DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 107-133.
Pe e o Spain’s Handling o Au ho i ies
in his Commen a y on he Isagoge o
Johanni ius
MIGUEL DE ASÚA (*)
SUMMARY
1.—In oduc o y ema ks. 2.—The commen a y on he Isagoge o Johanni ius by
Pe e o Spain. 3.—Pe e ’s handling o au ho i ies. 3.1.—Doc ina. 3.2.—The au ho i ies
men ioned in he commen a y. 3.3.—Use o au ho i ies. 3.4.—Pe e ´s scholas ic echnique.
3.5.—Some au ho i ies. 4.—Final commen s.
ABSTRACT
The dic a om medical and philosophical au ho i ies appea ing in commen a ies
on he Isagoge o Johanni ius may be classi ied acco ding o he di e en oles hey play
in he exposi ion o he ex . This pape es ablishes ha he opinions o he philosophical
and medico-philosophical au ho i ies we e used mo e equen ly as he cons i uen
elemen s o in e ences, whe eas he dic a o pu ely medical au ho i ies we e quo ed
s aigh o wa dly as sen en iae. An excep ion o his is Pe e o Spain who does no ollow
any hie a chical o ganiza ion o au ho i ies; ins ead, he eely quo es A is o le in opposi ion
o he physicians as well as in suppo o hem. These obse a ions a e explained wi h
speci ic e e ence o Pe e ’s ideas on he ela ionship be ween medicine and philosophy.
BIBLID [0211-9536(2000) 20; 107-133]
Fecha de acep ación: 19 de ab il de 1998
(*) P o eso . Consejo Nacional de In es igaciones Cien í icas y Técnicas-Uni e sidad
Nacional de G al. San Ma ín. Es anislao del Campo 324. (1706) Haedo, Buenos
Ai es. A gen ina.
108 MIGUEL DE ASÚA
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 107-133.
Scholas ic me hod domina ed he educa ion and p ac ice o lea ned
physicians om he middle o he hi een h o he i s hal o he
i een h cen u ies. Once conside ed as a degene a ion o medicine by
his o ians in luenced by in de siècle posi i ism, scholas ic medicine is
now be e unde s ood as an a emp o p o ide medicine wi h a sound
a ional basis in A is o elian science which u he ed he de elopmen
o medicine as an independen p o ession wi hin he ea ly o he uni e si ies.
Impo ed in o medicine om a long p ocess o de elopmen in heology,
philosophy and pe haps law, and encoun e ing he medical and na u al
philosophical adi ion o he «Sale ni an» ques ions, medical scholas icism
was a de ice o enhancing he s a us o medicine by p o iding i wi h
he ounda ions o scien ia.
Fo he mos pa , he ul ima e epis emological ho izon o scholas icism
was he no ion o auc o i as. The powe ul appa a us o A is o elian logic
ope a ed on he massi e amoun o ma e ial p o ided by he eco e y o
he A is o elian and Galenic co pus and hei A abic in e p e e s who
ied o syn hesize i and esol e i s inconsis encies in o a uni ied and
cohe en pic u e. Scholas icism could be unde s ood as a linguis ic, o al
en e p ise ha no only add essed speci ic ques ions o medical heo y
and p ac ice and ied o esol e hem wi h he help o he ancien au ho s,
bu also aised objec ions de i ed om con lic ing opinions, hus ac ualizing
he po en ial dialogue among he auc o i a es implici in i s ex s. In he
case o commen a ies wi h quaes iones, he class oom became a concep ual
s age in which he o al pe o mance o he mas e b ough o li e he
a ious oices om he pas and guided hem owa ds an a icula ed
discou se. This was achie ed h ough he mul iplica ion o he dis inc iones
o poin s o iew, by means o which he opposing sen en iae o he au ho i ies
could be made o e eal he hidden uni y benea h he appa en con adic ions.
Wha he medical s uden acqui ed in he class oom, hen, was he
abili y o con on he pa icula si ua ions o medical p ac ice om he
pe spec i e o a scien ia based on au ho i y in e p e ed by eason—
al hough opinion as o whe he medicine was a scien ia o an a s (and,
i a scien ia, whe he heo e ical o p ac ical) di e ed widely among
scholas ic mas e s and was a a ou i e subjec o dispu a ion.
Pe e o Spain was one o he i s au ho s o in oduce scholas icism
in medical commen a ies and i would be li le exagge a ion o conside
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Pe e o Spain’s Handling o Au ho i ies
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 107-133.
him a miles one in he de elopmen o medie al medical eaching. A
look a his echnique o commen a y could pe haps p o ide some new
insigh s in o he si ua ion o medical ins uc ion a ound he middle o
he hi een h cen u y. The modes aim o his con ibu ion is o explo-
e Pe e o Spain’s ea men o au ho i ies in his commen a y on he
Isagoge o Johanni ius, as a way o ob aining a mo e de ailed pic u e o
his eaching p axis and in ellec ual p og amme. Besides, i should s imula e
discussion abou he meaning, pu pose and modes o use o auc o i a es
by scholas ic medical commen a o s.
A e some p elimina y ema ks, we shall begin by desc ibing he
s uc u e o he commen a y and p oceed o discuss Pe e ’s handling o
au ho i ies, conside ing his ideas on auc o i as, he auc o es he used, his
way o in oducing hem in o discou se, his scholas ic echnique, and
he pa icula ole ha some auc o es play in he commen a y.
1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
Recen wo k has p o ided e idence in a ou o he hesis ha he
wo ks asc ibed so a o «Pe e o Spain» we e, in ac , w i en by a
numbe o di e en au ho s (1). D’O s a gues ha he au ho o he
Summule logicales was a Dominican, no o be iden i ied wi h Pe us
Juliani (Pope John XXI). Mei inhos dis inguishes be ween a Pe us
Hispanus (au ho o he T ac a us), a Pe us Hispanus Po ugalensis
(au ho o he Scien ia lib i de anima and he Libe de mo e e i a)(2)
and a Pe us Hispanus medicus (au ho o he commen a ies on De
animalibus and he A icella, whose iden i ica ion wi h he Pope John is
s ill o be decided) (3). Paolo Na di had al eady b ough in o ques ion
(1) See MEIRINHOS, José F ancisco. Pe us Hispanus Po ugalensis? Elemen os pa a
uma di e enciação de au o es. Re is a Española de Filoso ía Medie al, 1996, 3, 51-
76 and D’ORS, Angel. Pe us Hispanus O.P., Auc o Summula um. Vi a ium, 1997,
35, 21-71.
(2) Also, pe haps, o commen a ies on Dionysius.
(3) Acco ding o MEIRINHOS, no e 1, he Ques iones lib i de anima should be a ibu ed
o an au ho no iden i iable wi h any o hese.
110 MIGUEL DE ASÚA
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he iden i ica ion o he medical commen a o as Pope John XXI (4). A
discussion o his p oblem lies a beyond he objec i e o his essay, bu
i has o be said ha , despi e his «mul iplica ion o Pe e s», I subsc ibe
o he iew cu en among his o ians o medie al medicine ha a physician
called Pe e o Spain commen ed a Siena on he A icella, he De
animalibus and—as he himsel says in his commen a y on he Isagoge—
also on De sensu e sensa o and De anima (5).
2.THE COMMENTARY ON THE ISAGOGE OF JOHANNITIUS BY PETER
OF SPAIN
This ex , which has eached us in a numbe o manusc ip s as he
i s o Pe e ’s commen a ies on he A icella (6), consis s o a b ie
(4) NARDI, Paolo. Comune, impe io e papa o alle o igini dell’insegnamen o uni e -
si a io in Siena (1240-1275). Bulle ino senese di s o ia pa ia, 1983, 90, 50-94.
(5) «Ci ca pa em is am possun que i mul a el quesi a dubi a i, sed quia alibi sun
dispu a a e de e mina a sicu sup a lib um de sensu e sensa o e sup a secundum
lib um de anima ad p esens ommi an u e in pa ibus illis equi an u » (Ma-
d id, Biblio eca nacional, MS 1877, ol. 32 a-32 b). I is ue ha he e a e no
es imonies ha say ha Pe e commen ed on he A icella o De animalibus a
Siena, bu since his eaching he e is his only known ac i i y as a commen a o ,
i seems o me only logical o assume—unde he a ailable e idence— ha he
wo ks a ibu ed o him we e p oduced a he Siena s udium.
(6) Fo a lis o manusc ip s, see KRISTELLER, Paul Oska . S udi sulla Scuola medica
sale ni ana, Napoli, Is i u o I aliano pe gli S udi Filoso ici, 1986, p. 128. Fe nan-
do Salmón ells me ha his lis has some mis akes. Fo a comple e lis o
manusc ip s con aining he a icella and he commen a ies on he a icella, see
O’BOYLE, Co nelius. Thi een h-and Fou een h-Cen u y Copies o he A s Medicinae.
A Checklis and Con en s Desc ip ions o he Manusc ip s, Camb idge, Wellcome Uni
o he His o y o Medicine, CSIC Ba celona, Depa men o His o y o Science
[A icella S udies 1], 1998. See also he comp ehensi e wo k on he eaching o
he a icella in Pa is, O’BOYLE, Co nelius, The A o Medicine: Medical Teaching a
he Uni e si y o Pa is, 1250-1400, Leiden, B ill, 1998. The lis o he quaes iones in
Pe e o Spain’s commen a ies on he a icella has been edi ed in SALMÓN,
Fe nando, Medical Class oom P ac ice. Pe us Hispanus’ ques ions on Isagoge, Tegni,
Regimen Acu o um and P ognos ica (c. 1245-1250) (MS Mad id B.N. 1877), ols. 24 b-
141 b, Camb idge, Wellcome Uni o he His o y o Medicine, CSIC Ba celona,
Depa men o His o y o Science [A icella S udies 4], 1998. In his s udy we
111
Pe e o Spain’s Handling o Au ho i ies
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 107-133.
accessus (s ongly inspi ed by he accessus in Ba holomaeus o Sale no’s
commen a y on he Isagoge) and 45 chap e s which ollow app oxima ely
hose o he in oduc o y medical ex a ibu ed o Johanni ius. The
beginning o each chap e is indica ed by he co esponding lemma.
Then comes a b ie di isio ex us, which si ua es he chap e discussed
wi hin he con ex o he whole wo k and also di ides i s con en . This
is ollowed by a eading o he ex o he co esponding chap e o he
Isagoge, which usually ends wi h he exp ession «in hoc e mina u
summa p esen is lec ionis» (7). So, we lea n ha each o he chap e s
o he commen a y is he esul o a lec io.
A e ha comes he exposi io, in oduced by he exp ession «Ad
e iden iam pa is huius [ ia / qua uo /...] possin de e mina i» (8).
The exposi io occasionally consis s in an elucida ion o he in en iones o
he auc o ; mo e equen ly, i amoun s o a a he ex ensi e gloss in
which he hemes o he chap e ( he elemen s, he humou s and so
on) a e discussed, on he basis o auc o i a es, acco ding o ca ego ies
such as no i ica io, nume o, o do, di isio, cause and so on. Each chap e is
closed by a numbe o quaes iones, hie a chically o ganized as p incipales
and subsidia y, and in oduced by he exp ession: «Ci ca pa em is am
[ ia / qua uo /...] possin dubi a i» (9). The quaes iones o he commen a y
a e ully scholas ic. Ques ions o he quaes iones e esponsiones ype,
which appea so equen ly in Pe e ’s commen a y on De animalibus,
cons i u e he e a e y a e excep ion.
This pa e n o commen a y is ollowed h oughou he whole wo k,
al hough some sec ions lack he glossa. The commen a y on he Isagoge
is a mo e elabo a e han he es o Pe e ’s commen a ies on he
A icella, especially in e ms o he a ie y o ins umen s applied o he
eaching o he ex : di isio, summa, exposi io (which is, in ac , a gloss)
and quaes iones. O he medical commen a ies by Pe e (On P ognos ics,
On Pa icula Die s) consis only o di isiones and quaes iones; he commen a ies
shall use he e sion o he commen a y on he Isagoge in he manusc ip Mad id,
Biblio eca Nacional MS 1877, ols. 24 a-47 b (hence o h ci ed as «Mad id»).
(7) Mad id, ol. 32 b.
(8) Mad id, ol. 24 b.
(9) Mad id, ol. 24 b.

112 MIGUEL DE ASÚA
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 107-133.
on he Via icum, Uni e sal Die s and De u inis a e jus g oups o quaes iones
o ganized acco ding o lemma a (10).
Now i has o be said ha we do no know he exac o igin o he
ex we a e dealing wi h. Bu we can suppose—on he basis o Pe e ’s
e e ences o «lec iones»— ha we a e eading ei he a epo a io o ,
mo e p obably, a edac io o Pe e ’s eaching, ha is, no es aken in class
ha wen h ough some edi ing: he edac ion is ca e ul, he e a e no
ex ual lacunae, and he s uc u e o each ques ion is consis en (11). I
belie e ha he ex could be classi ied in he gen e o a lec io wi h
quaes iones (ques ions ha we e posed and discussed by he eache ).
The ques ions (in pa icula he quaes iones p incipales) a e concep ually
connec ed wi h he p oblems discussed in he p eceding exposi io a he
nea ly and he e is a chap e (De i u e sensi i a) in which Pe e does
no aise quaes iones because he says ha he has discussed hem in o he
commen a ies. All his sugges s ha he 307 quaes iones we e an o iginal
pa o he commen a y and no a u he addi ion o i o quaes iones
dispu a ae (12).
In conclusion, we could conside his commen a y as a ine example
o class oom medical eaching in an ea ly s age o he p ocess o adop ion
o scholas ic me hodology, when he quaes iones we e no ye sepa a ed
om he lec io.
(10) The chap e s o he commen a y on he Tegni ha e a de ailed di isio, which also
unc ions as a summa y o he ex commen ed upon, and (excep o he i s
chap e s) lack he glossa.
(11) See BOUGEROL, Jacques-Guy. De la epo a io a la edac io. In: Les gen es li é ai es
dans les sou ces héologiques e philosophiques médié ales, dé ini ion, c i ique e exploi a ion.
Ac es du colloque in e na ional de Lou ain-la-Neu e 25-27 mai 1981, Lou ain, L’ins i u
d’é udes médié ales, Uni e si é ca holique de Lou ain, 1982, pp. 51-65.
(12) C . JACQUART, Danielle. La ques ion dispu ée dans les Facul és de Médecine.
In: Be na do C. Bazán; John W. Wippel; Gé a d F ansen; Danielle Jacqua , Les
ques ions dispu ées e les ques ions quodlibé iques dans les acul és de héologie, de d oi e
de médecine, Tu nhou , B epols, 1985, pp. 281-315 and BAZÁN, Be na do. Les
ques ions dispu ées, p incipalemen dans les acul és de héologie. In: ibid., pp.
15-149.
113
Pe e o Spain’s Handling o Au ho i ies
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 107-133.
3. PETER´S HANDLING OF AUTHORITIES
3.1.Doc ina
No ions such as auc o and auc o i as, which we e cen al o scholas ic
me hodology, we e de eloped as ins umen s o in e p e a ion and doc inal
exposi ion o heological, philosophical and legal ex s (13). As expec ed,
nowhe e does Pe e explici ly discuss his concep ion o auc o i as, bu
we can ob ain some hin s abou his iews on he subjec by looking a
his ea men o he Galenic no ion o doc ina in his commen a y on
he Tegni.
When conside ing wha doc ina means, Pe e ehea ses Haly’s
concep ion o he ma e : «an ac ion o he doc o in he disciple,
acco ding o which he o me p ojec s in o he soul o he la e he
in en ions he has in his own soul» (14). This unidi ec ional communica ion
be ween doc o and s uden can ake place ei he h ough a «se mo
p ola us», o h ough an os ensi e ges u e o he inge o he eache ,
o h ough he w i en wo d: «e sic scimus es pe p ola ionem doc o is
p esen is el pe sc ip u am ipso absen e» (15). The eading o he
w i en wo d is—besides he deli e y o he wo d and he ges u e o he
hand—ano he way o lea ning doc ina. Bu Pe e claims ha eading is
an indi ec way o acqui ing doc ina, one ha akes place h ough he
in e mediacy o he sense o ision (16). In ac , in one o he ques iones,
(13) Fo a discussion o he meaning o auc o and auc o i as in heology, see CHENU,
Ma ie-Dominique. In oduc ion à l’é ude de Sain Thomas d’Aquin, 3 d edi ion, Mon eal,
Ins i u d’é udes médié ales, 1974, pp. 106-125; CHENU, Ma ie-Dominique. Auc o ,
ac o , au o . A chi um La ini a is Medii Ae ii, 1927, 3, 81-86; BERTELLONI, F an-
cisco. Fe y azón. Esc i os de Filoso ía, 1980, 6, 53-69. Fo auc o i as in medical
commen a ies see AGRIMI, Jole; CRISCIANI, Chia a. Edoce e medicos: Medicina
scolas ica nei secoli XIII-XV, Napoli, Gue ini, 1988, pp. 128-136.
(14) «Dici Haly quod doc ina es ac io doc o is in discipulum secundum quam
doc o p oici in animam discipuli in en iones quas habe in anima sua» (Ma-
d id, ol. 48 b).
(15) Mad id, ol. 48 b. Pe e is he e ep oducing Haly’s commen a y on he Tegni; see
no e 20.
(16) «Via in disciplina el medium addiscendi es duplex. Quedam non es immedia e,
quedam immedia e p ocedi a doc o e in discipulum e es causa doc ine in ipso
114 MIGUEL DE ASÚA
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he asks why he medium o doc ina is mo e he u e ance o he wo d
han he ision o colo (17). The answe is ha «discou se ha ansmi s
he in en ions o one [pe son] o ano he is mos ly he medium h ough
which he hings o be augh a e con eyed» (18).
Bu Pe e —again ollowing Haly— eminds us ha Galen, in De
iu amen is memb o um, a i ms ha « h ough he w i en wo d we unde s and
he discou se o Pla o, A is o le, Hippoc a es and he o he philosophe s
and physicians, as we would ha e done had we hea d hei eachings» (19).
This plainly means ha he ex is a subs i u e o an absen eache ; a
subs i u e ha con eys his p esence o us and can, hus, be conside ed
an indi ec mode o ansmission o he hings o be augh (20). I
e hoc es se mo p ola us ep esen ans discipulo quod in men e doc o is es . Es
au em aliud medium, u mo us digi i, u i us, que non sun immedia e. Hec
media a causa el occasio doc ine es . E huius simili e es sc ip um. Hoc non
immedia e cognosci u a isu. E si ipso median e ue i causa scien ie, e un
ex a iam doc ine. Obiec um enim isus e medium es e iam in men ione [?]
doc ine e non in doc ina» (Mad id, ol. 49 b).
(17) «Que i u quid si medium in doc ina e qua e magis p ola io quam aliud e
ide u quod magis habe ie i doc ina median e obiec o isus quod es colo
quam median e obiec o audi us quod es p ola io» (Mad id, ols. 49 a- b).
(18) «Se mo di e ens in en ionem unius ad al e um maxime esse medium in doc i-
na. Quod concedemus» (Mad id, ol. 49 b). This also e e s o a usual medie al
dis inc ion be ween he wo ways o acqui ing science, pe in en ionem ( h ough
he eye) and pe doc inam ( h ough he ea ). See MAIERÙ, Al onso. Gli a i
scolas ici. In: Luciano Ga gan; O onzo Limone (eds.), Luoghi e me odi di insegnamen o
nell’I alia medioe ale (secoli XII-XIV), Gala ina, Congedo edi o e, 1989, pp. 249-287
(p. 249, no e 1). Fo a discussion o he ela ionships be ween he u e ed and
he w i en wo k in Pe e o Spain’s commen a y on De animalibus, see NAGEL,
Sil ia. Sensi ed o gani nel commen o al «De animalibus» a ibui o a Pie o
Ispano ( o be published in Mic ologus). I am obliged o he au ho o allowing
me o see he manusc ip o he pape .
(19) «Unde dici Galenus in lib o de iu amen is memb o um quod pe sc ip u am
in elligimus se monem Pla onis, A is o elis, Hippoc a is e eliquo um philosopho um
e medico um quasi nos p esen es audissemus doc inas eo um» (Mad id, ol.
48 b, ci ing De usu pa ium I, 2).
(20) In his commen a y on he Tegni, Haly claims ha he e is no di e ence be ween
doc ina as augh by a eache who is p esen and doc ina w i en by an absen
eache and ead by ano he : «E equale es si e doc ina si p ola a dic ionibus
au audi a, si e sc ip a au inspec a, ex qua in elligan u ille eedem dic iones, au
115
Pe e o Spain’s Handling o Au ho i ies
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would seem, hen, ha he eading (aloud) o he sen en ie o an auc o
by he con empo a y mas e in he class oom was cons ued by Pe e
(a e Haly) as a eenac men o he ac o eaching o he o me . I
his concep ion o he eading o he ex as an indi ec way o he
doc ina an iquo um holds, hen wha was he quaes io posed by he doc o
bu a dialogue be ween his oice and he cho us elici ed by he w i en
wo ds o he auc o i a es «quasi nos p esen es» (as Galen says) (21)—as
hough he medie al class oom would ha e been ull o «in isible
p esences»?
3.2.The au ho i ies men ioned in he commen a y
Pe e men ions a ai numbe o medical au ho i ies: A icenna
(including his commen a y on De anima), A icella au ho s such as
Theophilus and Phila e us, Cons an ine, he Sale ni ans Ba holomaeus
and T o ula, Isaac (De elemen is), Haly (and his commen a y on Galen’s
Tegni), a ious books o Galen (Tegni, De mo bo e acciden i, De simplici
medicina, De egimine sani a is, De complexionibus), Rasis (Libe ad Almanso em),
Se apion and Hippoc a es ( he Apho isms). The majo philosophical
au ho i y is A is o le, o whom Pe e men ions he Analy ica p io a e
pos e io a, almos all o his lib i na u ales (De gene a ione e co up ione,
Physica, De caelo e mundo, Me eo ologica, De anima, De animalibus, De sensu
e sensa o, De mo e e i a) and also he E hics and he Me aphysics. O he
au ho s o na u al philosophy a e Pla o (in he Chalcidian e sion), he
«auc o lib i de mo u co dis», he au ho o De di e en ia spi i u e anime,
A e oes, Boe hius (De consola ione), John Damascene, Augus ine, Isido e
indica a manu au digi o au s a ione ex qua in elliga u illud quod signi ican
dic iones. Doc ina enim au es p ola a ac u, au p ola a po en ia, e non es
di e en ia e iam in e illa, ubicumque doc o si p esens qui docea discipulum
au e iam non p esens, cum ipse iam i ma e i e sc ipse i e exempli ica e i
illud ex quo in elligi u doc ina, donec aspiciens in aliquo lib o an iquo um
secundum semi am doc ine, addisca ex o dine el edi ione lib i absque media ione».
(A icella cum commen o, 1534, ol. 96 b).
(21) See no e 19. Fo a discussion o doc ina in Pe e and o he medical au ho s, see
also AGRIMI; CRISCIANI, no e 13, pp. 54-74.
122 MIGUEL DE ASÚA
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middle o his spec um is occupied by A icenna, physician and philosophe ,
and Isaac. This means ha Pe e ended o use he opinions o his
philosophical and medico-philosophical au ho i ies ela i ely mo e
equen ly as pa s o in e ences o some kind, while his pu ely medical
au ho i ies ecei ed—in ela i e e ms—a mo e di ec ea men , in he
sense ha hei dic a we e aken as sen en iae wi hou u he ado (30).
A possible hypo hesis o accoun o his di e ence in he use o
philosophical, medico-philosophical and pu ely medical au ho i ies in
he commen a y ela es o he A icennan dis inc ion ha cons i u es
he basis o he di e en solu ions Pe e o e s—in his and o he
commen a ies— o sol e he issues o he con o e sia in e medicos e
philosophos. Pe e says ha «i somebody sub ly conside s he discou se
o he philosophe s, [he will see ha ] i is u h; bu [ he discou se o ]
he physicians is mo e e iden » (31). Would i be oo a e ched o
suppose ha he opinions o he philosophe s, which a e mo e abs ac
and close o a hidden u h, we e mo e ap o be ea ed as p emises
o a syllogism han he sen ences o he physicians, which a e mo e
conc e e and ap o be conside ed as exp essions o ma e s o ac ?
This could be he case, bu e en i we do no wish o accep his
in e p e a ion, wha seems undeniable is ha he e is a di e ence in
he way Pe e ea s he s a emen s o his auc o i a es—medical and
philosophical— om he poin o iew o he unc ion hei dic a play in
discou se.
3.4.Pe e ´s scholas ic echnique
Is he e any dis inc i eness in Pe e ’s dialec ical handling o au ho i ies?
Wha calls ou a en ion is his epea ed use o exp essions such as
(30) The only excep ion o his gene aliza ion seems o be Isaac, whom one would
expec o see as o ming pa o he la e g oup. Isaac’s «high» a e could be
accoun ed o by a bias owing o he small absolu e numbe o ci a ions he
ecei es in he commen a y.
(31) «Si quis sub ili e inspicia se monem philosopho um, e us es ; e o medico um
magis mani es us» (Mad id, ol. 29 b).

123
Pe e o Spain’s Handling o Au ho i ies
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 107-133.
«auc o i a e Cons an ini» o «pe auc o i a em A icenne». This is a well-
known scholas ic o mula (32), bu Pe e uses i much mo e equen ly
in his commen a y on he Isagoge han in his o he A icella commen a ies.
Could i be ha in his, he opening commen a y o he se ies, he was
mo e conscious o he need o legi ima e his own discou se on he basis
o he auc o i a es?
When con on ing he Isagoge wi h he au ho i ies, Pe e displays all
he logical and dialec ical esou ces o scholas icism (33): he compa es
he Isagoge wi h he ex s o his au ho i ies (34); he aises objec ions o
he ex he is commen ing upon on he basis o a gi en auc o (35); he
p o ides au ho i a i e ounda ions o hings said in he Isagoge, d awing
upon his sou ces (36); he also objec s ha some hing ha appea s in
he Isagoge is absen in ano he ex ( o example, when he asks why he
e e gene a ed om chole a, men ioned in he Isagoge, is conside ed
nei he by A icenna no by Isaac) (37).
Besides his in e ac ion o ex and au ho i ies, he e is he in e play
o he auc o i a es among hemsel es. On occasion, se e al au ho i ies
a e con on ed in one quaes io (38). Also, i is equen o ind he
(32) In his con ex , auc o i as would make e e ence o he ex s a he han o he
au ho s: see CHENU (1974), no e 13, p. 110, no e 2.
(33) We should emembe ha wha scholas ics ook as he uni o au ho i y was no
he au ho , bu a ex o a pa icula dic um o an au ho (see no e 32). This
explains why he de ailed lis ing o all he books in which an au ho exp essed
a gi en opinion is no edundan . Fo example, Pe e eminds us ha A is o le
gi es his accoun o scien ia in he Analy ica p io a, he pos e io a and he Physica.
Mad id, ol. 46 b.
(34) When, o example, he con on s Johanni ius’ de ini ion o medicine wi h he
de ini ions gi en by Haly, Galen, Isaac, A icenna and Cons an ine. Mad id, ol. 24 b.
(35) Fo example, when he a gues ha Cons an ine, in he enume a ion o he
na u al hings, ci es he complexio bu no he composi io, con a y o Johanni ius.
Mad id, ol. 25 a.
(36) Fo example, when he a gues he educ ion o a es na u alis annexa o a es
na u alis p incipalis on he basis o Galen’s a gumen . Mad id, ol. 25 b.
(37) Mad id, ol. 28 a. This «hea ing o he silences» o he ex s commen ed upon is
a he equen in he commen a y.
(38) Fo example when he discusses why Cons an ine and Johanni ius conside ou
ages in he human being, while o Hippoc a es and A icenna, he s ages o li e
a e se en. Mad id, ol. 34 b.
124 MIGUEL DE ASÚA
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 107-133.
accumula ion o di e en au ho i ies o suppo an opinion ( o example,
he a i ms ha «solum dulce nu i » on he au ho i y o A icenna, Isaac
and A is o le) (39). Finally, he e a e quaes iones in which appa en ly
con adic o y sen en iae o he same au ho a e con on ed (40).
All his is, o cou se, scholas ic medicine (41). Bu he eminde o
he ichness o dialec ical esou ces ha o ganize Pe e ’s discou se and
he ma u i y o his echnique gains new dimensions when we ecall ha
Pe e ’s was one o he i s a emp s o apply scholas ic me hodology in
medical ins uc ion.
We ha e al eady ema ked ha Pe e depends upon wo di e en
kinds o au ho i ies: medical and philosophical. Bu al hough (as we
ha e also seen) i is indeed possible o disce n di e ences in he use o
he dic a o physicians and philosophe s as o hei unc ion wi hin
discou se, he e is no de ec able di e ence as o hei posi ion in he
dialec ical con on a ion o «dic io-opposi io», which is cha ac e is ic o
he quaes io. In o he wo ds, al hough A is o le, he philosophe , is
equen ly ound opposing he physicians (in gene al o he opinion o
a pa icula medical au ho ), he is also lis ed among hem in he
sequences o de ini ions (42). And he e a e 7 men ions o A is o le
p eceding o ollowing medical au ho i ies suppo ing a gi en opinion
( o example, «quia dici A icenna e Haly e philosophus quod...») (43).
Pe e ’s commen a ies (medical and na u al philosophical) do no con ain
any hing like he hie a chical o ganiza ions o au ho i y which a e usual
in heological commen a ies, and he e a e no ques ions de e mined on
(39) Mad id, ol. 27 b.
(40) Fo example, in he ques ion ha discusses whe he he i al spi i can be
gene a ed om he na u al spi i , whe e con adic o y solu ions a e a ibu ed o
A icenna. Mad id, ol. 34 b.
(41) C . AGRIMI; CRISCIANI, no e 13, pp. 87-96.
(42) Fo example, in he de ini ion o «na u a», whe e he o de o he au ho s is:
A is o le, Galen, Hippoc a es (Mad id, ol. 24 b), o in he de ini ion o he
elemen s, whe e he o de is: Isaac, A is o le, Galen, A icenna, Cons an ine
(Mad id, ol. 25 b).
(43) Mad id, ol. 27 b. Besides his case, A is o le accompanies A icenna h ee imes
( ols. 37 a, 42 a, 45 b), Cons an ine wice ( ols. 38 a, 41 b), and Johanni ius
once ( ol. 38 b).
125
Pe e o Spain’s Handling o Au ho i ies
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 107-133.
he basis o he ype o au ho i y. I is doub ul whe he Pe e would
ha e subsc ibed, wi hou nuances, o he amous ph ase o Albe he
G ea : «I he discussion conce ns medicine, I would a he belie e
Galen o Hippoc a es, and i i conce ns hings o na u e, A is o le o
anyone else expe ienced in na u al hings». As a as medicine es ed
upon o was subo dina ed o na u al philosophy (44), A is o le had had
as much o say in some ma e s o medicine as Galen had, pa icula ly
in he discussion o es na u ales. And i we conside he signi ican ole
ha medical au ho i ies play in his commen a y on De animalibus, we
could say ha he con e se is also u h (45). The g an ing by Pe e o
an equi alen au ho i a i e s a us o physicians and philosophe s was,
e iden ly, a condi ion o possibili y o he de elopmen o he con o e sy
be ween hem (o he wise, he con lic would ha e been esol ed by
appealing o a hie a chical p inciple). In his commen a y, Pe e does
no use he a ious « ules o au ho i y», he dialec ical ins umen s used
by scholas ic commen a o s o sol e con adic ions—excep o he
di e en ia ion be ween he di e en senses (in en iones ) o a wo d as
used by au ho i ies in con lic (46). His handling o au ho i ies, hen,
in ol es nei he he assump ion o a hie a chy, no he use o « ules o
au ho i y», no he deploymen o discu si e o mulae exp essing he
di e en shades o he au ho i a i e a gumen usual in heological
commen a ies (47). Pe e ’s au ho s, medical and philosophical, enjoy a
a he homogeneous deg ee o au ho i y, and his manipula ion o hem
seems o consis in he way ce ain au ho s a e used in e e ence o a
(44) «Secundum Ba holomaeum ci ca in oi um is ius lib i sep em sun inqui en-
da...Supponi u au em p imo medicina e pe medicinam phisice si e na u ali
philosophia e ex consequen i philosophie» (Mad id, ol. 24 a).
(45) ASÚA, Miguel de. Medicine and Philosophy in Pe e o Spain’s Commen a y on
De animalibus. In: Ca los S eel, Guy Gulden ops, Pie e Beullens (eds.), A is o le’s
Animals in he Middle Ages and Renaissance, Leu en, Leu en Uni e si y P ess
[Mediae alia Lo aniensia Se ies I/S udia XXVII], 1999, pp. 189-211.
(46) Fo he « ules o use o au ho i ies», see CHENU (1974), no e 13, pp. 118-125
and no e 24.
(47) Pe e does no seem o u ilize he sub le he o ical de ices ha could e eal he
di e en p oo - alue he wishes o g an each o he ci a ions and he s yle o he
commen a y is ex emely mechanical and igid.
126 MIGUEL DE ASÚA
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 107-133.
pa icula subjec ma e and in hei use ei he as poin s o depa u e
o an a gumen o in di ec ci a ions.
3.5.Some au ho i ies
Pe e does no cha ac e ize his medical au ho i ies excep o
Hippoc a es, o whom he says in he commen a y on De egimine acu o um
ha he «glows glo iously among he es o he au ho s as a mo ning
s a in he b eaking o he day o come» (48). Bu Hippoc a es plays a
e y mino ole in he commen a y on he Isagoge. A icenna is, wi hou
doub , Pe e ’s main au ho i y in his wo k. He is he mos equen ly
ci ed auc o , many de ini ions o key concep s in he commen a y a e
aken om him, and he ma e ial expounded in he glossa o each
chap e is, in mos cases, an exposi ion o A icennan medical doc ine
(pa icula ly in he i s chap e s, hose conce ned wi h es na u ales).
Also, many indi idual solu ions o pa icula issues o he con o e sy
be ween philosophe s and physicians a e aken om A icenna. I seems
e iden ha i is A icenna who p o ided he beams wi h which Pe e
aised he heo e ical s uc u e o his commen a y on he Isagoge.
The second mos ci ed au ho i y is, in e es ingly, he Philosophe .
Pe e assumes he A is o elian de ini ion o knowledge (49), his accoun
o he elemen s (50), he A is o elian de ini ion o li e as ac us p imus
(as opposed o he de ini ion by Cons an ine) (51), A is o le’s accoun
o he ac i e and passi e in ellec (52), and many pa icula poin s o
A is o elian na u al philosophy. The Philosophe is used by Pe e mos ly
in he chap e s conce ned wi h es na u ales (a ound 68 % o he A is o elian
e e ences co espond o hose chap e s). The e a e 15 quaes iones in
which he opinion o A is o le is con on ed wi h ha o he physicians
(48) «Ypoc as qui in scien ia medicinali u s ella ma u ina qui in p esagio diei p e e i e
ide u in e auc o es ce e os u ila glo iosus» (Mad id, ol. 110 a).
(49) Mad id, ol. 24 b.
(50) Mad id, ol. 25 b.
(51) Mad id, ol. 30 b.
(52) Mad id, ol. 30 b.
127
Pe e o Spain’s Handling o Au ho i ies
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 107-133.
(as a whole o sepa a ely) and many mo e in which sen en iae o A is o le
a e called upon, ei he as objec ions o o de end he hesis (53). In wo
quaes iones, he opinion o A is o le is p e e ed o ha o Cons an ine
(one asks whe he he spi i ual powe in luences he membe s om he
hea h ough a mo emen o dila a ion and con ac ion, and he o he
discusses which is mo e necessa y, ea ing o d inking) (54). Only in one
case is he opinion o he Philosophe laid aside (in he p oblem o he
emale spe m, which Pe e sol es «dicendum quod mulie es spe ma-
içan ») (55).
The eading o he commen a y p esupposes a amilia i y wi h A is o le
and, as we ha e seen, Pe e e e s us o his p e ious commen a y on De
anima and De sensu e sensa o in he chap e De i u e sensi i a (56). The
ac ha he augh in a uni e si y whe e a s and medicine we e associa ed
sugges s ha he audience o he commen a y on he Isagoge had al eady
had hei sha e o A is o elian doc ine.
Wha abou he o he philosophe s? The o he au ho o na u al
philosophy who plays a signi ican ole in he commen a y is he «auc o
de lib o de di e en ia spi i us e animae» (Cos a ben Luca). He is
u ilized only in he chap e De spi i ibus, bu is men ioned he e 11
imes. This chap e is di ided by Pe e in wo quaes iones p incipales, he
i s ela ed o he philosophical concep ion o spi i (in which he idea
o spi i as a way o union be ween soul and body is discussed and
app o ed), and he second o he medical concep ion o he h ee
spi i s (na u al, i al and animal).
(53) Mos o hese quaes iones a e ansc ibed in ASÚA, Miguel de. El comen a io de
Ped o Hispano sob e la Isagoge de Johanni ius. T ansc ipción de las quaes iones
sob e la con o e sia en e médicos y ilóso os. Pa is ica e Mediae alia, 1996, 17,
58-66.
(54) «U um i us is a [spi i ualis] in lua a co de ad alia memb a median e mo u
dila a ionis e cons ic ionis» (Mad id, ol. 30 b); «[Que i u ] de hoc quod dici
Cons an inus quod si aliquis esse equali e si iens e amelicus ci ius mo e e u
ad po um quam ad cibum» (Mad id, ol. 41 a).
(55) Mad id, ol. 42 b. Ne e heless, he ies o sa e A is o le’s opinion, adding ha
he emale spe m is c ude (as opposed o he male spe m, which is cooked)
and ha emales do no emi spe m.
(56) See no e 5.

128 MIGUEL DE ASÚA
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 107-133.
The au ho o De mo u co dis is men ioned o a gue o he cen ali y
o he hea as he home o li e, and his de ini ion o li e as he i s ac
o he soul is also ehea sed (57). Isido e is quo ed on his de ini ion o
he soul (58). The mos in e es ing ci a ion o Boe hius is ha in which
he a gues o he uni y o he soul and i s powe s, oge he wi h John
Damascene (59). So mos o he philosophe s o he han A is o le a e
used almos exclusi ely in ela ion o he discussion o hemes ela ed
o he soul and spi i —an excep ion being Augus ine, who is ci ed o
his de ini ion o sign in he chap e De di isione signo um (60). And i
migh be ecalled he e ha he commen a y opens by quo ing a
philosophical auc o i as, Pla o’s Timaeus, o mo e p ecisely, Chalcidius’
e sion o i (61).
To close his b ie accoun o Pe e ’s use o au ho i ies, i seems
necessa y o add ha in h ee ques ions Pe e includes as a iones e idence
ob ained h ough he senses. When discussing whe he males o emales
ha e long hai , he answe s ha «sensibili e idemus» ha women ha e
longe hai han men (62). In he ques ion ha asks whe he human
hai could be g een, he says «opposi um idemus sensibili e » (63). And
he also sees «sensibili e » ha people in Spain and o he wa m coun ies
a e «auda io es quam anglici» (64) (al hough he seems o o e u n his
a i ma ion in he solu ion, whe e he dis inguishes be ween he «p op ia
audacia» o he Anglici and he auda ia o he Hispani, which is a
«maniaca con iden ia»). In Pe e ’s commen a y on he Tegni, he e a e
also a ew o hese kind o « easons», al hough some o hem would
(57) Mad id, ol. 30 a; ol. 34 b. Pe e men ions him a hi d ime, a i ming ha
«spi i us si inis diges ionis si e e ec us» (Mad id, ol. 34 a).
(58) Mad id, ol. 30 a.
(59) Mad id, ol. 30 a.
(60) Mad id, ol. 45 a. The e a e almos no ques ions on na u al philosophy as such
in he commen a y, he excep ion being he ou quaes iones de o ed o in es iga e
whe he he na u al and i al spi i s a e also p esen in animals and plan s
(Mad id, ol. 33 a- b).
(61) Mad id, ol. 24 b.
(62) Mad id, ol. 36 a.
(63) Mad id, ol. 36 b.
(64) Mad id, ol. 39 a.
129
Pe e o Spain’s Handling o Au ho i ies
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 107-133.
(65) Mad id, ol. 74 b.
(66) In his commen a y on Isaac’s Die s, Pe e dis inguishes be ween he « ia a ionis»
and he « ia expe imen i»: see he ansc ip ion o his ex in PETER OF SPAIN.
Scien ia lib i de anima, edi ed by Manuel Alonso, Ob as ilosó icas 1, 2nd edi ion,
Ba celona, Juan Flo s, 1961, xxxix-xli . See also ASÚA, Miguel de. The Rela ionships
be ween Medicine and Philosophy in Pe e o Spain’s Commen a ies on he
A icella. In: Pape s o he A icella P ojec Mee ing, Camb idge, Decembe 1995, Camb idge,
Wellcome Uni o he His o y o Medicine [A icella S udies 3], 1998, pp. 13-27,
a pp. 21-23. In he Thesau us paupe um, many ecipes a e p oposed on he
au ho i y o ha ing been expe ienced: «expe um es » (I owe his ema k o
P o esso Michael R. McVaugh), Bu one should be awa e ha he iden i ica ion
o Pe e o Spain (who was ac i e a Siena) wi h Pope John XXI (who w o e he
Thesau us) has been b ough in o ques ion (see no e 1).
(67) «Medici e o qui sun sensibiles conside ando mani es a ionem iiii i u um pe
quas conse a u co pus in esse ad suas ope a iones in iiii memb is possun iiii
memb a p incipalia. E sic non es con adic io, quia philosophus poni an um
unum quan um ad o iginem e adicem, medici e o iiii quan um ad i u um
is ius co po is mani es a ionem» (Mad id, ol. 29 a).
(68) See McVAUGH, Michael R. (ed.). Apho ismi de g adibus, A naldi de Villano a Ope a
Omnia, G anada-Ba celona, Semina ium His o iae Medicae G ana ensis, 1975,
appea doub ul o us, such as when Pe e says ha «nos idemus quod
ex equen i usu ene io um debili an u memb a e desiccan u » (65).
Bu he ac emains ha obse a ions om e e yday expe ience we e
conside ed on an equal oo ing wi h he dic a o he au ho i ies (66).
These kinds o a iones a e absen om Pe e ’s commen a y on animals—
and his pe haps could be ela ed o his cha ac e iza ion o physicians
as «sensibiles» and philosophe s as able o p oceed beyond he sense o
each he «o igo e adix» o hings (67).
4. FINAL COMMENTS
Some conclusions can be singled ou o commen . Pe e ’s scholas ic
medical commen a ies dese e a en ion because o he ea ly da e o
hei composi ion. Michael McVaugh and Danielle Jacqua ha e a gued
ha Pe e p obably s udied medicine a Pa is, whe e he would ha e
acqui ed his mas e y o scholas ic me hodology and a i s amilia i y
wi h he Canon (68). His in luence on he u he de elopmen o he
130 MIGUEL DE ASÚA
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 107-133.
ol. 2, p. 43, no e 24; McVAUGH, Michael R. Medical Knowledge a he Time o
F ede ick II. Mic ologus, 1994, 2, 3-17; and JACQUART, Danielle. La écep ion du
Canon d’A icenne: Compa aison en e Mon pellie e Pa is aux XIIIe e XIVe
siécles. In: Ac es du 110º Cong ès na ional des socié és sa an es, Mon pellie , 1985.
Sec ion d’his oi e des sciences e des echniques. II. His oi e de l’école médicale de Mon pellie ,
Pa is, 1985, pp. 69-77.
(69) SIRAISI, Nancy G. Taddeo Alde o i and His Pupils: Two Gene a ions o I alian
Medical Lea ning, P ince on, NJ, P ince on Uni e si y P ess, 1981, p. 98; JACQUART,
no e 12, p. 292.
me hod in no he n I aly has also been sugges ed and emains o be
explo ed in de ail (69).
In ac , i would be emp ing o conside Pe e o Spain as an
in e media y be ween sou he n and no he n I alian medical and
philosophical lea ning, some hing be ween a «la e Sale ni an» and a
«p ecu so » o Taddeo Alde o i and Pe e o Abano. On he one hand,
he possibly had links wi h he cou o F ede ick II; he cul i a ed he
gen e o quaes iones na u ales o «Sale ni an» ques ions (in his P oblema a
o Quaes iones de animalibus); and he con inued he Sale ni an adi ion
o commen a y on he A icella, wi h a s ong emphasis on he ela ionships
be ween medicine and philosophy. Bu al hough i is ue ha Pe e
knew and occasionally used Ba holomaeus‚ commen a y on he A icella
and o he Sale ni an ma e ial, ne e heless i was A icenna he used as
a model o his own wo k; in ac , he ea ly, conscious and ex ensi e
u iliza ion o he Canon by Pe e seems o se his commen a y apa
om he Sale ni an adi ion. Besides, i we look o an an eceden o
his ma u e use o scholas ic me hodology, Pa is is a he mo e likely
han Sale no.
On he o he hand, his commen a y on he A icella o eshadowed
some o he mo e cha ac e is ic ai s o medical eaching in Bologna
and Padua: he consis en scholas ic app oach o medical ex s, he use
o A is o elian philosophy, and he cen al ole gi en o he con o e sy
be ween physicians and philosophe s. Un o una ely, we do no know i
Pe e ’s commen a y was ead, and no e idence as o he di usion o he
commen a y has eached us. Wha we do ha e is he es imony o a
common in ellec ual a mosphe e, a sha ing o sou ces, me hods, in e es s
131
Pe e o Spain’s Handling o Au ho i ies
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 107-133.
(70) The ollowing poin s ha e been discussed in ASÚA, no e 66 and ASÚA, no e 45.
(71) Fo he ela ionships be ween medicine and philosophy in he commen a ies on
he Isagoge o Johanni ius, see KRISTELLER, Paul Oska . Ba olomeo, Musandino,
Mau o di Sale no e al i an ichi commen a o i dell’a icella, con un elenco di
es i e di manosc i i. In: S udi sulla Scuola medica sale ni ana, Napoli, Is i u o
I aliano pe gli S udi Filoso ici, 1986, pp. 97-151; JORDAN, Ma k. Medicine as
Science in he Ea ly Commen a ies on ‘Johanni ius’. T adi io, 1987, 43, 121-145;
and JORDAN, Ma k D. The Cons uc ion o a Philosophical Medicine: Exegesis
and A gumen in Sale ni an Teaching on he Soul. [In: Michael R. McVaugh;
Nancy G. Si aisi (eds), Renaissance Medical Lea ning: E olu ion o a T adi ion],
Osi is, 1990, 2nd se ies, 6, 42-61. See also no e 74.
and p oblems be ween Pe e ’s commen a y and no he n I alian scholas ic
medicine. Pe e ´s commen a y on he A icella dis inguished i sel by i s
ea ly and ex ensi e use o A icenna and i s es ablishmen o he pa e n
o he con o e sia in e medicos e philosophos. Mo eo e , i con ained
much o wha was going o be deployed by no he n I alian commen a o s
du ing he second hal o he hi een h cen u y, eaching i s ul ilmen
in Pe e o Abano’s Concilia o .
Pe e ’s commen a ies on he A icella and De animalibus could be
iewed as an a emp o a icula e medical and philosophical discou se
on se e al g ounds (70): (a) his sophis ica ed heo e ical discussions
ega ding he de ini ion o medicine and i s ela ionship wi h philosophy;
(b) he la ge numbe o medical issues he discussed and he b oad
ange o medical au ho i ies he used in his commen a y on De animalibus;
(c) he common ques ions sha ed by bo h commen a ies; (d) his o iginali y
in being he i s o es ablish he pa e n o issues ha would cons i u e
wha he called he con o e sia in e medicos e philosophos; and (e) his
«canoniza ion o he Canon», which was pe haps a consequence o i s
sys ema ic s uc u e (which hus len i sel o scholas ic ea men ), i s
congeniali y wi h A is o elian na u al philosophy, and i s use as a aluable
esou ce o solu ions o nume ous con o e sial ques ions.
Pe e ’s ea men o au ho i ies in he commen a y on he Isagoge—
a wo k ha p o ed o be a a ou i e g ound o discussing he philosophical
aspec s o medicine—seems o poin in hese same di ec ions (71). He
depends on a good numbe o medical and philosophical auc o i a es