Vienetų sistemos: skirtybės ir panašybės, tikros ir tariamos negerovės

REMARKS, CONSIDERATIONS, SUGGESTIONS, SPECIAL UNIT SYSTEMS: DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES, TRUE AND PERCEPTED INABILITIES The most relevant and very specific matters of terms standardization, compliance with norms, terms Lithuanianness and regularity, especially terms of contractual accounting unit system would be concerned here. In order to make the meaning of that system clearer, at least a little start ab ovo. Then it becomes clear not only that this is already the fourth unit system, but also that there is a lot of clear, true and even unexpected actualities from the first one, as well as interesting ctno-linguistic things. I. Natural and Artificial Units If it is affirmed that there is as much science as there are measurements, then man has been inclined to science since ancient times, or rather, bent by life. However, the man of primitive civilization relied here in the most elementary way on himself and the empiricism of his life, while the exact science relied on the theoretically and experimentally investigated essence of natural phenomena. There is a principled similarity—the basis is natural, but the difference is also principled. And the most established (in science — compulsory) completely artificial system of units — metric. 1. Natural folk sightings—from the body and life of man. To the philosopher Protagoras (who also contributed much to grammar) is attributed the phrase homo mensura —man is the measure of all things (Antikos žodynas 1998: 155, Halder 2002), without knowing its continuation —esančių, that they are, and nesančių, that they are not (Halder 2002) or commentary —„not the state determines what a man must do and what is forbidden, but he himself“ (Antikos žodynas 1998: 155), arbitrarily, though quite reasonably, interpreted and... metrologically. In fact, many folk measures of different countries are from the human body: foot, step, reach, scale, arms, arms, sprint, hand, wrists, handful, finger (crosswise), stumbling "the end of the big toe to the first joint" DŽ,. Apic Pilviškius with 8 claws measured the mouth of the spragilo: - Where are you going? "To the grove. - What? - A tree. - What? — 143 Scrabble. - Where? —Buožei LKZ XII 1981: 1092. Fingers are not only used to measure the thickness of bacon in the village — even scientific anatomy has a term drvylika- "finger bowel. There are also similar names in other languages: the Russian name of the inch (from German Zoll "duty" — from Greek telos "tax") of diodes is from ol. dav "thumbs": ancient Greek silver coin and unit of weight drachma — "handful". Of course, in the beginning it was roughly measured. There were also approximate measures of other natural folk measures — the kdrtis, or whip, stone, bucket. spoon, kaftis, barrel, žagre, borrowed birkavas (from the Norman city of Birka — 10 pouds), stwopa, gorčius, margas. ithas. The pound stands out. related to the measuring action to weigh, as well as borrowed pūdas, valakas. Some different units in different countries have a similar basis: in Romanian jugeris "as much land as a pair of kick oxen (Latin iugum [i. e. yoke}) can plough in a day" (Antikos žodynas 1998: 398; here the wrong form jugeres) — variegated "area that a man can plough or cut by noon" (Morgen — "morning- ")' —13th-16th- -century Baltic žagrė "area of arable land cultivated per year by a pair of oxen or horses"; svaras (:sverti) — gr. talenton "weight" — the Slavic word poudas, derived from the Scandinavian pund "pound" (cf. English pound "pound", Latin pondus "weight"; svarstis, pasvaras" (from pendo "weigh", cf. pendeo "hang", perpendeo "weigh off", perpendiculum "svambalas"); the Romans left a fine weight measure granas (0.065 g) —from Latin granum "grain"; krupelė“, so they have counted (0 not weighed) with grains, and the people of Suvalkia even now ridicule Sykstuolį: they count the grains as much as Pilviškiai put into the pot. The values of these measurements were then determined in ctalons. However, the standards differed according to peoples and regions or times. For example, the stadia (from which the stadium is derived) in ancient Greece varied greatly: Pythian — 165 m, Delphian — 177 m, Attic — 184.98 m, Olympian — 192 m, Ionian — 210 m. Legendarily, the length of the stadium path (straight, not circular, as it is now) is explained to be the stadia — 600 feet of Heracles (Attic stadia — 625 Greek feet), but it is not clear why the foot of all the Greek heroes is different. It is hardly Greek, hardly footage, because it was already in Babylon (195 m). Very interesting stage! In the translated TŽZ 1951 and 1969 unsuccessfully assigns margas (Polish: morg) „földes measure in Poland, equal to approx. 0.56 ha" TZZ 1969 and morgen (German: Morgen) — "land measure in Germany (0.26—0.36 ha) and some South African countries (0.6 ha)" TZZ 1960 (none in later TZZs because it is not an international word). 144 The natural interpretation of the value — the distance that a man takes before the rising sun’s disc from the appearance of the edge rises entirely i$ beyond the horizon (somewhat similarly justified Persian farsang And stirred pursang — “the distance that a man takes in an hour”), the Romans founded the stage in their own way — 125 double steps. Romance of Love. mille passis (passuum) —a thousand double steps. In the United States, the United Kingdom, and some other countries, the metric mile is used to measure distances of 1,609.344 km (1,609.344 mi) or 1,478.7 m (4,100 ft). However, in the metric system, the mile is based on other measures of that system — Thus, the geographical mile diverged greatly — The length of the 1/157th arc of the Earth's equator — 7421.6 m (in Russia and Lithuania the mile — 7467.4 m), relatively slightly increased the jar mile (nautical mile) — The length of the geographical diurnal 1' arc at 45° latitude — 1852.3 m (in England the latitude — 1853.18 m), since 1929 the international nautical mile (INM) — 1852 The human unit of ship speed is the knot (kn) is 1/120 of the nautical mile lago (rope with floating anchor). in 30 seconds a sailor allowed from the stern — 1,852 km/h. The metric standards of folk measures are very different in different regions: the variegated LDK —0.71 ha, in Lesser Lithuania —from 0.25 to 0.50 ha. 0.56 ha, in Uznemune since 1819 Polish —0.56 ha; the Greek talent was 25.5 —26.2 kg of copper (equivalent to 8.5 g of gold ring), in other Eastern countries — heavier, and biblical— 41.4 kg. Pid — 16.3805 kg, and the pound is very different: Roman (libra) — 327 g, Littuvisk (until 1920) — 365.47 g, in Lithuania carmet Russian — 409.512 g, real Russian — 374.158 g, Berlin — 374.72 g, Klaipėda — 374.158 g. 413.05 g, Prussia until 1839 —467.711 g, Transnistria since 1815 new Polish —405.504 g, British and American trade pound (Ib av) —453.592 g, pharmacy pound —358.323 g. 2. Pound Sterling and Troy ounce. The pound is also a currency: the British pound sterling —pound sterling (but known by the Latin libra —Srg £) —"full-value, i.e. pure, fixed-weight, pound", the Irish, Egyptian, Cyprus, Lebanese, Syrian —pound (also formerly —Australia, New Zealand, Peru, South Africa, Rhodesia, Sudan, Uganda, Zambia, etc.). The Italian lira (L), the Vatican lira (Lm), the Maltese lira (Lm) and the Turkish lira (TL) are also called "pound", and the French livre in the 19th century is also called "pound" (replaced by the franc in 1795). Pound sterling — traditional name; value 145 jo — ‘D. British money. unit. 20 100 shillings or 240 pence LTE X 1983) —departed from its original meaning: srerling — "of specified grade, pure, full-value", sterling —1. 2. sen. „Anglijos gryno Ir svorio matmuo: aukso — 11/12, sidabro — 0,925 (po 1920 m. — 1/2), iki 1526 m. buvo padalintas į 160 svorio pens“, 2. sen. „Anglijos sidabro moneta, minta nuo m.; 1180 XIII equal a. to a silver pound, or silver 20 penny, i.e. 1 gold penny” (Buračas 1999), otherwise —the great penny (LTE X 1983). By the way, this difference is typical of many old names: gold, golden, — zloty… Sterling now is simply the “proof of English silver and gold coins” DZ. Smaller and larger units are often met with numbers: Roman double step feet; simple reach (bridge) — 5 — 6 feet — 1,95 m, 9 feet — 2,84 m for the main reach; 7.5 cubits = 4.87 m, 1.5 feet = 1.5 feet, 16 fingers = 16 fingers; stone -—40 Lithuanian pounds —about 14-15 kg, pitta —40 pounds. Yra net toks koeficientinis vienetas —uncija: lot. uncia „dvyliktoji dalis“ (net, pavyzdžiui, palikimo), pvz.: jugerio uncija —209,91 m“, pėdos uncija —24,6 mm (beje, artima coliui —25,4 mm), aso (svaro vario apie — 327 g) ounce — 27,25 g, Roman pound ounce (weight — 27,116 g, coins — 27.288 g). The pound ounce has also been used in other countries: French (French once known since 1138) — 30.594 g, British and US — commercial ounce — 28.3495 g. (liquid ounce: British — 28.4123 ml, US — 28.4123 ml) — 29,5729 ml), pharmaceir utical jewellery, or Troy ounce — 31,1035 g. The Troy ounce is not only a jewellery and pharmaceutical measure, but also a stock exchange measure — here is the Troy pound — 12 Troy ounces — 373.242 g (0 16 Troy ounces — the British pound — 453.592 g), and the Troy drachma — 3.888 g (8 makes up an ounce), and the Troy grain — 0.065 g (60 makes up a drachma). Strictly speaking, the Trojan ounce is nonsense (what does this have to do with the historical Troy burning for the fortieth time three thousand years ago?!) — as a ir pound sterling (there is no longer such a thing as a sterling). The difference is that the pound sterling is unchanged and uncontested—a traditional term. Troy - Engl. Troy, adjective — Trojan (ret. var. Trojan): Trojan horse — The Trojan Horse. Bet Troy ounce —troy ounce | ounce troy, Trojos svaras —troy pound | pound troy. Yra ir tiesiog troy —„a system of weights in which 12 troy ounces make a pound, (Webster's <...>“ Comprehensive Dictionary 1996), also troy weight — „a series of units of weight, based on a pound of 12 ounces and the ounce of 146 20 pennyweights or 480 grains —0.3732417266 kg" (Webster's Dictionary Unabridged 1981), and the adjective troy is derived from French. Troyes (liet. Trua) —„city in France where it was prob. The term "troy pound" was first used in the 18th century, and was specifically associated with the weight used in the fairs held there (Webster's Comprehensive Dictionary 1996). Money specialist A. Buračas has used different terms in three cases (partly even in English): troy ounce — troy (monetary) ounce, troy — troy (precious metals and precious stones weight measures) weight system (Buračas 1980); 1994 does not give even an ounce, and 373.242 g pound is called the pound of jewels (Buračas, Svecevičius 1994: 479); Troy Ounce —“a measure of the weight of gold and other precious metals, a Troy (in France) ounce, equal to 31.1035 g or 1/12 Tr. 480 grams” (Buračas 1999). Troy in France — a geographical discovery... Troy Troyes is the historic centre of Champagne. Troyes is associated with the Celtic Tricastini tribe and their city, known as Augustabona in the Roman Empire, Tricassium in the 3rd century, Trecae in the 5th century (Dictionnaire des noms propres 1995). By the way, the ones who gave the name themselves gave it all to their neighbours: troy —"Nom donné, en Engleterre, a la série des poids qui scrvent pour les matieres d'or et d'argent" (Dictionnaire encyclopédique 1900), now not even mentioned (there is no Dictionnaire de la langue francaise 1993). It is also not found in the French-speaking Polish (no Stownik jezyka polskicgo 1967 and Encyklopedia powszechna 1968). The Germans distinguish — trojanisches Pferd, but Troygewicht, the Russians also —mposHckuti Kone, but mpoickasn yHyus. Perhaps it was understood as the triybiné or pharmacy ounce DokZin 1988: 122, as well as the triybiné or pharmacy pound DokZin 1988: 123 — supposedly the triynia (gold, silver, precious stones), but this way it is possible to,,base“ the quaternia (pound, ounce, drachma, granas). The term "troy" was also used earlier, although without the word "trivial": troy —"such a system of weights (for gold, silver, precious stones)" ALKZ 1975. The troy pound was fixed in 1953 at LE I 1953: 424. "Troy weight —" troy system of measures (in the UK)" ALKŽ 1998. The Trojan ounce was and is still common LTE X 1983, VLE I 2001: 216 (nx), 217. TŽZ 2001 — Trojan ounce, also Trojan drachma, but Trojan gran. There is already the closest variant to truth —pharmaceutical ounce, trua ounce (oz tr, oz ap), pharmaceutical pound, trua pound (Ib tr, Ib ap), pharmaceutical drachma, trua drachma (dr tr, dr ap) —3.88793 g (TechEnc I 2000: 660). Only why first pharmacy, 0 not trua —abbreviation first fr, then ap. 147 And why not Trua? Of course, here is an incorrect (but common) spelling — VLE III is even caesarean section, although so far even in the press was only Caesarean section. Thus, the tradition of the Trojan ounce remains, a lot of variationir s, the real —frua root is revived. A decision of the State Lithuanian Language Commission may also be required here. 3. The pound, the foot, the dium and other Germanic Russians. The Lithuanians borrow the names of the measures that they have themselves. But some languages did differently. The Russian language, which grew rich in such borrowings during the Soviet period, also gave them to us. The most inhuman Russian, the most widely used by bad translators, was the pound (Russian: (dykm is from Polish. 1000 pounds, hereinafter — from the mid-Germany. height. PUT, corresponds to WOK. Pound, got a lot. iš pondus). The Lithuanian foot, as well as the old borrowed inch, held better. However, in the 1988 manual on the formatting and spelling of documents, a whole bunch of rusybiy is added: — 453,6 g. 373,2 g, 14 pounds DokZin 1988: 123, Jute = 12 diumi — 0,3048 m, 1 diumi — 2,54 cm DokZin 1988: 122. This is a table of British and US units, but in fact here are not anglybés, but rusybeés, of which only gym cmon is of English origin ir (English) foot — foot, stone — „stone“), while the pound is German, the inch is Dutch (by the way, K. Gaivenis has also discovered the foreign word inch in translations...). In the table —in parentheses —the Lithuanian names are also quoted: svaras (lit. lb.) —409 g) DokJin 1988: 123, feet (lit. k. foot — 22,2 cm (= 32,5 cm)), inch (lit. k. packages) DokJin 1988: 122. Simply, when confronted su with different Lithuanian and English measurement values, they were unable to say in Lithuanian — English pound, English stone, English foot. But why did the decimeter be included — its value does not differ from the inch. 4. Natural scientific units, Natural folk measures are some And international (mostly ancient), but not universal, So some are suitable for international trade and other broader practice, but none are suitable for science. Science has developed and is improving the International System of Units, in which the physical quantities "dimensions are chosen so as to be convenient to use", the units are "freely chosen, independent" LTE XII 1984. This is the metric, or decimal, system of units. The name metric is rather ambiguous — metric is not from metre, 0 from gr. metron — "measure", metred — "I measure". Decimal means that units can be multiples or fractions — multiplied or divided by tens. The foundations of this system were laid by the most renowned French scientific commission. The decree of the National Assembly of 30 March 1791 approved the metre as a unit of length, a freely chosen, but 148 completely unnatural, 1/40,000,000 (forty millionth) part of the geographical day of Paris, and the kilogram as a unit of mass (usually — weight) — 1 dm* of distilled water at 4°C in vacuum (a more natural, but quite different basis — not any part of the mass of the Earth). 1795. Here the different ways of the nations are clearly visible — English conservatism and naturalness, French — innovativeness, even revolutionaryness and artificiality (this difference is clearly visible in the art of parks — geometric, or regular — French and landscape, or landscape, otherwise free — English park LTE VIII 1981). In 1851, Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Eduard Weber developed a symmetrical CGS (centimetre, gram, second) unit system based on the first's idea and initial version, but it was not universally accepted, although "still in use in the theory of physics and astronomy. VLE III 2003. In 1875, 17 countries signed the Metric Convention. The metric system was introduced in Lithuania on May 25, 1920. Thus, the meter — the most artificial unit, the kilogram — the basic unit, but multiple. But the idea of naturalness remained alive. Of course, natural are not only the things of the human body and household, but also the modes of physical phenomena. In science, natural systems of units are "systems of units whose basic units are physical constants, <...>" (gravity constant, swiss velocity in vacuum, etc.), so here "the dimension depends on natural phenomena" LTE VIII 1981. In the early 20th century, such units and their various systems were developed by the German M. Planck and the English D. R. Hartree. For example, the unit of Hartley mass is the mass of the electron- 's orbit — 9.109534-10*' kg (LTE IV 1978). These units differ greatly from metric values—some are extremely small, others are extremely large. They are not created for practice. However, they also influenced the International System of Units (SI) adopted by the XI General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 1960, or Systéme International LTE XII 1984. For example, the artificial meter is based here already physically —“the distance that light travels in a vacuum in 1/299792458 of a second” (1983 XVII GMSK) TechEnc I 2000: 648. The old heat unit of the Celsius scale has a fairly natural basis (for freezing and boiling of water) degree —now a derivative unit of the international 149 system, and the basic is kelvin (greater than 273.15*), by the way, also natural —based on the second principle of thermodynamics. Astronomy uses natural units: day, year, and light year. So natural units go from the csmes of science itself. JI. Real — physical, natural, actual and converted (reduced, equivalent, reference) — contractual units Available near 15 hp and 100 hp tractors — so physical tractors. One may have 10 15 hp tractors, another —10 100 hp tractors —does JIC have the same? The same tractor can plough 10 ha of rye (shaving), 10 ha of potatoes (deep plowing) and spread 10 ha of crop — natural hectares are equal here, but are ploughed hectares equal? Is a tonne of rye or a tonne of wheat — the actual tonnes are equal, but is the yield and value equal? Therefore, a comparison is needed to determine the truthfulness. It is not a whim of statistics—it is a necessity. 30 years ago in the publication Agricultural Information (201) there is already natural hectare, natural tonne, natural jar ZU1 1972 10 36. There is already a coefficient for physical tractors to convert to contractual ZU1 1972 10 36. In order to assess the conditions of farming more objectively, the contractual wage is taken instead of the actual wage. Also used in recalculated and reduced form: npueedėnnote 3ampamot —recalculated (reduced) costs in ETS 1966. It is characteristic of our old town that the greatest traffic flows (more than 800 reduced cars per hour in one direction) move through the narrowest <...> streets 'T 1973 228 2. Initially, nc was simply contractual, and contractual was natural: ycA06HbIū KHamypanbHhbiū u3Mepumenb npodyKuuu —contractual natural measure of production ETŽ 1966. There were not only specific contractual units (contractual hectares, contractual tonnes, etc.), but also contractual units: from each hectare of land in use, about 19 centners of contractual harvest units are obtained T 1974 147 2. 10 million contractual units of drainage pipes T 1973 285 1. <...> produced 221 million tonnes of mineral fertilizers (in contractual units) LU 1975 4 1222. * For this purpose, the ambiguous word “virtual” was used earlier – “possible; the possibility of manifestation; which has to be manifested”: virtual length —glžk. ‘the contractual length of the horizontal line 150 The contractual milk fat content has long been called basic (3.5, 3.876 or otherwise determined). A milk product with a specified ricbum (2.5, 3.5 or 4.596), proteins and other components (not natural milk, but made as natural) is called normalized milk. There are more basic things, e.g.: basic calorific value of natural gas LA 1993 74 4. Energy consumption is sometimes expressed in tonnes of oil equivalent. Contractual fuel is “fuel whose lower heat of combustion is considered in the USSR to be equal to 29.3 MJ/kg (7000 kcal/kg)” LTE X 1983; also LTE IV 1978: 263. This method of conversion became established and widespread — there was even a contractual gvvuly ZU 1974 2 33, a contractual cattle T 1973 162 1, 167 1, 1974 254 1, ZU 1974 9 34. It spread quickly, but for a long time the term did not become established — even in dictionaries the conditional value was widespread: conditional fuel —ycaosnoe monAau6e0 ChTZ 1960, but ETŽ 1966 —sutartinis fuel, ZUTZ 1971 —again conditional fuel; conditional timber “a timber accounting unit used for accounting purposes” —ycro6norūt mamepuai —bedingtes Holz MATZ 1971 (MTZ 1998 —conditional timber “a timber concept used for accounting purposes in the drying of wood corresponding to the following indicators: pine drying quality category II, 40 mm thick, 150 mm wide, more than 1 m long, cut boards with an initial moisture content of 60 % and a final moisture content of 1296” —yen08nbiū nusomamepuai —Einheitsholz —conventional wood, wood in boards), naxoma msexas —conditional (soft) plowed ZUTZ 1971; conditional fabric width TkstTZ 1962. In the periodical press, the contractual and conditional varied greatly: contractual hectares T 1973 246 1, 1974 157 2, Sh 1973 7 9, ZU 1974 2 5, 6, harvested 2200 hectares of contractual tillage T 1973 107 1 — harvested 190 sqlyginiy hectares of grain T 1973 203 1; contractual tractor ŽŪ 1974 2 14, 15, contractual aggregate T 1973 144 1, 1974 160 1; contractual fuel T 1973 167 2, 190 4 —conditional fuel T 1973 83 4; contractual tonne 1974 125 4 —conditional tonnes MG 1974 5 11; mineral fertilizers —4.9 million tons (in conditional units) T 1973 248 3; road, for which the same work (as much time, fuel) is consumed as in the real distance of the road with all the rises" TŽZ 195 1, virtual humid air temperature — "the temperature that would have in the current slégi dry air of the same density" TZZ 1969. Now — conventional path length GelZ 1977, reduced temperature PTZ, 1984, and virtual flooded with new ambiguities (see GK 2003 8 6-7). 151