„Kasyba“, „iškasenos“, „gręžyba“, „išgavos“

Jonas KLIMAVIČIUS MINING, EXTRACTED MATERIALS, DRILLING, EXTRACTION The terms “mountain mining ministry,” mountain mining industry, etc., are widely used; that is, people keep saying that mountains are mined, when what they mean is that one digs underground. Perhaps this is a translation from Russian горнорудный, but it is a very poor translation, since Russian горно is Lithuanian žaisdras. So perhaps mountain mining industry would be better called the žaisdras-ore industry? The first option is not very good either, but this one is no better. From a letter Interesting, though not new to specialists: geologist Eduardas Vodzinskas had already written about it in “Mūsų kalba” 16 years ago and had justifiably proposed a new term, though a similar one—mining: mining industry, mining institute, mining engineer (MK 1979 5 62–63). So it is not new, but neither is it old hat; many people still do not know or understand it. It is therefore useful to examine it in greater detail and more systematically—to review the history of terminology and consider the possibilities and limitations of naming concepts. There is, in fact, a compound word kalnakasyba, rather than the phrase kalnų kasyba mentioned by the questioner, although the latter was also used in the past: горная наука—the science of mountain mining, BŽ 101. According to LKŽ V, kalnakasyba is attested only from 1932 (горный промысел—kalnakasyba, BŽ 448); it would indeed be a kind of calque from Russian (“a calque is a word, phrase, or expression whose meaning, motivation, and often structure are borrowed from another language,” KTŽ). It should, however, be linked not to the word горно (the normative form is горн—from корень, “to burn”), but to the adjective горный (from the noun гора, “mountain”) and the combining form горно-. In the corresponding phrases, горный means “forming part of the Earth’s crust,” “extracted from the Earth’s depths,” and “connected with the extraction and processing of mineral resources” (see CCPJA III). Russian compounds and compound words— 32 горное дело, горная наука, горнопромышленность, горнозаводский are in turn translated from German Bergbau, Bergwesen and similar terms: Berg means “mountain,” while the element -wesen corresponds to Russian дело, meaning “matter,” but also “work; activity; craft; business,” even “enterprise; business venture” (in Lithuanian, this Russian дело is often rendered with a suffix: касирка дело – šaltkalvystė, мокарное дело – tekinimas, военное дело – karyba; see LKK XXIV 204 for more); Bau means “construction; structure,” “cave, tunnel,” from bauen 1. “to build; construct; make”; Nester bauen – lizdas sukti, die Bienen bauen Waben – bitės siuva korius; 2. “to cultivate, sow”; 3. “to till, work the fields” (hence Bauer “peasant, farmer,” figuratively “chess pawn,” and in cards “jack, or knave”). Kalnakasyba as the first element would be a formally accurate but semantically slavish calque. The second element is by no means slavish—it is entirely free and even systematic, and accords with kasykla (1884), kasynys (1887; cf. the lowland form kasiny­s, “a laid road, highway, embankment”: Impiltis-kiams visur blogi keliai, kol kasinį prigauna Lkž. O kad vežė kasinėliu, smiltelės dulkėjo Vž), iškasena. Iškasena meant “an object found while digging the earth” at the beginning of the formation of the standard language, in Bs, V. Kudir, Š, Vr (also iškasinsvs, J. Jabl, Vr). Even DŽ gives iškasena as “what is dug out of the earth”: archeologinės iškasenos. However, in DŽ₂ (1972), the first part of the definition of iškasenų—“remains of the culture of ancient peoples dug out of the earth, useful minerals, etc.”—(and it alone has an illustration: archeologinės iškasenos) was already an anachronism. It was removed only 21 years later: in DŽ₃, ancient remains found during excavation (not digging!) are already archeologiniai radiniai, while iškasenos means only “mineral raw materials extracted by mining”: naudingosios iškasenos. Incidentally, K. Sirvydas’s iškasynos already means “iron ore”: Ruda/Materia seu terra metallica fossilis. Iškasinos/materia iškasama gietažies/ etc. SD 392, though SD 119 also gives the vague sense: Kopáne rzeczy w ziemi. Fossilia, orum. Iškasinos/iškasti dayktay iż žiemes. According to LKŽ IV, Sut’s iškasinės also means “what is dug out of the earth (metals, ore).” Morphologically, kalnakasyba is not a derivative (a compound word), although the two- * Here and elsewhere, the old-source characters that are difficult to print have been replaced with modern ones. 33 stem (by structure, not by occupation!). Mining is a derivative with the suffix -yba from the compound kalnakasys (a similar word is the rare kalnakasybė in NdŽ). Kalnakasys, too, differs considerably from its sources—the Russian горняк and German Bergmann (while Bergvolk means горцы)—which have the meaning mountaineers, highlanders. It should be added that, according to the data in LKŽ V, alongside the word kalnakasys, which is contemporary with kalnakasyba, BŽ 493 (рудокоп – рудокас, kalnakasys, kalnavertys), there is also the earlier kálnakasis J. And here, though it may sound banal—as if viewed from today’s perspective—we need to turn toward Europe through the old window of the Lithuanian nation onto Western culture: Lithuania Minor. Although the words here may somewhat precede the things they denote, they are considerably older, numerous, and authentic. Thus, the largest regional dictionary of this area, F. Kuršaitis’s “Deutsch-Litausch(es Wörterbuch” (vol. I, 1870), contains: Bergwesen – matters pertaining to mining. kalnkasystė K I 210, Bergbau – approximately: digging in the mountains. kalnakasystė; archaic and obsolete: rūdu kasimas K I 209, Bergarbeit – approximately: mining work K I 209, Bergakademie – approximately: mining school K I 209; Bergmann – miner K I 210, Bergarbeiter – approximately: miner K I 209, Bergknappe – young miner K I 210. Also to be added here are kalnóvė and kálnkasis: Bergwerk – old and obsolete: kalnowė. mining of ores. better: digging in the mountain, or also approximately: kálnkastis. jės K I 210 (the first was already given by P. Ruigys: Bergwerk – Kalnówė, ês, Kálnų Rūdų Kassimmas R 62; likewise MŽ 83; only Kálnówė N); kálnkasis – ein Bergwerk K. The written record also attests to kalnakasýklė LC 1886 41, “a mining-industry enterprise.” The lexicography that followed continued F. Kuršaitis’s tradition—Antanas Lalis’s “Lietuviškos ir angliškos kalbų žodynas” (3rd ed., Chicago, 1915): kalnakasys – miner L, kalnakasystė – mining; art or science of mining L (and kalnavertis, -čio – properly: demolisher of mountains; miner L), kalnovė – hill; hillock; // mine L, mining – kalnakasystė, kasytnės; <…> L 432. Although the anglicisms maina and mainierius have become established in speech. Thus we have the Russian calque kalnakasyba and the German one kalnakasystė, while J. Baronas’s kalnakasys may also have been taken from F. Kuršaitis. It probably began with mountains, too, but what was dug was not the mountains themselves; rather, one dug in the mountains, extracting from them. The motivation behind the -yba formation should not be interpreted literally, as in the quoted letter. Yet P. Ruigys already gives digging mountain ores, a phrase with entirely clear motivation, while something quite similar to kalnakasys, but much more... 34 older is rūdakasy (with its whole word group): Kruszco[w?]y kopacz/Scitator auri, Kūdakas(is)/ [printing error: K=R–J.K.] ruda kasejas SD 133. Rudakassis – ein Erzgräber N, rūdakys I, J: here live rūdakasia(i), where they work in the depths of the earth J. Jabl; rare rūdų kasinkas: Bergmann, oder Knappe – Rudū Kassinkas, ūk(a) = (Sidabra =)Kassis, sio R 62; rūdininkas: Hammerschmid – Rudininkas, ko R 189, MŽ 252, Rudininkas, o – ein Metallarbeiter, Eisenschmidt N, rūdininkas, –o – ein Metall- oder Erzarbeiter [K] (2. Plv, Žp “resident of the environs of Kazlų Rūda, Višakio Rūda” LKŽ XI), rūdininkas = rūdakasy(s) NdŽ; rare rūdakas(yba – Bergbau NdŽ. The modern rūdvietė Enc VI 568, NdŽ “a place where ore occurs, an ore deposit” LKŽ XI has many and old synonyms—rūdýnas 4. M, BŽ 493, NdŽ “ore deposit, mine”¹⁵ (most widely used: 1. Q 515, Lex 85, Krz 158, N, Jbl 209, D. Pošk, J, dz., zem. “marsh with water containing ore, peat bog”; rare: 3. Dg “ore-bearing land”) LKŽ XI; rūdà KzR “iron-smelting furnace, enterprise” (rudnia trš see rudnė) LKŽ XI; even rūda 2. “iron-production enterprise; iron foundry” LKŽ XI: 1. ein Hammer, Eisenhütte (2. das Erz) R, MŽ, Metall, Erz; a metalworks, an iron hammer, in the latter meaning better Rudinvezia N, der Eisenhammer [K]; rare rūdvsis O 79 “ore mine” LKŽ XI. There are also quite similar place names (with a compound beginning rūdka-sys): rūdakasis “ore mine” LKŽ XI: Erzbergwerk – rūdkasis K I 410, Erzgrube – rūdų duobė. rūdkasis, io K I 410 (there are also other terms: Erzütte – rūdų tirpnyčia K I 410); rūdakasa K n “a place where ore is mined” LKŽ XI. Iron-mining vocabulary also appeared early: geležavietė “mountains, places where iron ore is found” LKŽ III: želane gory huty. Ferrariae, Gielazawiute SD 541; gelžkasis “iron mine” LKŽ III: Eisenbergwerk – approximately: gelžkasis, io K I 364, Eisengrube – gelžkasis, io K I 364; gelžkalvystė “ironworks” LKŽ III: Eisenhammer – approximately: gelžkalvė (and Eisenhütte see Eisenhammer) K I 365. Their present-day continuation is unnecessary (nor did akmuo geležiatraukis “magnet” SD 161 take hold). The vocabulary of coal mining is latest and scantiest—only angliakasy(s) Š, Vd, angliavietė tsp, and rare, regional anglės Įky “coal mines” (wood-charcoal terms angliade-gys, angliaduobė and chemical terms angliarūgštė, angliavandenis,... do not belong to this group). Thus only kalnakasys, kalnakasyba are “mountain-motivated” (in fact, 35 as is usual with calques, unmotivated). Nor do even the just-mentioned kašykla, kasinys, iškasenos; rūdkasys, angliakasys (and aukakasys) have “mountains,” but neither do many others, cf.: горнопроходческая бригада – excavation crew, горнорудное дело – ore extraction, горные богатства – [mineral] wealth of the earth’s depths, горное масло – geol. petroleum RKLŽ I. Earth oil, taken from GTŽ, is included neither in LKŽ I₁ nor LKŽ I₂, nor in DŽ. Whether it comes from Russian горное масло or directly from German Erdöl, it means “petroleum.” Nafta is also German Bergöl—F. Kuršaitis’s mountain (or underground) oil K I 210; there was also Steinöl—F. Kuršaitis’s stone oil, pėvoblia K II 206, which according to LKŽ I₂ is “kerosene” (modern German Kerosin), although LL 95 gives Polish nafta – stone oil, petroleum. The motivation is from the depths of the earth, from the stones and rocks found in the earth’s depths; compare: The deep strata of Christianity lie hidden like oil in porous stone and call to be pumped out LA 1994 68 11. Thus earth oil and stone oil / stone oil, rock oil are motivated (although they too are calques), whereas mountain oil is not really. And the motivation of akmens anglis (“stone coal”; known from the apparently used but, unfortunately, unpublished dictionary of J. Brovodskis) akmens anglis is not unambiguous—it may be just as much “stony” (or “stone-like”), cf. kūlių (that is, stones) coal J (cf. also German Steinkohlenbergbau “hard-coal industry”), as it is “mountain” coal, although those mountains are rocky [cf. stone goat B “mountain goat,” and even more so the eagle stone N “golden eagle (Aquila chrysaëtos)”], thus actual mountains, often called by Lithuanians simply stone mountains JV 311, mountains stony SD 94. Of course, there are also such stone words whose motivation is not “mountain-related,” yet is not entirely literal (“made of stone”), either: akmeninis 2. “adapted to live among stones (in mountains or cities)”; zool. stone marten (Martes foina) DŽ₃, akmenė 1. zool. “a shorebird of the order Charadriiformes inhabiting rocky coasts” (Aronaria interpres) [German Steinwälzer]; 2. see kūltupis—zool. “a bird of the thrush family that builds its nest among stones” (Oenanthe oenanthe) [German Steinschmätzer] DŽ₃, akmenlinda zool. “a very agile, brown centipede living under stones, logs, and elsewhere” (Lithobius) DŽ₃. The motivation of the adjective mėdinis in old texts, dialects, and folklore LKŽ VIII may seem not merely ambiguous but downright misleading when viewed synchronically, from a modern perspective—is 36 “Of wood,” but that would already be a remotivation (→ tree), whereas the true meaning is “forest-dwelling, wild” (→ forest: a wooden donkey SD 271, a wooden ox “bison” SD 9, a wooden (i.e. mountain-dwelling “wild”) goat B, R 167, a wooden pig “boar” R, a forest (woodland) bird K II 336, wooden pegs J. Jabl (Dv), a wooden rooster “capercaillie” R 75, a wooden cat “lynx” R 402, a wooden apple tree Kal, wooden apples Slnt; They would eat grasshoppers (i.e. dried locusts) and wild honey Bt Mr 1, 6. Perhaps it is harder to be misled by the variant medūnas, a: a wooden doe “roe deer” Grv, a hazel grouse – a wooden hen Lz, a wooden pig “boar” Grv; You wooden donkey! Mžk. Even ‘domestic’ LKŽ VIII 1 is deceptively straightforward: “living near the house”: domestic mouse (Mus musculus) tsp [prš?] as opposed to wild!; The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a human neighbor from time immemorial Blv; housefly Kp; Hey, brother, brother, my little brother, why did you shoot the little dove, the domestic bird? LTR (Ds). In biology such organisms are called synanthropic, even synanthropes (again, beware!—not from synanthrope, the fossil “Peking Man,” but from Greek syn- “together, with” + anthropos “human”). They include both indoor species (fly, silverfish, cockroach, flea) and weeds of homesteads and fields—parasites of the human environment (from Greek para “beside, alongside” + sitos “food”)—but not cultivated animals (a broader concept than domesticated animals). LKŽ VIII, however, treats this only as a secondary meaning of the sense just mentioned, “living near the house”: “cared for by people, kept, raised near the house”: domestic duck, domestic bee, domestic animals. Finally, горный can even be geological: горный компас means geological compass, горная геометрия means geological geometry. О горная порода simply means rock. The unclear neologism kalnininkystė, see kalnakasyba DŽ, should be regarded as meaningless. Eduardas Vodzinskas’s efforts were not in vain. R LKŽ I in 1982 had made little progress, but the entry for дело had already been amended somewhat to горное дело – (mountain) mining. PolŽ made more changes in 1984: горное дело – mining, горная промышленность – mining industry, горник – miner. Sadly, VLKŽ I in 1989 still had everything as before—“mountain-related”; mining was entirely absent. PŽ III in 1992 does have kasyba: open-pit mining 131, seabed mining 128, 37 129. DŽ responded, but as a general dictionary rather than a specialist one (of terminology or an encyclopedia), it could not immediately reject kalnakasybos: kalnakasyba “the industry of extracting the earth’s riches, mining,” while kasyba was defined only as “kalnakasyba”; it included only kalnakasys, “one who extracts the earth’s riches,” but kasybininko, sadly, was still missing. Most regrettable is that there is still no new dictionary of geological terms. And newspaper translators are given neither dictionaries nor language columns to read. Look how easily (or shamelessly?) they dash off even this: Pickets were set up in front of the White House yesterday. The action was organized by the mountain metallurgy trade union LA 1994 59 2. There is no mountain, foothill, or marsh metallurgy, although there is bog iron ore. This pairing makes no sense at all: The Kuzbass miners are supported by the Vorkuta coal miners LA 1993 227 2. Only ore miners and coal miners could form a contrast. This is downright strange: he graduated from <...> the Institute of Oil and Chemistry [probably petrochemistry – J.K.], where he qualified as a mountain engineer LA 1993 206 9. Yet here, quite unexpectedly, something becomes clear that even E. Vodzinskas, despite devoting a paragraph to kasybai (TV 1994 1 44), did not discuss: an engineer in mining kas ybos inžinierius is not suitable for oil extraction (and what would be suitable is explained a little further on). Thus mining is highly unsuitable. Having leafed through several pages on mining in LTE V, you find nothing at all about mountain mining, but you do find something incomprehensible to common sense: the mining industry—extraction and primary processing (beneficiation) of mineral resources—– – There are 5 groups: the fuel extraction industry (extraction of oil, natural gas, coal, peat, and shale), ores, <...>. <...>; the hydromineral industry (extraction of mineral and underground waters, water for water supply and other purposes). Thus, not only peat digging but even mineral-water wells are mining; gas and water are mineral resources!.. Even the school textbook FGŽŽ was already explaining in 1987: a well is “a round mining excavation in a rock stratum, drilled with a drilling instrument”... Stranger still, mining (1979) was recorded much later than drilling (1956): буровое дело—drilling, GTŽ. The reason is that drilling failed to break away from буровое дело. For instance, even in Ž. Kinder’s book “Hydrogeology and Drilling” (1974), drilling... is not used at all. It contains only drilling (of wells) and wells. Nowhere is there any oil drilling, gas drill- 38 ing. Perhaps that is why gręžyba did not make it into DŽ2, DŽ3 (although it is already in the 1971 LRKŽ). It will take time for the whole mining system to take shape and become established. The unmotivated calque kalkakasyba remained undifferentiated. Mining can of course easily be specified—coal mining, ore mining—although with angliakasybą, rūdkasybą also available, another possibility cannot be ruled out: angliakasyba, rūdkasyba. The form auksakasyba already occurs in LA 1994 81 6, 178 2 alongside the very old auksakasys R 62, auksakasys B, K I 558. Sadly, sidabro kalkakasyba still appears too, M ir G 1990 10 21—it should be sidabro kasyba (less naturally, sidabrakasyba, though sidabrakasys is attested in Ser). By the way, gold and silver can be not only mined but also collected—in other words, extracted. The discrepancy in the term mineral resources is felt by everyone, but left unaddressed and evaded. Some write without embarrassment the most blatant absurdities: But the most important of this region’s mineral resources is oil M ir G 1973 11 22. A separate group of mineral resources consists of drinking, technical, and mineral groundwater, as well as brines M ir G 1982 12 9. Others search and vary the terminology widely: for example, on just p. 297 of A. Linčius’s book “One Hundred Geological Riddles” (1980), there are mineral resources, mineral wealth, mineral raw materials, and underground resources, although there are organic ones too—peat and amber (oil is disputed, so that would be inconvenient). It is simply regrettable when some natural deposits turn up in KB 1990 11 2, or even earth deposits in KB 1994 12 8, or natural resources in LA 1993 209 1. Not everything is wealth beneath the earth’s surface either, since there is also open-pit mining, that is, surface mining. Natural wealth is yet another, broader concept. But a decent word, extraction, meaning “extracting,” has long existed: extraction of gold and coal, DŽ2, DŽ2 and DŽ2; extraction of gold, LmŽ 138. And “that which is extracted” would be išgavos (extracts)—this word is already in LKŽ IV, although it is cited there only once, in BŽ 117, with an undefined meaning: “catch, abundance.” We could retain the “usefulness” motivation as well: useful extracts. Another possibility is useful finds, since, after all, one searches and prospecting is carried out (prospecting—разведочное дело, GTŽ), and things are found. But they are extracted afterward, so extracts is the more precise term. It is time to discuss, choose, and adopt a term. 39 Abbreviations DŽ₁ – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas: DŽ₁ – I leid., V., 1954. DŽ₂ – II leid., V., 1972. DŽ₃ – III leid., V., 1993. FGŽ – Solovjovas V., Karpovas G. Fizinės geografijos žodynas-žinynas. K., 1987. GTŽ – Gudelis V. Geologijos ir fizinės geografijos terminų žodynas. V., 1956. KB – “Cultural Bars”. KT – Gavienis K., Keinys S. Kalbotyros terminų žodynas. K., 1990. LA – “Lithuania’s Echo”. LKK – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai. V., 1985. T. 24. LKŽ – Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language. V., 1941. Vol. I, 1st ed., 1968. Vol. I, 2nd ed., 1956, Vol. 3, 1957, Vol. 4, 1959, Vol. 5, 1966, Vol. 7, 1970, Vol. 8, 1978, vol. II. The article also uses abbreviations from this dictionary. LRKŽ – Lyberis A. Lietuvių–rusų kalbų žodynas. V., 1971. LTE – Lietuviškoji tarybinė enciklopedija. V., 1979. T. 5. Mir G – “Science and Life”. MK – “Our Language”. PolŽ – Rusų–lietuvių kalbų politechnikos žodynas/ Sudarė G. Daugėla. V., 1984. PŽ III – Pažinimo džiaugsmas: Žemė ir jos gėrybės. V., 1992. RLKŽ – Rusų–lietuvių kalbų žodynas. V., 1982. T. 1/ Sudarė Ch. Lemchenas. SD – The first dictionary of the Lithuanian language: Konstantinas Sirvydas. Dictionarium trium linguarum [3rd ed., photographic text]. V., 1979. The page numbers differ from those of the 5th ed. of SD cited in LKŽ. ССРЛЯ – Словарь современного русского литературного языка. Москва–Ленинград, 1954. Т. 3. TV – Terminologijos vagos. V., 1994. Book 1. VLKŽ – Križinauskas J. Vokiečių–lietuvių kalbų žodynas. V., 1989. T. 1. Throughout, numerals indicate years, issue numbers (Roman numerals indicate volumes), and pages. 40