s ages. D en el'n s o e o educa e mo he s
abou hei own ep oduc i e li e and o gans and hoped o gi e hem
Moscow, 1908;
Zdo o 'e zhenshchiny: Che y e publichnye lek sii. Chi aniia iskliuchi el'no
dlia zhenshchin Kha ko e
i
Mosk e
1898,
Moscow, 1899.
(16) DRENTEL'N (1897),
O neobkhodimos i,
no e 15,
p.
9.
(17) DRENTEL'N (1897),
O
neobkhodimos i,
no e 15,
p.
4.
DYNAMZS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus.
1999,
19,
215-240.
230
MICHELLE DENBESTE-BARNETT
S . Pe e sbu g schools o Finnish schools which she el o be o supe-
io design (26).
SchooP hygiene was o g ea conce n in he la e nine een h cen u y
and books and pamplile s discussed p ope ligh ing, en ila ion, loo
plans, and school desks designed o c ea e he mos hygienic en i onmen
possible (2'7). Ekke 's ou a icles on he subjec clea ly con ibu ed o
wo k in he a ea. In one a icle she lays ou speci ic loo plans o
school cons uc ion. El ke 's a icles di e om Volko a and D en el'n
(also conce ned wi h hygiene) by he use o s a is ics, cha s, and
diag ams o back up he a gumen s. While Volko a and D en el'n make,
use o ana omical d awings and knowledge o physiology, Ekke used
empi ical da a, d awn om s udies o child en o e ime.
EVGENIIA SEREBRENNJKOVA: PIONEERING OPHTHALMOLOGIST
No al1 women physicians wo ked on speci ically emale ela ed
issues. E geniia Se eb emniko a became one o he o emos expe s on
eye disease in Russia. She g adua ed om he S . Pe e sbu g medical
cou ses and hen a eled o Pe m wi h he husband, also a physician.
The e she wo ked o ee as he own was unwilling o pay wo doc o s
(especially when hey could ge one o ee by paying he husband).
Bu , ecognizing he need o an eye clinic she began ea ing and
esea ching eye diseases. E en ually she ecei ed unding o se up he
own clinic a he hospi al. This clinic, he i s o i s kind in Russia
became he p o o ype o small ci ies elsewhe e. Se eb enniko a published
o e wen y a icles on he echniques and indings and on he day o
day ope a ions o he clinic (28).
(26)
EKKERT. Obzo no eishikh dannykh po pos oike shkol p eimushches enno
usskikh i skandina skikh.
Zhu nal Russkogo Obshches a Okh aneniia Na odnogo
Zd a iia,
1898,
8,
541-542;
EKKERT. Opy izicheskogo izsledo aniia uchashchikhsia
nachal'nykh go odskikh shkolakh Pe e bu ga.
V ach,
1894,
15,
708-709.
(27)
On school hygiene see CONROY, Ma y. School Hygiene in La e Tsa is Russia.
Sla ic and Eas Eu opean Educa ion Re iew,
1981,
2,
17-26.
(28)
BABUSHKIN,
V. A.
V ach E.P. Se eb enniko a,
Pe m,
1957
and
SHABYNIN, A.
V.
Khi u gicheskaia deia el'nos zhenshchin- achei Rossii
XIX
eke.
Ves nik
khi u gii im. I.I. G eko a,
1897,
138,
128-130.
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sb. His . nlus.
1999,
19,
215-240.

Se eb enniko a concen a ed on ea ing achoma, a se ious and
widesp ead p oblem in he la e nine een h cen u y. She augh he
echniques a in e na ional con e ences. In 1891, seeking mo e knowledge
she a eled ab oad and s udied in Ge many and F ance. Because she
had he i s independen eye clinic she ea ed la ge numbe s o
pa ien s and buil up a signi ican da abase on success ul and unsuccess ul
ea men op ions which doc o s elsewhe e ook se iously. He s a is ics
se he one o discussions a medical cong esses on he p ope ea men
o eye disease.
Fo ins ance, in he epo o 1889 she epo ed seeing 3,035
pa ien s (1,984 peasan s, 633 pe y bou geois, 261 go e nmen bu eauc a s,
86 om he cle ical es a e, and 71 me chan s). Mos o he pa ien s
came om Pe m o he Pe m gube niia bu -a ew (99) a eled om
o he gube niia o see he . Fo many people she would ha e been he
las chance o help and he only specialis o hund eds o miles (29).
Al1 physicians had some aining in eye diso de s bu Se eb enniko a
was one o only nine egube niia oculis s». Fi e o he women physicians
w o e a icles on blindness and eye disease and by he 1880s an en i e
jou nal ( o which Se eb enniko a equen ly con ibu ed),
Ves nik
O almologii
was de o ed o ques ions o eye disease and unc ioning o
he eyes (30).
In he epo s she kep ca e ul and de ailed eco ds o symp oms,
diagnoses, ea men , occupa ion o he pa ien , and success o ailu es.
In one yea Se eb enniko a pe o med 789 ope a ions wi h ~an isep ic
p ecau ions. o such diso de s as ca a ac s, p olapsed i is, ke a o omia
and emo ing cance s. Besides he epo s Se eb enniko a w o e a icles
on ea ing achoma, blindness, ca a ac s and he op ic ne e, and
e en on accina ions (31). Aside om he su gical p ac ice, esea ch,
-
SEREBRENNIKOVA, E. V. O almologicheskii nabliudenii za 1889 god iz Pe mskii
gube nskii bolni sy.
Ves nik O almologai,
1890,
7,
469-496.
Fo example, ARKHANGELSKAIA. O che
o
so ne eks ak sii ka a ak zemskoi
p ak ike.
Medi sinskoe oboz enie,
1891, No. 15; BOKOVA, Ma iia. Sposob iskus enno
p oiz odi s e nuiu slepo u,
Medi sinskii Ves nik,
1862, Nos. 23 and 24; and
GEORGIEVSKAIA.
O swe noi skpo e i sposobe eia op edeleniia,
Ph.D. diss., S . Pe e sbu g.
SEREBRENNIKOVA, E.V.
K
lecheniiu akhomy.
V ach,
1887; Neskolko slo
o
nashei slepo e.
Sbo nik Pe mskogo Zems o,
Pe m, 1886; and Ob ospop i i anii
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus.
1999,
19,
215-240.
232
MICHELLE DENBESTE-BARNETT
and daily p ac ice, Se eb enniko a also ound ime o aise money o
he women's medical cou ses, o aise money, build and supe ise a
gymnasium o blind s uden s and o each bo h a he blind gymnasium
and he local eldshe school.
MARIIA POKROVSKAIA: PHYSZCZAN, FEM11VZST AND PUBLZC HEALTH
CRUSADER
Ma iia Pok o skaia, one o he bes known o he ea ly women
physicians also w o e he i s a icle on ca a ac s. Bu she la e became
known mo e o he eminism and as an ad oca e o changing he
p os i u ion egula ions han o he medical p ac ice. He p o essional
ac i i ies included edi ing a women's jou nal Zhenskii Ves nik, pa icipa ing
in cong esses on p os i u ion and on women's issues, w i ing and edi ing
se e a1 books, and main aining a p i a e p ac ice. She g adua ed in
1881
om he S . Pe e sbu g medical cou ses and se ed in he zems o
o se e a1 yea s be o e e u ning o S . Pe e sbu g o p ac ice medicine
and w i e.
Pok o skaia wo ked i elessly o a numbe o impo an causes. She
w o e equen edi o ials in Zhenskii Ves nik abou he necessi y o be e
educa ion o women, uni e sal su age, and he impo ance o imp o ed
heal h ca e o he poo . Pok o skaia, like many o he con empo a ies,
saw he medical aining as bo h a means and an obliga ion o help he
poo and down odden o socie y. He medical a icles cen e ed on
issues such as he unheal hy li ing condi ions o Pe e sbu g wo ke s,
ea men o ube culosis, and heal h and sani a ion. One o he i s
a icles, published in V ach, s udied peasan hu s in ela ion o hei
en ila ion and i s e ec s on heal h
(32).
She unde ook he s udy
because physicians belie ed ha hu s wi hou chimneys we e unheal hy
and ha ca a ac s we e mo e common among people li ing in his ype
o peasan hu . In he egion, howe e , mo e han hal o he popula ion
li ed in hu s wi hou chimneys, so she unde ook o examine wha
Pe mskoi gube nii.
Doklad na ZZZs"ezde V achei Pe mskoi Gube nii
1886,
S . Pe e sbu g,
1886.
(32) POKROVSKAIA. Vliianie lcu nykh izb na zabole aniia o gano dykhaniia i z eniia.
V ach,
1888, Nos. 4 a id
5,
pp.
65-66 and
pp.
89-91.
DYNAMZS. Ac a Hisp. Med. S&. His .
Illus.
1999,
19,
215-240.
The Scien i ic ~ublica lons o Wo nen Physicians in La e Impe ial Russia
233
migh be causing he p oblems. She s udied empe a u es, he con en
o ca bonic acid in he hu s, and pa ien eco ds o he illage s. She
ound ewe inciden s o eye disease in he hu s wi hou chimneys han
in hose wi h chimneys and hus concluded a e compa ing esul s wi h
o he zems o physicians ha i was necessa y o look o o he causes
o blindness and achoma
(33).
In ano he a icle she s udied he li ing condi ions o S . Pe e sbu g
wo ke s
(34).
The a icle summa ized a su ey ca ied ou by ci y sani a y
doc o s which ound ho ible o e c owding, a lack o basic sani a ion
and oile acili ies, insu icien ligh and poo en ila ion. Pok o skaia
ecommended ha mo e inexpensi e housing be cons uc ed and ha
he cu en building codes be en o ced. She also el ha he people
needed o be educa ed abou hygiene by way o schools, lec u es, and
b ochu es w i en o a popula audience.
Pok o skaia also w o e ex ensi ely on p os i u ion and abo ion.
The egula ion o p os i u es h ough he medical police su eillance
commi ees was an issue o conce n bo h o eminis s and o many
physicians who saw i as go e nmen in ingemen on medical e i o y.
Physicians di e ed on whe he egula ion should be comple ely abolished
bu nea ly al1 ag eed ha physicians and no he s a e should handle
egula ion. As Lau ie Be ns ein no ed in he disse a ion on p os i u ion
in Russia:
«The associa ion be ween p os i u ion and ene eal disease ga e physicians
an oppo uni y o claim p o essional expe ise.
...
Physicians hoped o
see a o m o egula ion ha con o med
wi h
mo e enligh ened p inciples
and adhe ed o he wo ds o scien is s abou he ansmission and
p e en ion o diseases.
...
To he Russian medical communi y, he
go e nmen 's ole in egula ion ep esen ed mo e in e e ence om
a bloa ed s a e ha had ne e gi en doc o s he p o essional au onomy
hey dese ed.
(35).
(33) TUVE, Jeane e.
Russian Women Physicians,
New on ille,
MA,
O ien al Resea ch
Pa ne s, 1984, pp. 93-94.
(34)
POKROVSKAIA. O zhilishchakh pe e bu gskikh abochikh.
Russkoe Boga s o,
1897,
6,
19-38.
(35)
BERNSTEIN, no e 21, pp. 306-307.
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus.
1999,
19,
215-240.
234
MICHELLE DENBESTE-BARNETT
Pok o skaia he sel was a den ly opposed o p os i u ion
(36).
In
he publica ions she a gued ha he key o e adica ing p os i u ion was
no egula ion o p os i u es by he go e nmen bu a he educa ion
and economic al e na i es o women. In 1902 she w o e ha sex educa ion
aimed a young men was he key o s opping he sp ead o ene eal
diseases, bu by 1908 she claimed women would ha e o con ol hei
own a e by ha ing he deciding oice in ~ egula ing sexual ela ions~ (37).
She also s ongly belie ed ha egula ion o p os i u es endange ed al1
women. The i ual o ounding up any «suspicious» women ound
wi hou p ope iden i ica ion as p os i u es (o en de ined simply as a
woman walking alone Bn he e ening o in a suspicious pa o own)
had nea ly esul ed in he own a es one nigh in 1905 (38). On opics
such as p os i u ion and abo ion Pok o skaia is much mo e ou spoken
han many o he emale coun e pa s. Bo h male and emale physicians
engaged in an always-hea ed deba e o e p os i u ion because, as Be ns ein
poin s ou , he p os i u ion deba e conce ned no only gende issues
bu p o essional ones as well.
ANNA SHABANOVA: PEüIATñICIAN ANLI WOMEN'S RIGHTS ACTWIST
Anna Nikolae na Shabano a i s s udied a Helsing o s (Helsinki)
Uni e si y, aided by a small schola ship om he w i e Sal yko -Sched in.
The e she suppo ed he sel h ough ansla ion wo k, e u ning home
in he summe s o ea n money. When he women's medical cou ses
opened in Russia, she ans e ed in o he second yea class and g adua ed
(36) See o ins ance, POKROVSKAIA.
Bo 'ba s p os i u siei. Doklad ZZ o deleniiu Russkaia
obshches o okh aneniia na odnogo zd a iia,
S . Pe e sbu g, 1900; Kak zhenshchina
dolzhna bo o 'sia s p os i u siei.
Zhenskii Ves nik,
Feb ua y 1909, pp. 33-39; and
K
bo 'be s p os i u sieiu.
Zhenskii Ves nik,
May-June 1904, pp. 113-114.
(37) POKROVSKAIA.
O
zhe akh obshches ennogo empe men a,
S . Pe e sbu g, 1902;
POKROVSKAIA, Edinaia polo aia n a s ennos '.
Zhenskii Ves nik,
1910, No. 4, p.
92; and ENGELSTEIN, Lau a.
The Keys o Happiness: Sex and he Sea ch Fo Mode ni y
in Fin-de-siecle Russia,
I haca,
NY,
Co nell Uni e si y P ess, pp. 224-225.
(38) BERNSTEIN, Lau ie.
Sonia's Daugh e s: P os i u es and Socie y in Russia,
Ph.D.
disse a ion, Uni e si y o Cali o nia, Be keley, 1987, p. 337.
DYNAMZS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus.
1999,
19,
215-240.
The Scien i ic Publica ions o Women Physicians in La e Impe ial Russia
235
in 1878. The lec u es o pedia ician KA. Raukh us had s ongly in luenced
he and she u ned o pedia ics o a ca ee (39).
Though she had been in ol ed in poli ical ci cles (and was jailed
b ie ly in 1866), as a pedia ician, Shabano a le he ea ly poli ical
agi a ion behind and u ned he e o mis impulses o imp o ing he
li es o child en. A e g adua ion Shabano a wo ked in he child en's
clinic o Nikolae sky mili a y hospi al, assis ing he women medical
s uden s. A he same ime she was in i ed by Raukh us o wo k as a s a
physician (o dina o ) a his clinic a he Oldenbu g Child en's Hospi-
al. She wo ked he e o he es o he li e, wo king he way up o
senio s a physician and con inuing on as a consul an when she was
in he eigh ies. Shabano a es ablished he Socie y o he T ea men o
Ch onically 111 Child en. Chemis and compose , A.P. Bo odin con ibu ed
he p oceeds om one o his conce s o he cause, and by 1882 she had
enough money o open he i s clinic a Ga china and a second a
Vinda a la e . A a ious in e na ional cong esses she explained he
success o such clinics in ea ing ch onically ill child en bu bemoaned
he ac ha so ew exis ed in Russia compa ed o coun ies such as
Ge many and Finland (40). He clinic a Ga china had wen y- wo beds
and se ed abou 1,000 child en a yea . The a e age leng h o s ay pe
child was app oxima ely 130-150 days.
Shabano a was in ima ely in ol ed in women's issues and ounded
he Russian Women's Mu ual Aid Socie y in 1895, he i s women's
igh s o ganiza ion in Russia which s o e o wo k h ough legal and
peace ul means o achie e equali y o women. In 1908 she o ganized
he Fi s Al1 Russian Women's Cong ess. Shabano a also pa icipa ed in
he League o S uggle o he Righ s o Women. In 1899 he In e na ional
Women's League o Peace elec ed he chai (al hough wi h he ad en
o Wo ld Wa 1 his o ganiza ion e11 apa ). Due o he a ilia ion wi h
hese o ganiza ions she a eled ab oad and spoke a in e na ional
(39)
SHABANOVA, Anna. D a goda Gel'sing o skom uni e si e e.
Ves nik E opy,
1888,
2,
538-575.
(40)
SHABANOVA, Anna. Popechenii o kh onichesko bol'nykh de iakh
Rossii.
Zhu nal
Russkogo Obshches a Okh aneniia Na odnogo Zd a iia,
1899,
9,
849-857
and
SHABANOVA, Anna.
Obzo deia el'nos i de skoi lechebni sy
u
Ga chine,
S . Pe e sbu g,
1887.
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus.
1999,
19,
215-240.

236
MICHELLE
DENBESTE-BARNETT
o ganiza ions. She published ex ensi ely and a ended p o essional
cong esses bo h a home and ab oad. P io o he dea h he new
Socialis Union o Doc o s hono ed he and in 1928 she ecei ed a
medal as a He o o Labo . She also became one o he i s women
membe s o he S . Pe e sbu g Scien i ic-Medical Socie y o Pedia icians.
Shabano a's ca ee spanned se e a1 decades and she con inued wo king
e en la e in he 80's.
IMPACT OF WOME2V'S PUBLICATIONS ON
THE
PROFESSION
The ac ha so many woman and men w o e on social and public
hygiene should no be su p ising. The ideas o ge m heo y had only
begun o be in oduced in he 1870s. Many o he hygienis s' ideas
con inued o be use ul e en when used hand in hand wi h mo e mode n
knowledge o bac e ia. Some physicians o he ime e en dispu ed whe he
bac e iology could be use ul in Russia, claiming ha imp o ed hygiene
could p oduce be e esul s
(41).
In ac , hygiene and s udies conce ning
hygiene emained i npo an in Russia pa ly because such d ama ic
imp o emen s could be made o public heal h h ough (Ccommon sense»
heal h imp o emen s. lMany o hese imp o emen s could be made
wi hou a la ge mone a y in es men . Women physicians o en esea ched
such opics as en ila ion in schools and homes, he e ec s o smoke
om peasan hu s on eye disease, and p oblems wi h he wa e supply.
As hese examples show, Russian women, like women in o he
coun ies published manuals o women on hei own heal h and hygiene.
Howe e , unlike women in o he coun ies, Russian women physicians
also published la ge nu~be s o wo ks on in ec ious diseases, « emale
complain s~, su ge y and a a ie y o o he medical opics. Se e a1
women publish epo s on he men ally ill and condi ions in men al
(41) On his deba e see HACHTEN, Elizabe h A.
Science in he Se uice o Socie y: Bac m'ology,
Medicine and Hygiene in Russia 1855-1907,
Ph.D. disse a ion, Uni e si y o Wisconsin-
Madison, 1991,
pp.
80-100; HUTCHINSON, John F. Tsa is Russia and he
Bac e iological Re olu ion.
Jou nal o he His o y o Medicine,
1985,
40,
420-439;
and FRIEDAN, Nancy.
Russian Physicians in an E a o Re onn and Re olu ion 1856-
1905,
P ince on, P ince on Uni e si y P ess, 1981,
pp.
135-160.
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. Ziis . Illus.
1999,
19,
215-240.
The Scien i ic Publica ions o Women Physicians in La e Impe ial Russia
237
ins i u ions
(42).
A
signi ican numbe o women (abou se en pe cen )
publish a icles on in ec ious diseases. O he women publish on a wide
a ie y o opics such as wo m in es a ions, blood p essu e, ca bonic acid in
he ai , skin ansplan s, hypno ism, cance s, and umo s. These wo ks
a e published in majo medical jou nals such as
V ach
and
Medi sinskii
Ves nik.
Elsewhe e women s uggled jus o ge in o medical school, gain
access o labo a o ies and be allowed o p ac ice. Fo eign medical jou nals
do no begin publishing medical esea ch by women un il much la e .
While Russian women ce ainly me on occasion wi h p ejudice and
obs acles, hey also ecei ed p o essional suppo and encou agemen
in e y angible ways (such as access o esea ch acili ies and he
oppo uni y o in e ac wi h colleagues a p o essional con e ences and
in hospi als). One woman, speaking in he Uni ed S a es in
1900,
explained:
«We mus no e he ac ha women doc o s ha e eally begun o play
a pa in he li e o hei coun y. Whe e e he e a e wide-sp ead
epidemics, amines o o he diseases, hey a e in he on ank o he
helpe s. Besides his hey w i e and lec u e; and hanks o hei e o s,
in e es has been a oused in a ious sani a y p oblems, such as, o
example, he ecen ly opened sani a ium o lung diseases, which was
p ima ily due o he e o s o D . Pa lo skaia.
...
In conclusion we may
say ha he Russian women doc o s, by hei wo k, ha e gi en he
possibili y o u u e gene a ions o ad ance s ill u he on he oad o
independence i s opened up by hem»
(43).
CONCL USIONS
Clea ly women physicians became ac i e in Russian medicine. Bu ,
while we migh expec and e en hope ha women physicians would
(42) KOVALEVSKAIA, Lidiia. Zemskii dom umalishennykh Sh eie ma ke.
A khi
Psikhia nia, Nei ologii, i sudebno-medi sinskoi Tsikhopa ologii,
1885,
5,
.83; VALITSKAIA,
M.K.
Idiosink aziia ili o a lenie?
Russkaia Medi sina,
1886, No. 14; and VALITSKAIA.
F an suzskie zakony o dushe no bol'nykh.
A khi Psikhia ni, Nei ologii i sudebno-
medi sinskoi Psikhopa ologii,
1885, Nos.
4
and 5,
pp.
101 and 66.
(43) KAZAKOVICH-STEFANOVSKY, Helene. Women Physicians in Russia.
T ansac ions
o he Annual Mee ing o he Alumnae Associa ion o he Women's Medical College o
Pennsyl ania,
1900, 25, 66.
DYNAMZS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Zllus.
1999,
19,
215-240.
238
MICHELLE DENBESTE-BARNETT
de elop al e na i e ea men s which migh be mo e sympa he ic and
a en i e o women's iieeds, his does no appea o be he case. In ac ,
i could ha dly be o he wise. Women we e ained by male physicians in
p e iously al1 male medical schools. Thei scien i ic iew o medicine is
he e o e based on he male model. One supposed eason o aining
women physicians was o p o ec emale modes y. This does no seem o
occu , pe haps because oo ew women a e ained o mee his need.
Weal hy women ha e access o p i a e p ac i ione s in he ci ies. Poo
women o en p e e o isi adi ional heale s i s and hen when hey
need a physician a e willing o see whoe e is a ailable. Va a a Kashe a o a-
Rudne a, allowed o a end he Medical-Su gical Academy on a schola ship
in exchange o he p omise o se e Bashki women, ne e could ul ill
he p omise a e g adua ion due o bu eauc a ic oadblocks. While no
necessa ily p oposing adically di e en ea men s han men, women
physicians did end o be mo e sympa he ic owa ds women's heal h
conce ns and owa d p o iding meaning ul educa ional ma e ials o
women. In Zhuk's manual on hygiene he co e s much o he same
ma e ial as Volko a o D en el'n bu he p esen s diso de s in a much
mo e igh ening way. While Volko a co e s wha migh be expec ed
du ing no mal childbi h along
wi h
common complica ions, Zhuk includes
ex eme examples such as pic u es o mal o med heads, a woman wi h
i e b eas s, and babies in inco ec posi ions
(44).
Ano he impo an aspec o women's pa icipa ion in medicine was
ha hey did inc ease in e es in and knowledge abou ~women's issuesn
such as child ea ing, and poli icized issues such as p os i u ion, abo ion
and educa ion o women. Ce ainly male physicians published and
esea ched women's heal h bu only se en pe cen o women physicians
who published did no w i e any hing on women's o child en's heal h.
Pa o he eason o his may be ha women we e less likely han men
o specialize. Wo king as a zems o, duma, o p i a e physician equi ed
b oad knowledge. Secondly, he ea ly women ea ned ce i ica es s a ing
hey we e quali ied o ea women, child en, and syphilis only, so while
many e en ually b anched o in o b oade a eas, many began by wo king
(44)
ZHUK,
V.N.
Ma ' i di ia: Gigiena
obshchedos upnom izlozhenii,
S . Pe e sbu g,
1894.
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med.
Sci.
His . Illus.
1999,
19,
215-240.
The Scien i ic ~ublica ions o Women Physicians in La e Impe ial Russia
239
in women's clinics o o he zems o whe e hey saw bo h men and
women by necessi y.
Because Russian male and emale physicians sha ed simila p o essional
goals, he animosi y which some imes g ee ed women publishing «se ious»
li e a y, jou nalis ic, o medical wo ks in o he coun ies, did no a ec
Russian women physicians. They we e able o publish hei esea ch,
memoi s and epo s abou hospi als, schools o egions o wo k. Schola s
s udying e olu iona y women ha e no ed ha while women o en
pa icipa ed in dis ibu ing p opaganda and ope a ing p in ing p esses,
hey a ely had a pa in o mula ing and w i ing heo y o posi ion
pape s (45). Women physicians encoun e ed no such p ejudices. The
mos p es igious medical jou nals published hei wo ks as did he
published epo s o smalle local physicians cong esses. Respec ed male
physicians no only ole a ed hem, bu ac i ely p omo ed hei wo k,
o e ing sugges ions o esea ch opics and ad ice and collabo a ion.
This lack o animosi y be ween male and emale physicians may be
pa ially due o he eno mous need o mo e Russian physicians. In
1896 Russia had only 16,400 physicians o a popula ion o 92 million (46).
Un il 1897, when he medical cou ses in S . Pe e sbu g opened a e a
decade long hia us, and he numbe s o *women s udying medicine ose
sha ply, Russia had only 959 emale physicians. Thus, hey did no
p esen much o a h ea o he economic well-being o male physicians.
As women could no by law se e in mili a y o go e nmen posi ions,
mos women se ed in he lowe paying anks o zems o wo k o
p i a e p ac ice. In 1888 o ins ance, o 698 p ac icing emale physicians,
540 lis ed hei special ies as p i a e p ac ice, 92 wo ked in zems os
and 66 se ed in hospi als and as duma physicians (47).
A mo e di icul concep o assess is he e ec hei publica ions
had on he a ge audience. Ce ainly women physicians con ibu ed o
(45) See o ins ance ENGEL, Ba ba a.
Mo he s and Daugh e s: Women o he In elligen sia
in Nine een h Cen u y Russia,
Camb idge, Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 1983,
pp.
199-205 and MCNEAL, Robe . Women in he Russian Radical Mo emen .
Jou nal
o Social His o y,
1971-72,
5,
143-163.
(46) FRIEDAN, no e 41,
p.
266.
(47) AREPEV, Nikolai.
Zhenskoe medi sinskoe ob azo anie Rossii i zhenskii medi sinskii
ins i u ,
Moscow, 1898,
p.
27.
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . illus.
1999,
19,
215-240.