Iš karybos terminų istorijos

HISTORY OF TERMINOLOGY Vincentas DROTVINAS Vilnius Pedagogical University FROM THE HISTORY OF MILITARY TERMINOLOGY I do not pity Sudatis’s little fortress nearly as much as I pity Sudatis’s little wars. From M. Miežinis’s 1849 manuscript 1. War and its lexicon War is as old as the world. The history of many nations consists of long-lasting wars of conquest or defense, recounted and celebrated in the pages of world literature. Reading them, we encounter the military lexicon of various countries—the names of soldiers, weapons, military operations and methods, and so on. Old Lithuanian literature, as well as folklore, also contains many military terms dating from ancient times. Thus, military terminology is one of the oldest layers of Lithuanian vocabulary. Yet neither old nor modern military terms have so far attracted the attention of researchers. To be sure, the origins of military terms have been surveyed by the historian of the Lithuanian written language Jonas Palionis (1967). The author identifies three strata by origin among military terms: colloquial popular vocabulary (248–250), literary Lithuanian vocabulary—neologisms (263–264), and borrowed vocabulary (278–279); he also describes the quantitative relationship of these terms to other groups of corresponding origin: among the groups of popular Lithuanian vocabulary, military terms are one of the smaller ones (248–249), while names for warfare and the technology of waging war constitute a relatively large group of Slavicisms recorded in monuments of the Lithuanian language from the earlier period (278–279). A considerable amount of military vocabulary not used in contemporary Lithuanian is presented in J. Palionis’s most recent work (2004). Military art is mentioned among Simonas Daukantas’s successful coinages (Zinkevičius 1990: 152). Warfare is understood as the art of war 27 theory and practice in the broadest sense, i.e. 1) “a field of activity encompassing the organization, preparation, and operation of a state’s armed forces in wartime and peacetime,” 2) “the knowledge, abilities, and skills required of a soldier,” 3) “the science of warfare, whose principal subject of study is armed combat during wartime”; in addition, the art of warfare is distinguished (Smetona 1995). In this article I will attempt to survey the expression of the semantic field “warfare,” primarily in lexicographical works of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, especially manuscript dictionaries from Lithuania Minor (some of which, having only recently been published, have not yet become widely established in the scholarly circulation of historical lexicology). I will discuss the origins, synonymy, and changes in meaning of the principal units denoting concepts of warfare, as well as their survival in present-day Lithuanian terminology. 2. War, karias, etc. The word karas is found already in early monuments of the Lithuanian language, but it is much older than the sixteenth century. Karas is common not only to Baltic but also to Indo-European vocabulary. Like Prussian *kargis, *karjas “army,” “war,” Lithuanian karias had the meanings “war; army; detachment, regiment” in early written sources; likewise karia meant “war; army” and karė “war,” while karis meant “army, war” (LKŽ V; for further discussion, see Mažiulis 1993; Palionis 1967: 2501). In the sixteenth-century writings of Martynas Mažvydas, Mikalojus Daukša, and others, the word karas (and its variants) was the Lithuanian term for the meanings mentioned above, although it also had synonyms. In Konstantinas Sirvydas’s 1642 dictionary, the Lithuanian equivalent of Polish woyna and Latin bellum is karionė, which was also used, incidentally, in M. Mažvydas’s writings. However, in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century manuscript dictionaries from Lithuania Minor, alongside karas, we also find loanwords—Slavic and Germanic. The most common synonym of the Lithuanian term karas is the Slavic borrowing vaina(s) (Polish wojna, Belarusian война): Krieg Karas, Wayna Lex2, Heerfahrt, Karas, ô. M. Wainas, ô. M C II, Krieg Waina, ôS., C II, Krieg Karas Wayna Richt 144, Karas Wayna Q. 1 The origins of individual warfare terms have been discussed by the Lithuanian lexicologist and historian of vocabulary Algirdas Sabaliauskas (1990). 2 Illustrative examples from bilingual (trilingual) dictionaries are given in their original form (they are not normalized to the standard language). 28 In other 18th-century dictionaries, the Germanism krygė comes to the fore: Krieg Karas, aro, M. Kryges, iu, f, pl., Wainas, no, M. R, Krieg Bellum Karas, Kryge, Waijkas, Waina B. The spread of Germanisms is also evident in the examples: alongside girdziu kara dabar ne turrinti galo B we now find Kryge eiti, į Krygę traukti, į kryge suſti B, cf. Feldzug Traukimmas į kryges, karą M. However, the Lithuanian element karas is retained in Lithuanian equivalents of German compounds, as well as derivatives and phrases, e.g.: Krieg führen karauju Lex, Krieg Cammer – Kar Kamare, Kriegs Macht Karo macis, Kriegs Räncke Karo kitrafis Richt and Kriegs=Rancke, Guddyste Karo Q. In K. Sirvydas’s first dictionary, ir kavimasis (Woyna / bellum, militia, kawimafis SD¹ is given. In F. Pretorius’s dictionary, alongside the aforementioned Krieg Karas, aro, M Kriegas, giu, f, pl. Wainas, no m, we also find one specialized term, ruba: Plunderung Rubba, ós. F C III; likewise, in P. Ruhig’s dictionary: Grenzkrieg, Rubba, bos, f. ‘border military conflict, clash’ R (Belarusian руба ‘robbery, looting, attack’). Among the verbal military vocabulary, words used to denote the act of war or combat itself include kariauti, kovauti, karą vesti, širmavoti, kautisi, krygavoti: Kämpffen kowauti, karauti Lex, Kämpffen, Kowawoju, jau, su, ti, Karauju, rawau etc. C II, Kriegen Karauti Lex, Kriegen. Karauju, awau, su, ti Bellum gerere, Karą weddu, ḋzau, su sti C II; cf. also bekriegen apk arauti Lex, Bekriegen Apk arauju, rawau, su, ti C I, Kriegführen karą weddu, ḋzau, su, sti C II, kämpfen kowauti, Szirmavoti Richt, streiten Kautisi, krygawojū Lex. Kowawoju, jau, su, ti C III, Streiten kowauti kautisi Lex. Of the verbs used to denote the use of firearms, the following are noteworthy: sušaudyti, šaudyti: archibusiren suβaudytį Lex, suβaudytį C I, Schüßen szauti Lex, etc. 3. Early names for the army The most common terms for military forces are a bazas and vaiskas, and less frequently logeris (logoris). It is noteworthy that German words sharing the same root as 29 the Germanism lageris have Lithuanian equivalents; cf. belagern. Apgulti Lex, apgullu, lau, lšu, lti CI, Belagerung apgulimas Lex, apgulimas, and CI. Abazas (Polish oboz): Armee abazas, waiskas Lex, Feldlager abazas Lex, Heer; Abažas, ô. M. Pulkas, ô. M. C II, Feldschlacht abazo mußis Lex, [Feld]schlacht Mußis, Abazu Mußis B, cf. [Feld]Haupt Mann Wyrausis ant Abazo C II, cf. FeldHerr diddisis Etmons Abazo B, [Feld] Prediger Abazo Klebons, kunnigs B, Heerlag er Waiskas Abazas B, Heerhorn Abazo Ragas B, Heereskrafft Waiskas, Abazas, Zalneru Pulkas B, [Heeres]Spitze abazo Pryßakkis B, and so on. In K. Sirvydas’s dictionaries, abazas was translated by a Lithuanian equivalent: Oboz / caftra, tentorium, flatitia karioftowis / kariowiete SD¹; cf. obozny / adjectiu. caftrenfis [ubf] menfor, [...] karioftowinis SD¹, and also potyczki / Acies, căpus, [...] Wieta kariones / karionawite SD³; cf. also Oboz / Caftra, orum. Taworay Kariewiu SD³. Abazas is also translated by a descriptive explanation: Tabor žolnierski / Carago, onis. Karias wężymays aplinkuy apfijtatis SD³; cf. also J. Brodowski’s dictionary: Lager. Caftra. S zietras. Abazas. Karo wieta. Wieta apfijto jimo B, [Lager] schlagen abaza pamufßti / nustatyti B; cf. also Heereskraft Waiſkas, Abazas, Zalneru Pulkai B. Vaiskas (Polish wojsko ‘army’): Kriegesheer Waiſkas Lex, KriegesHeers, Waiſkas, ô. M C II, [Heeres] Volck Žalneru Pulkai, tikkri Žalnerei Waiſkas B; alongside abazas ir vaiskas, the Germanism logeris, logoris (German Lager ‘camp’) is also used: Kriegs lager abazas, Logeris, rio. M. R, Kriegesheer Waiſkas, ko. M; Feldlager Logeris, rio, M. Kriegslager Abazas, Waiſkas, Logoris B, Abazas, zo M. è pol. M. A military unit is also generally called a pulku: Heer pulkas Lex, Heerscharen pulkai Lex, Parthey Pulkas Lex, Heer Pulkas Richt, [Heer]führer Wadas Pulko likewise, Heerscharen Pulkai likewise; Heerscharen Pulkai Q; Parthey Pulkas B. 30 4. Warrior, soldier, zalnierius For a person serving in the army, old writings attest to perhaps the greatest number of terms—both Lithuanian and borrowed—as well as their synonyms and variants. warrior alongside war may initially have been only an adjective, and only later come to mean “warrior” (Skardžius 1996: 61). The term warrior is found in 16th–17th-century writings, for example: And he sent his warriors and smote the robbers Jonas Bretkūnas and Baltramiejus Vilentas. Having gathered warriors against him, he took good vengeance on him for that affront K. Sirvydas’s Punktay Sakimu I 135; also in the writings of Simonas Daukantas and Simonas Stanevičius, and in Antanas Juška’s songs (see LKŽ V). However, the words warrior, soldier are absent from later 17th–18th-century lexicographic works—the borrowed Polish-derived equivalent soldier must have displaced them (the variant soldier is already found in the writings of M. Mažvydas and M. Daukša, and in other old sources). Even in 17th–18th-century dictionaries of Lithuania Minor, soldier could not displace the German Soldat3. The meaning ‘soldier’s pay’ is recorded in K. Sirvydas’s 1642 dictionary: żold / Stipendium. Payment given to soldiers SD3, cf. żoldowy / Stipendiarius. monetary SD3, as well as żoldūje / żoldnierską służę / żold wiodę Mereo, Milito. I wage war = iu for money SD3. Other names for a soldier are also motivated by this characteristic, for example: żoldak / see. żolnierz pieniężny. Soldier for money, żolnierz / Miles, Kariautojas, soldier SD3. Besides K. Sirvydas’s dictionaries, the Polish borrowing zalnierius is also used in the dictionaries of Lithuania Minor: Landsknecht zalnerus Lex, Kriegsknecht Zalnerus B, Kriegsknecht Zalnerus, eraus M. R, Kriegsvollck 3 German Soldat entered the lexicon in the sixteenth century from Italian soldato. Middle High German solt ‘pay, a soldier’s remuneration’ derives from Old French solt ‘gold coin’, which in turn comes from Medieval Latin solidus < Latin (nummus) solidus ‘pure (coin)’. Modern languages have words of this origin: French soldat, Spanish soldado, English soldier. In the dictionaries of Lithuania Minor, German Soldat corresponds to zalnierius, for example: Soldat zalnierus Lex, Zalnerus, eraus R, Soldat, Zalnerus, eraus M. German also has the derivative Söldner. Polish dictionaries also record the old practice of recruiting soldiers for monetary pay: Polish żold (< Czech żold ‘remuneration for a soldier performing compulsory military service’ < Italian soldo ‘an old, small Italian coin, 1/20 of a lira’; Dubisz 2003), hence Polish żolnierz. German Soldat was borrowed into Russian in the seventeenth century—солдат (from it comes the Slavic borrowing soldatos). 31 3 a l n i e r e y Lex, Kriegsleute Z a l n e r e i B, cf. Recruiting soldiers Werben Soldaten Samdyti Szelnerus Q. Zalnierius is a frequent Lithuanian synonym for more than one German term, for example: Krieger bellator Z a l n i e r e i R u b i k k a i K a r e i w y s K a r z y g i s B, Krieger Z a l n e r u s, e r a u s, M. K a r z y g y s, y g i o, M. K a r a u j a s partic. R u b b i n a s, n o, m. R, Kriegesmann Z a l n e r u s, e r a u s, K a r e i w i s, w j o, K a r z y g y s, g i o, M. The Polish borrowing zalnierius corresponds to the first component of German compounds, Krieg, for example: Kriegszeug z a l n i e r u r i k a i Lex, [Kriegsleute] at sea Z a l n e r e i a n t J u r u B, [Kriegsleute] print Z a l n e r u s a i d e k a w o t i B, [Kriegsleute] recruit [z a l n e r u s] r i n k t i, w e r b o t i4. Another Slavic borrowing is rubikas: Plünderer r u b b i k a s Lex, Plunderer R u b i k k a s, o. M. ka, os F C III, cf. Plunderung r u b b a Lex, Krieger bellator Zalnerei R u b i k k a s Kareiwis Karzygis B, cf. rubytì-plündern r u b b i t i, to plunder Lex, cf. also r u b a u n i n k a s ‘robber’ (Polish rubownik). It is worth considering whether the surnames of modern Lithuanian, Rùbikas, Rubìkas, might derive from the latter term (for the origin of the surnames mentioned, see LPŽ 1989). 5. Various names for a soldier The most widespread specialized term in old writings for a person serving in the army is pėstininkas: Fußvolck p e f t i n i n k a s Lex, Fußvolck Pe f t i n i n k a i, ku, m. pl. R, B, Hayduk Pedes, p e f t i n i n k a s SD³, [Fuß] Knecht Pe f t i n i n k a s, o. M, [Fuß] Gänger U z n o k s t a w e k a i p Pe f t i n i n k a Fugbgänger: C II, Fußgänger zu Fuß Pe f t i n i n k s B, Fußvolck Pe f t i n i n k a i B, Fußgänger Musqvetirer. Pe f t i n i n k a s, ko, m. M irkt. K. Sirvydas’s dictionaries, in addition to the term kareivis (Walecznyk / woien- mentioned above, 4 Since, as mentioned, soldiers were then hired, their service lasted many years (if things went well in the war…), and in that time the soldier would also start a family. This is attested by the terms for a soldier’s wife: Soldatenweib Z a l n i e r k a, o s Lex, Soldatin Zalnierka, os R, Soldatin Zalnierka, os f M, Kriegerin K a r e i w j e n e B; compare also Dragonerfrau Dragunkà M. 32 nik. Bellator, pugnator. K a r i e y w i s SD3), also gives several other names—kariauninkas: Rycerski człowiek / Equestris ordinis homo. K a r i a u n i k a s SD3, Waleczny / Bellicosus, pugnax. K a r i a u n i k a s SD3, Jancarowie / Triarij Turcarum. K a r i a u n i k a y T u r k u SD3, Leža žolnierjka zimna / Hyberna, orum. hyemalia. ž i e m a g u o l i s / ž i e m a g u l t a s k a r i a u n i k u SD3; kariautojas: žolnierz / Miles. K a r i a u t o j a s / k a r i e y w i s SD3, walecznik / prealiator, bellator. k a r i a u t o j a s SD1; Kirišnik / Cathaphractus, loricatus, […] G i e l a ž i n i n k a s k a r i a u t o i a s SD3; kazokas: žolnierz lekky/kozak. Veles itis; miles leuis armaturae. K a z a k a s SD3. Among the less common names for a soldier, the Lithuanian S a n - K a r a w i s, w j o e i n Mitgenoβ H, ein Mitstreiter S a n k a r a w i s, w j o, M. R should be mentioned; compare also Draug=Karaujas, janžio ein Mitstreiter, G. Maſc., janti, žios foem H. Loanwords are recorded much more abundantly: drobas: Drab maſc. et drabant / ex germ. pedescalo fatelles, ſtipator, ſpiculator. drobas SD1; dragūnas: Dragonner dragunas Lex; Dragoner Dragun’s, no, m M, Draguner dragun’s, ô M C I, Dragouner Dragun’s B. The latter is explained as an ancient infantryman, later a lightly armed mounted soldier, who bore a distinguishing mark—a cloak bearing the image of a dragon (for the origin, compare French dragon ‘dragon’ < Latin draco, onis ‘dragon, serpent’); ei-dukas: Wybrantz. Puczkininkas, E i d u k k a s, ô. M. C IV, Wybrantz E i d u k a s Putzkininks. Wybrancas Q (< Polish hayduk < Hungarian hajdu ‘guard, shepherd’; from the 16th century this was the name for Hungarian mercenary soldiers); pučkininkas: Wybrantz P u c z k i n i n k a s. E i d u k k a s, o. M C IV, compare Džialo / machina, tormentum, pucźka SD1, Büchse putczka Lex; ručinykinykas: Muszkietnicy / Fistulatores. Szauditoiay ruciniknikay SD3, compare rušnica, bombarda, tormentum ruciničia ‘firearm’ SD1; striel-čius: Schütze S t r e l c z u s Lex, Schütz S t r e l c z u s Q; šarvininkas: Kurijbirer S ӡ a r w i n i n k a s, ô, M. C II, compare Kurijb Sӡarwas, ó. M. C II, also rynſlunek / ex germ. apparatus, szarway SD1; wybrancas: Wybrantz. Eidukas, Putczkininks W y b r a n z a s Q ‘recruit’, compare Polish wybraniec / wybrańcy / Delecti viri, Iβ r i n k t i n i s SD3. 33 6. Changes in the meanings of terms From the meanings of the terms Warrior Ka z i g i s (=war – V. D.) Lex, armed man Kar ž y g i s Richt, Armed man K a r z y g y s (y corrected from i – V. D.) Q, it can be seen that warrior formerly (in 17th–18th-century writings from Lithuania Minor) had the broadest meaning, namely that of a soldier; regarding the second component, compare march (Gang e j i m a s, z y g i s Lex, journey kellone, kellawimas, z y g i s Lex), thus warrior “one who marches, goes to war.” However, somewhat later, in 18th-century dictionaries, we also find a changed meaning of the term warrior: warrior corresponds to German hero, knight (incidentally, the latter previously had no Lithuanian equivalent: knight rycerus Lex, hero K a r z y g i s R i c z i e r u s Richt; hero K a r z y g i s R y c z i e r u s Q, hero K a r z i g y s R y c e r u s (illustrated from the Bible) B; [Commander]Leader Karžigis Generōlus B. Thus warrior gradually acquires its present-day meaning, “a brave person, hero.” The meaning ‘man of war, warrior; soldier’ for Karininkas, karin y kas is already found in the writings of J. Bretkūnas (LKŽ V). Karininkas is a military term that has prompted much discussion because of its broad range of meaning. Although Jonas Jablonskis as early as 1911 proposed using karininką, karo žmogų ‘man of war’ instead of kariškio, and Juozas Balčikonis proposed the loanword apicieras (Balčikonis 1978: 146–147), according to Pranas Skardžius karys gradually became established in place of kariškio, while karininkas acquired the meaning ‘officer’ (Skardžius 1996: 142, 589, 603). Today karininkas is defined as ‘a member of the commanding personnel of the army or police’, while its second meaning is the obsolete karys3. A further example of semantic change is the term pulkininkas. Richter’s dictionary gives a different form of it, pulk auninkas: [Partey] Gänger P u l k a u n i n k a s Richt; compare Polish potkownik, and also [Partey] Gänger P u l k i n i n k a s B (that is, a soldier belonging to a pulkas, a small fighting unit), P u l k a u n i n k a s, k o der Oberste, der Hauptmann H, P u l k a u n i n k a s, k o, M. ein Hauptmann ziemlich obsol. M. Already in K. Sirvydas’s dictionaries, pulkininkas is used with its current meaning: Rotmijfrz / centurio, […] šimt i n i n k a s, p u l k i n i k a s SD¹; Potkownik / Chiliarcha, tribunus militum, legionarius, centurio, p u l k i n i k a s3. 34 7. Names of military ranks The sources under review contain a considerable number of terms denoting ranks in the military hierarchy and military positions: officer: Officierer appicierus Lex, Officierer Appicierus, aus. M C III, Apicerus, eraus, m. ein Offizier R, Officierer Apicer’s B; desetkininkas (commander of ten): Rott Meister Desetkininkas, Karprolus B; etmonas, hetmonas, hetmanas: Feld=Herr Etmon’s, ó. M. C II, Feldherr hettmons Lex, Feld=Herr Etmon’s, ó. M. C II, [Feld]Marſchall Etmon’s, ó. M. ibid., Feldherr Etmonas Q; cf. Hetman / from German […] hetmanas ‘commander of the army’ SD¹; general: General generolas Lex, General. Generolus C II, General, Generolas, lo, m R, General, Generolus, laus M, General, Generolus (added: der General Feldherr) B; captain: Kapitan / see Rotmisftrz / porucznik / Hetman. Kapitonas SD³, Capitein Kapteinis Lex, Capitain. Kapteinis, io. M C I, Capitain, Hauptmann, Kapteinis, nio, m. Szimtininkas, ko. M. R, Hauptmann, Capitain, Kapteinis, nio. Szimtininkas, ko, Wyreſnis ant Zalneriu R, Capitain Kapteinis B, [Haupt] Ambts Pillonis, Szimtininķ’s, Pulkawnink’s. Kaptainis Capitain B; karprolius: Corporal Karprolus Lex, Rottmeister Karprolus Lex, Corporal Karprolus Richt, Rott Meister Desetkininkas, Karprolus B; ensign: Fähnrich Karunininkas Lex, Fähnrich Karunininkas, o. M. C II, Fähnrich Karunininkas, ko. M. R, Karunininks, ko, ein Fähnrich, Fahnenjunker R, Fähnrich Karunininkas Q, Fähnreich Karuninink’s B, Cornett Carunininkas Richt, Raitelis Karunininkas, ko, m M, also cf. chorąžý / jgnifer, vexillifer, karužafis SD¹; lieutenant: Leutenant leitmonas Lex, Leutenant Leutmonas, o. M. Paruczininkas C II, Lieutenant. Leutmon’s. Paruczinink’s a Pol. Porucznik B, cf. K. Sirvydo porucznik / Subcenturio, vicarius centurionis. Wietinikas šimtininko SD³; 35 major: Major, Majoras, joro. M. R, Major, Majoras, joro, m. M, Major Major’s, Bajoras B. 8. Names of weapons The sources examined contain many names of weapons. The 16th–18th centuries were a period in the development of military technology when cold weapons were still in use, but firearms using gunpowder had also appeared (Harding 2000). Therefore, here we will survey the names of weapons and their parts, as well as of equipment. First, the weapon itself should be mentioned: weapon / armour Arma, armatura Weapon / Szarwas3 (thus weapon and armour are synonyms, cf. Deka / pugio, sica. weapon SD1), Gewehr weapon, Schützwehre weapon Lex, Waffen weapon, Wehr und Waffen weapon Lex. In J. Brodovskis’s dictionary we also find a fly deterrent, cf. [Fliegen] Platz, Wedel. Muſſu baidoma szlutele ſ. Ginklas. Baidyklė B. The aforementioned German Gewehr has three equivalents in J. Brodovskis’s dictionary: Gewehr Weapon Plinta Puczka B. In P. Ruigys’s dictionary, Weapon, klo, m. in German Wehr oder Waffen. In the dictionaries of P. Ruigys and K. Milkus, the plural form of the term is found: Gewehr Weapons, lu, m. pl. R, Weapons, lu, m. die Waffen M, Gewehr Weapons, lu, m. pl. M. Cold weapons known since antiquity are further divided into missile, thrusting, and striking weapons. Among missile weapons, the names most commonly found are crossbow: Flitschbogen Crossbow Lex, Flitsch=Bogen Kilpinnis, io. M. Temptywa, os C II, Köcher. Seidókas, ó. M. Crossbow, iô. F C II, Kuſa / arcus, baliſta, ſcorpio, catapulta crossbow SD1, Łuk / Arcus Crossbow SD1, Łuk / Arcus Crossbow SD3; quiver: Köcher quiver Lex, Köcher. Seidokas, o. M. Kilpinnis, io. F C II, Köcher, Seidokas, o Detuwe Wylicziu M (Polish sajdak, Belarusian caùdak). Among the names of thrusting weapons, the following are most commonly found: halberd: Halabarda / ex ger. bipennis, securis Romana. Amazonia. halberd SD1 [halberd is also rendered in Lithuanian as: Bardył]. Lunata securis. hafta falcata. Dolgiakinwis SD3, Halabart / Bipennis, amazonia securis. Kirwis dalginis SD3, cf. also Halabartnik. Satelles, securifer. apparitor, ſtipator. Kirwelnikas kieno pas ij ſtowis SD3], bardish: Hellepart 36 bartiβus Lex, Hellepart, B a r t i β u s, aus. M. C II, Hellepart B a r t i β u s Richt, Helepart B a r t i s z k u s Q; see also Partisan bartiβus Lex, Partisan B a r t i β u s, ßaus. M. C III, Partisan B a r t i β u s, Drauczius B, Partisan B a r t i β u s, ßaus R, Partisan B a r t i β u s, ßaus M, Partisan B a r t i β u s Richt (from Polish bardyß, Belarusian бердыш). Here we have an interesting case of a German military term and its Lithuanian equivalent. Partisan – bartiβus may have arisen from the similar sound of the beginnings of the German and Lithuanian words: part- – bart-; spear-bearer: Kopya / hasta driaučius SD¹, kopiynik / haflatus, fudriaučium SD¹, Kopija žolnierfka. Hafta, fariffa, contus. Draučius SD³; compare Kopiynik / Haftatus, phalanx. Draučinikas SD³, Kopiynik / co kopije robi. Haftarum artifex Draučiadavlis / see Ratadadvilis SD³; draučia: spear Drauczia, os. F. Ragotinė, es. F C III, compare Lantze. Ragotine. Kopija. Drauczia. Wyliczia. Ragotinele B (Polish drzewce, Belarusian дрэвец); sword: Schlachtmeßer K a l a w i j a s Lex, miecz / gladius, enfis, k a l a w i i a s / mečius SD¹ (compare miecznik / macheropoeus, kalawijodaris SD¹) Tafak / Semifpatha K a l a w i j a s trūpas platus SD³, fztych w miecza / Mucro gladii. Wirfune K a l a w i = io SD³; sword: Degen K a r d a s Lex, Handdegen K a r d a s Lex, Degen. K a r d a s, o. M. Spogas C I, Degen K a r d a s Richt, Degen K a r d a s, do. M. R, compare Degenhenk Kardo = belt, Kard = Nebys M, Degelein Kardelis, elio M (Belarusian kopd, Polish kord); battle-axe: czekan / coestus, k i l i e p a s SD¹, kilof / caestus claua, kikupas (= kilupas) “an old-fashioned weapon—a small axe and hammer on a long handle” SD¹; spear: Darda / hasta, lancea. r a g a t i n e SD¹, Obcžep / hasta, venabulum r a g a t i n e SD¹ (compare obcžepifko / hastile hastae. r a g a t i - n e k o t i s SD¹), Jägerspieß r a g o t i n n e Lex, Speer r a g o t i n e Lex, Spieß r a g o t i n e Lex, Spieß R a g ó t i n e, es, F C II, Speer Drauczia, os F. R a g o t i n e, es. F C III, Spieß R a g o t i n e, es. F. leßunas, o, M. C II, R a g ó t i n e, es, ein Speer H, Lanze R a g o t i n e, es, f. R, Spieß R a g o t i n e, es, F. leßmas, o. M. ppr (literally “straight” – V. D.) Brant Spieß C III, R a g o t i n e, n e s, ein Speer H, Spieß R a g o t i n e, es. F. R, Lantze. R a g ó t i n e. Kopija. Drauczia. Wyliczia. R a g o t i n e l e B (Belarusian рагачына); 37 sword: Schlachtschwerd m e c z u s Lex, [Schlacht] Schwerd M e c z u s, aus, M C III, miecz / gladius, ensis, kalawias/ m è c i u s SD¹ (Belarusian мечь, Polish miecz); sabre: Sebel s z o b l e Lex, Sebel S z o b l i s, lio. M. S z o b l è, es. F. C III, Sebel S z ó b l e, les, f. R (Belarusian шабля, Polish szabla). An ancient thrusting weapon with a long blade and covered hilt, a small dagger in old dictionaries is spoda, špoda, spogas: Rapier S z p o d a Lex, Stillet s p o d a Lex, Stoßdegen S z p a d a in the same place, Stillet Spoda, os. F. S p o g a s, o. M C IV (Polish szpada), and Rappier s p ó-gas, o. C III, Degen Kardas, do. M S p o g a s C III, Stillet S p o d a, os. F. S p o g a s, o. M. C IV (Russian unaa?). 9. Names of firearms and their parts In Europe, gunpowder began to be used in the 16th century. The borrowing from Belarusian порох, Lithuanian parakas, is already attested in 17th-century texts (Sabaliauskas 1990: 249). Names for gunpowder firearms are also found from that period: carbine: Carrabiener K a r r a b i n a s Lex, Carabiner K a r a b i n a s, o. C I, Carabiner K a r a b i n n a s Richt, Carabiner Karabin’s B (French carabine ‘cavalryman’s rifle’, cf. Italian carabina, hence carabiniere ‘modern Italian police’); pistol: Holffter ulffteris makßtis pjſtūlu p u l l o k u Lex, Faufroh­r p u l o k a s Lex, Pijſtoll p u l l o k a s Lex, Faust Rohr P u l l ó k a s, o. M. Dimin: P u l l o k e l i s C II, [Faust] rohr P u l l o k a s Richt, Pistolle P u l l o k a s, o. M. C III, Pistole P u l l o k a s Richt (Samogitian pulhak); cannon: Dźialo / machina, tormentum, p u c ž k a SD¹, Dźialo. Bombarda fulminea, tormentum. p u c ž k a SD³, Moźdzerz wojenny / Tubus aeneus bellicus. p u c ž k a k a r i e y w i n e SD³ (cf. also puſzkarz / faber tormentarius. puczkorus SD¹; Puſzkarz co rychtiue strzelbę / Librator, puczkſzaudis SD³), Büchse p u t c ž k a Lex, Musquet p u t β k a Lex, Büchse. P u c ž k a, os. F. P u c ž k a g w i n t a w o t a, ein gezogen Rohr C I, Muβavet P u c ž k a, ôs. F; Lohf einer Büchse. Wamzdis P u c ž k o s C II, Muβavet. Pucżka, ôs. F C III, Büchse P u c ž k a Richt, Büchse so gezogen Gwintawota Richt (German Büchse ‘hunting rifle’, hence Polish puszka, Belarusian пушка, cf. Lithuanian buks(v)a ‘sleeve’). J. Brodovskis’s dictionary provides many terms denoting the component parts of this artillery weapon and its use, e.g.: 38 its parts and use, e.g.: der Hahn Gaidys, das Schloß Spinna, der Schafft Lazza, Büchfe laden Užkrauti Puczka, [Büchfen]Stein Puczkos Akmū and so on; bomb: Bombe, Bumbe, és f. Diddéji geležinne kulka R; bullet: Kula/ex germ. glans, globus. item malleus ligneus, item Scipia kulka SD¹, Kula / Globus, Kulka SD³, Kula do cifkania / Glans, plumbea, ae. Kulka SD³, Bleykugel Kulka Lex, Bley-Kugel Kulka, os. F. C I, Kugelkau (?) Kulka Lex, Kugel Kule, es. F. Kulka, os. F. Kugel Kulka Lex, Kögel J. Kegal Kegelgekugel, Kulka, kos. f. M (Polish kulka, Belarusian кулька < cf. German küle ‘sphere’ Sabaliauskas 1990: 248); powder measure: Patron tasch mierka gen os Lex, Patron=Tasch Mierka, os. F C II (Belarusian мерка); armor: Panzer pancierus Lex, Pancerus, raus ein Pantzer 4 decl. gen. masc. H (Polish panzerz < German Panzer); powder flask, powder horn: prochownica / theca pulveraria parakaunyčia SD¹, Prochownica / Theca pulveris nitrosi parakaunyčia SD³, Pulverhorn paraknycze Lex, Pulver=Horn. Paraknyczia, os. F C III (Belarusian напахния); arrow: Strzala / telum, sagitta, wilicia / strela SD¹, Flitschpfeil strela Lex, Pfeil Strela, wyliczia Lex, [Flitsch] Pfeil Strela, ós. C II, Pfeil. Strěla, ós. F. Wylyczia, ós. F C III; helmet: Helm Sʒalmas Lex, Helm Schalmas, o. M. C II (probably from Old Russian, see Sabaliauskas 1990: 251); shot: śrot do strzelby/ Miſſilia minuta bombardaru. śratas SD³; bowstring: Sehne temptywa Lex; concerning the origin of temptywa, cf. ciąćiwa / nervus, chorda, fides. tętiwa SD¹; cf. also Seh̆ne Gyſla, os C III; arrow: Strala / telum, sagitta, wilicia / strela SD¹, Pfeil wyliczia Lex, Pfeil. Strěla, ós F. Wylyczia, ós F C III, Pfeil. Wylicia, cios. F. Strěla, ós F. Strėlas, lo R, cf. Pfeil mit Widerhacken Strela su Barzda R (Belarusian билица). 10. Conclusions A preliminary overview of the extensive material on military terminology from the period of the Old Lithuanian written language allows us to draw several broader conclusions, as well as a number of substantive ones. 39 Old military terms reach back to the distant past and also reflect the wars of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Prussia with other countries. Military personnel and weaponry were designated by specialized terms, often derived from Western European languages. Military terms are of varying age: the oldest were inherited from the Proto-Indo-European (karas) and Proto-Baltic (kalavijas) languages, while newer terms are both native and borrowed. Lithuanian terms make up the smaller share. Among borrowed terms, Slavicisms are used more frequently (also, incidentally, in sources from Lithuania Minor, at least the earlier ones), with Germanisms somewhat less common. A comparison of the meanings of old military terms with those used in contemporary Lithuanian clearly illustrates semantic processes: more than one term (karininkas, karžygys, pulkininkas) has acquired a new meaning. It is important to continue research into military terminology. This would reveal not only its history, but perhaps also make clearer the origins, formation, and semantic development of military terms in contemporary Lithuanian. ŠALTINIAI B – (Lexicon Germanico=Lithvanicvm et Lithvanico=Germanicvm… von Iacobo Brodowskij (~ 1740, rankraštis Lietuvos mokslų akademijos bibliotekoje). C – Clavis Germanico-Lithvana (faksimilinis leidimas). Rankraštinis XVII a. vokiečių-lietuvių kalbų žodynas, I–IV. Parengė V. Drotvinas, Vilnius, 1995–1997. H – Vocavblarivm Litthvanico-Germanicvm et Germanico-Litthvanicvm… von Friedrich Wilhelm Haack […], Halle, 1730. Lex – Lexicon Lithuanicum (faksimilinis leidimas). Rankraštinis XVII a. vokiečių-lietuvių kalbų žodynas. Parengė V. Drotvinas, Vilnius, 1987. LKŽ – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 1–20, Vilnius, 1941–2002. M – Littaujfch=deutſches und Deutſch=littaujfches Wörter=Buch… von Chriſtian Gottlieb Mielcke… Königsberg, 1800. Q – Vokiečių-lietuvių kalbų žodynas (XVIII a. rankraštis, saugomas Lietuvių kalbos instituto bibliotekoje). R – Littaujfch=Deutſches und Deutſch=Littaujfches Lexicon… von Philipp Ruhig… Königsberg, 1747. Richt – [Johannas Richteris?] Vokiečių–lietuvių kalbų žodynas, Halle, 1728 (rankraštis Hallės-Wittenbergo Martino Lutherio universiteto Frankės fundacijos bibliotekoje). SD¹ – Senasis Konstantino Sirvydo žodynas (fotografuotinis leidimas). Parengė K. Pakalka, Vilnius, 1997. SD³ – Pirmasis lietuvių kalbos žodynas: Konstantinas Širvydas, Dictionarium trium linguarum (fotografuotinis leidimas). Parengė K. Pakalka, Vilnius, 1979. 40 LITERATŪRA Balčikonis J. 1978: Dėl naujosios karininko reikšmės. – Rinktiniai raštai 1, Vilnius, 146–147. Dubisz St. 2003: Uniwersalny słownik języka polskiego 5, pod redakcją prof. Stanisława Dubisza, Warszawa. Harding D. 2000: Waffen Enzyklopädie. 7000 Jahre Waffengeschichte, Berlin. LPŽ 1989: Lietuvių pavardžių žodynas 2. Ats red. A. Vanagas, Vilnius. Mažiulis V. 1993: Prūsų kalbos etimologinis žodynas 2, Vilnius. Palionis J. 1967: Lietuvių literatūrinė kalba XVI–XVII a., Vilnius. Palionis J. 1995: Lietuvių rašomosios kalbos istorija, II pap. leid., Vilnius. Palionis J. 2004: XVI–XVII a. lietuviškų raštų atrankinis žodynas, Vilnius. Sabaliauskas A. 1990: Lietuvių kalbos leksika, Vilnius. Skardžius P. 1996: Lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryba (fotografuotinis leidinys). – Rinktiniai raštai 1, Vilnius. Smetona A. 1995: Karybos žodynas, Vilnius. Zinkevičius Z. 1990: Lietuvių kalbos istorija 4, Vilnius. FROM THE HISTORY OF MILITARY TERMS Summary A preliminary overview of the abundant material of military terms from the earlier period of the written Lithuanian language allows some general conclusions and a few specific conclusions to be drawn on the subject. Old military terms reach a distant past and reflect the wars of the Grand Duchy of Lithuanian and Prussia with other countries. Military men and weaponry were named using special terms, which were quite frequently coming from Western European languages. Military terms are of a different age: the oldest are inherited from Indo-European (karas (war)) and Baltic parent language (kalavijas (sword)), the newer ones are not only own, but also borrowed terms. Lithuanian terms make a smaller part. Slavonicisms are more frequent borrowings (talking of which, they are also more frequent in sources from Lithuania Minor, at least from the earlier period), Germanisms are slightly less frequent. The comparison of the meanings of old and currently used military terms obviously illustrates semantic changes: not one term (karininkas (officer), karžygys (warrior), pulkininkas (colonel)) has gained a new meaning. It is topical to continue the research of military terms. That would reveal not only their history, but probably it could make the origin, word-formation and meaning development of modern Lithuanian military terms clearer. Vincentas DROTVINAS Gauta 2005-09-08 Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas T. Ševčenkos g. 31, LT-03111 Vilnius E. paštas drot���[email protected] 41