Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antikizmai, istorizmai ir modernizmai – anachronizmai

From the History of Sports Terminology: Archaisms, Historicisms, and Modernisms—Anachronisms JONAS KLIMAVIČIUS The history of sport is as old as the history of culture, art, science, or warfare. Athletics, which in ancient Greece was immortalized even in the reckoning of years, eventually degenerated and disappeared with the fall of Rome, but was reborn at the dawn of modern times and flourishes again (and is already somewhat degenerate once more) alongside sport, the modern European creation of physical culture. Eastern martial sports are also spreading rapidly throughout the world. The history of sports terminology follows this changeable history like a shadow. In Lithuania, we have a concise—catch-up—version of the history of sport and its terminology. Still, it is not a bad version. Thanks largely to the efforts of the linguist Pranas Skardžius (Skardžius 1936¹: 104–106, Skardžius 1936²: 100), as well as Julius Smetona (Smetona 1936: 666–667), foreign basketball and football terms had already been successfully Lithuanianized by 1936; a little earlier, ritinis, ritmuša (Labokas 1933: 46) had been introduced, and a little later, tinklinis, or orinis (Kusa 1938: 98). Among Lithuanian terminologies, sports terminology is both relatively early in establishing its terminographic standard (the Lithuanian–Russian Dictionary of Sports Terms, responsible editor V. Steponaitis, 1959, 340 pp.) and already broad in its subject matter (the Lithuanian–English–German–Russian explanatory Dictionary of Sports Terms, vol. 1, compiled by Stanislovas Stonkus, ed. Genovaitė Irtmonienė, 1996, 680 pp.; 2nd revised and expanded ed., 2002, 740 pp.), and it is continuing to expand (vol. 2 will cover the terminology of sports disciplines). IN OLYMPIA—THE GAMES OF ALL THE GREEKS The first Lithuanian steps into the sporting past lie shrouded in obscurity. They were hesitant and haphazard, often taken by non-specialists, let alone terminologists. In his 1935 book Gods and Little Idols, the cultured Lithuanian publicist and essayist (first and foremost a poet, but not only) Jonas Kossu-Aleksandravičius, mentioning a soldier “who, wounded, ran from Marathon to Athens with his weapons,” writes: They say that even the Spartans—the gymnasts at the Olympic Games—could not beat that soldier’s record (Aistis 1991: 164). In 1936—the year of the great Berlin Olympics—the first large Dictionary of Foreign Words (about 22,000 words, 1,064 pp.) gives agonai— 116 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antikizmai... “contests at the Olympic Games,” but its main entry gives not Olympia, but the Games of Olympus—“national games of the ancient Greeks; sport in honor of Zeus,” although right there Olympus is defined as 1. “a mountain in Greece, the dwelling place of the ancient Greek gods,” and 2. literary Olympus—“the pinnacle of honor for recognized poets and writers; a circle or society of such writers” (TŽŽ 1936). The same thing happened later, too. For example: For the French, a ball, a gathering—that was the same as a square or the Olympic Games for the Greeks (Bielinskis 1948: 55). When Zigmas Kuzmickis translates like this and Dominykas Urbas edits it, what can one expect? The same is true even of fairly scholarly lexicography: olimpinis, olimpiškas—1. “relating to Olympus,” 2. * “grand”; olimpiniai žaidimai—a) “national festivals of the ancient Greeks in honor of Zeus, held once every 4 years at O l y m p i a (Peloponnese); <...>”; olimpiada—1. “in ancient Greece, a four-year period between two celebrations of the Olympic Games, <...>” (TŽŽ 1951); likewise olimpiniai žaidimai—a) “ancient Greek <...>” (TŽŽ 1969); olimpiada—1. “a four-year period between two ancient Greek Olympic Games” (TŽŽ 1985); even olimpinis—1. “relating to O l y m p u s, e.g., the Olympic Games, although olimpiada—1. “the ancient Greek sports games in honor of the god Zeus, held in the city of O l y m p i a every four years from 776 BCE to 394 CE; they were discontinued by the Roman emperor Theodosius (Theodosijus; 379–395),” but they are the Olympic Games and 2. “a four-year period in A n c i e n t G r e e c e between the O l y m p i c G a m e s, as a unit of time reckoning” (TŽŽ II 2000); olimpiada—1. “a four-year period between two O l y m p i c G a m e s of the a n c i e n t G r e e k s,” although olimpinis—1. “relating to O l y m p u s” (2. * “grand”) (TŽŽ 2001); olimpionikas—“in A n c i e n t G r e e c e: a winner of the O l y m p i c G a m e s” (TŽŽ II 2000; also TŽŽ 2001). Thus, the confusion is old and persistent. And it is not confined to lexicography (although there it is inexcusable). Here, too, a teacher writes to pupils: “Three thousand years ago, the ancestors of today’s Greeks, the Hellenes, held the first Olympiad in the sunny land of Hellas. — — These competitions took place at the foot of Mount Olympus, and for that reason they came to be called Olympic” (Jarmala 1974: 4). After finding this long-standing error, one of the authors of Kalbos palapinės wrote: “Olympus has nothing to do with it. The pan-Greek sports games were held at the stadium in the city of Olympia. Mount Olympus is by the Gulf of Thessaloniki (the Aegean Sea), while Olympia is in the northwest of the Peloponnese, in the province of Elis. The only connection with Olympus here is that the games were held on feast days in honor of Zeus, the god of festivals, and that Zeus bore the epithet Olympian. Strictly speaking, linguistically, the ancient Greek (pan-Greek) Terminologija | 2009 | 16 117 the sports games should be called the Olympic Games of Olympia. Of course, this is a suggestion, not a reproach. It should only be added that for the present-day Olympiads, the flame is lit (with a concave mirror using the sun’s rays) at Olympia, not on Mount Olympus” (Klimavičius 1974: 3). So it is high time to become systematically acquainted with the already fairly long history of usage, the circumstances of usage and the causes of errors, the results of standardization, efforts to correct them, the reasons for noncompliance with norms and disregard for corrections, and, finally, to put an end to the inertia of irresponsible usage and unjustifiable errors. More than one persistent misuser invokes origin and antiquity, easily confuses the terms, and feels justified. What is needed now is not endless correction of errors, but at least a concise yet thorough explanation of the athletics of ancient Greece. It developed from cult rituals: “All Greek sporting contests were dedicated to some god. During festivals for the dead, chariot races and competitions for runners and wrestlers were held. In everyday life, the Greeks practiced ball games, swimming, dancing, hunting, rowing, and fencing. – – – They also played field hockey. Later, in Athens, gymnastics and music became equally important parts of education (…). – – – victors were venerated and rewarded, which encouraged athletes to become professionals; soon they came to predominate at the Olympic Games of Olympia and elsewhere” (AntŽ 1998: 471). This is one of the rare instances that is not erroneous – Olimpijos žaidynės. Therefore, it is worth discussing at some length Olimpiją (Greek Olympía), so that it is not confused with Olimpu. “Olympia was never a human settlement; it was not a polis. Gods lived there, and people came only when they wished to worship them” (SenGrK 2007: 248). One should guard against a possible error: it was priests who lived there, while the gods’ true abode was Olympus—an inaccessible mountain; therefore, they were worshipped in temples built in accessible places. In the most important part of Olympia—the Sacred Enclosure, surrounded by a stone wall and called the Altis (OS 2000 23 distinguishes Altijas)—for a long time there was only the temple of Hera (the Heraion). The Olympic Games of Olympia are recorded from 776 BC (and were undoubtedly even older), while it was only in the second quarter of the fifth century BC that the architect Libon built the temple of Zeus. It was adorned, among other things, with a sculptural group of Pelops and Oenomaus (whose funeral, it is said, was the occasion on which the former held the first games), and bas-reliefs depicting the labours of Heracles, who was said to have measured the stadion’s length—600 of his own feet—for the runners. In the temple stood a colossal statue of Zeus, created by the sculptor Phidias from gold (the Greeks had no gold mines of their own) and ivory (these animals were not found in Greece either)—one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Thus, chronologically, the connection between Olimpijos and Olimpijos žaidynių with Zeus Olim- 118 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antikizmai... piečių nėra, and, moreover, it would be illegal, since he was supreme everywhere, not only at Olympia: Olimpietis – Olimpo. There was also the temple of the Mother of the Gods (the Metroon), the sanctuary of Pelops, a statue of the goddess Nike, the council chambers (bouleuterion) of the games’ organizing council (the boule), a gymnasium, a stadium, the Leonidaion—a guesthouse for distinguished visitors (other spectators at the games slept outdoors)—and a host of statues of various gods and victors at the games. The Olympic Games of Olympia were held every four years, when the third full moon began after the summer solstice. This is thought to have marked the sacred marriage of the Sun and Moon. In 264 BC, Timaeus introduced the reckoning of Greek history in Olympiads—four-year periods. After the 15th Olympiad, in which Orsippus lost his loincloth while running, from 720 BC onward all athletes competed completely naked. Women were forbidden not only to compete but also to watch, on pain of death (the priestess of Demeter Chamyne, the ancient earth and death goddess, was an exception: she was required to watch from the other side of the stadium, seated on a white sacrificial stone). On one occasion, “a widow <...>, disguised as a man and posing as a trainer, accompanied her son, whom she herself had trained. When her son won an event, his mother gave herself away in her joy, but the council of Olympic judges, recognizing her devotion, pardoned her (...). From then on, trainers had to be naked while their athletes were competing” (SenGrK 2007: 247). It is thought that in later times girls may have been allowed to watch. Women could watch only girls’ competitions (for girls wearing a short chiton), which were dedicated to Hera (the Heraia). Boys’ competitions were held before the men’s. The claim by the splendid former champion Antanas Vaupšas that “both athletes and spectators were completely naked” (OP 2007 2 38) is a dream of a trip to Olympia... The era of the Olympic Games of Olympia lasted about 1,200 years. In 394, Emperor Theodosius I (who, incidentally, had been forced by Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, to submit to public ecclesiastical penance for the massacre of 7,000 rebels in Thessalonica) banned them as pagan (most of the statues were then smashed and toppled). In 426, by order of Theodosius II, Olympia was looted and burned, and earthquakes accompanied by landslides completed its ruin. In the 19th century, archaeologists began excavating the ruins beneath a layer of 3–5 metres of sand. This also aroused interest and prompted the idea of starting the modern Games. Sources of various dates and kinds in Lithuanian usage present an endless variety of names: The grove of Olympia, famous for its Olympic festivals, <...> SenGrI Terminologija | 2009 | 16 119 1955 7. <...> excavations were still being carried out at Olympia, where the pan-Greek Olympic Games were held in antiquity SenGrI 1955 41. The most famous was the Olympic festival, held at Olympia in honor of Olympian Zeus. The Olympic contests consisted of running, armed running, military wrestling, and combat. Later, poets began to participate in the Olympic Games. <...>, and orators, <...>. <...>. <...>. Tradition holds that the first Olympiad took place in 776. Later, the historian Timaeus began reckoning time by Olympiads. Every four years constituted one Olympiad (...) SenGrI 1955 175. [Timaeus] based his chronology on reckoning time by Olympiads, using lists of Olympic Games victors, <...> SenGrI 1955 29. The time of the Olympic festivals was a period of universal peace throughout Greece SenGrI 1955 239. The Olympic (=Olympian.) Pythian and Nemean contests SenGrI 1955 180. <...> universal festivals: Olympian, Isthmian, Nemean, Pythian, and others SenGrI 1955 239. At Delphi, the Pythian festivals were held in honor of Apollo, who had defeated the dragon Python. The Pythian festivals consisted of musical contests, later joined by gymnastic and athletic exercises SenGrI 1955 175. Nemean festivals SenGrI 1955 519, Pythian festivals SenGrI 1955 521, but Isthmian festivals SenGrI 1955 514 (Index). The Olympic Games held at Olympia (in the Peloponnese) were especially famous SenI II 1976 59, Olympic festivals SenI II 1976 109, but: The first recorded list of victors at Olympia (the first Olympiad) SenI II 1976 183. <...> author of victory odes for athletes who won at the games at Olympia and Delphi ŽAntŽm 1987 218, but Olympic festivals ŽAntŽm 1987 38, 215. Olympic contests Ist III 1995 268, Olympic festivals Ist III 1995 268, 269 (2x), Olympic program Ist III 1995 268. Olympic festivals SenGr 1995 6, 16, 18, 21, 60. National Games. The Greeks called them not games but agōnes, that is, contests, or simply “Olympian,” “Pythian,” and so on. The four great pan-Hellenic festivals were: the Olympiads (→ Olympic Games); the Pythian Games in honor of Apollo Pythios at Delphi; the Isthmian Games on the Isthmus of Corinth; and the Nemean Games in the valley of Nemea in Argolis. <...>. At Rome in AD 86, Emperor Domitian founded the Capitoline Games (or agon Capitolinus), athletic and intellectual contests that directly opposed the Olympic Games; however, they never attained the latter’s significance 120 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antikizmai... kuomet neigijo AntŽ 1998. Delfuose buvo <...> stadionas, <...>, nes čia buvo rengiamos p i t i n ė s ž a i d y n ė s AntŽ 1998 99. O l y m p i c c o n t e s t s, or O l y m p i a d s, took their name from the place where they were held—O l y m p i a SenGrK 2007 244. O l y m p i c c o m p e t i t i o n s took place every four years SenGrK 2007 245. <...> O l y m p i a d lasted five days SenGrK 2007 245. The council organizing the O l y m p i a d s met in the bouleuterion. Agias <...> won the pankration event at the O l y m p i c, P y t h i a n, a n d N e m e a n c o n t e s t s SenGrK 2007 231. At local festivals in the poleis, competitions were not held in all the events listed. Spectators saw the greatest variety of events at the Panhellenic contests, that is, the competitions of all Hellenes, wherever they lived. There were four: the P y t h i a n, I s t h m i a n, N e m e a n and O l y m p i c contests SenGrK 2007 243. P y t h i a n contests SenGrK 2007 154, 220, 223, 243. P y t h i a n horse-racing contests SenGrK 2007 231, 236. After declaring Christianity the sole religion of Rome, Emperor Theodosius banned the [Delphic] oracle, the worship of Apollo, and the P y t h i a n c o n t e s t s in AD 394 SenGrK 2007 236. Since ancient times, the I s t h m i a n c o n t e s t s dedicated to Poseidon had been held on the I s t h m u s of Corinth SenGrK 2007 243. The N e m e a n c o n t e s t s were held in Argolis, in the town of Nemea SenGrK 2007 244. The same applies in various translations of ancient literature and similar works, for example: O l y m p i c G a m e s Luk 1975 37, 73, 295, O l y m p i c G a m e s Luk 1975 250, winner at the O l y m p i c G a m e s Luk 1975 142, O l y m p i c g a m e s Luk 1975 285. O l y m p i c c o m p e t i t i o n s Luk 1975 29, 289, O l y m p i c v i c t o r y i n w r e s t l i n g a n d b o x i n g Luk 1975 62, Olympiad Luk 1975 260, Pindar’s O l y m p i c ode Luk 1975 282. I s t h m i a n w r e s t l i n g. O l y m p i c G a m e s were held not only in O l y m p i a, but also in many other places. The N e m e a n, D e l p h i c, a n d I s t h m i a n G a m e s were especially famous Hor 1977 250. For a ride around the circuit, s w e e p i n g d u s t a t t h e O l y m p i c G a m e s is a pleasure for many: <...> Hor 1977 39. <...> to chat about the O l y m p i c, N e m e a n, I s t h m i a n, a n d P y t h i a n G a m e s in Greece NieNe 1969 133. The same was true in sports literature, for example: The Olympiads of Ancient Greece AtM 1981 5, their homeland [Greece]—the birthplace of the Olympiads AtM 1981 7. The town of Olympia AtM 1981 7, but the Olympic Games, the Olympic Games of ancient times AtM 1981 8, the banning of the Olympic Games AtM 1981 11. Gerai išverstas (vert. D. Urbas, 1984) Jano Parandovskio (1895–1978) istorinės apysakos pavadinimas Olimpijos diskas (lenk. – Dysk Olimpijski), o LTE VIII 1981 (str. Janas Parandovskis) – Olimpinis diskas. Diskas čia ne metamas: „Žilos senovės žodžiai, skambą juo oriau iškilmingojo Olimpinio Terminologija | 2009 | 16 121 in the priest’s speech, <...> repeated the sacred covenant made at the dawn of time and inscribed on a bronze disk by three kings of history, whose origins were as legendary as history itself: Iphitus of Elis, Cleosthenes of Pisa, and Lycurgus of Sparta” (OD 1984 4). Yet the wording varies in the novella: winners of the Games of Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, and Isthmia OD 1984 236, Games of Olympia OD 1984 233, winner of the Games of Olympia OD 1984 233, winner of Olympia OD 1984 193, 226, Olympia stadium OD 1984 14, 59, Olympia olive oil OD 1984 261, Olympia measure of length OD 1984 29. In the explanatory notes: Olympian – winner of the Games of Olympia OD 1984 276 (also Olympiad OD 1984 7, 8, 16 (2x), 48, 50, 125, 148, 149, 158, 173, 188, 194, 205, 218, 258, 261, 269, 270 – only in the sense of the Games!), but Olympian affairs OD 1984 6, Olympian laws OD 1984 19, the discus’s Olympic weight OD 1984 42, Olympic foot OD 1984 54, Olympic rites OD 1984 121. In the explanatory notes: Pelops – regarded as the founder of the Olympic Games OD 1984 277, pentathlon, or five-event contest – a combination of five events at the Olympic Games OD 1984 277, spondophoros – announcing the Olympic Games was among their duties OD 1984 278, and also in the book’s colophon: Olympic Games OD 1984 280. There are also Pythian Games OD 1984 216, Pythian laurels OD 1984 20. In the explanatory notes: Pythian Games – after the Olympic Games, the most famous games of ancient Greece, <...> OD 1984 277 (but: Isthmus – <...>. <...>. A place of Poseidon’s cult. Games were held in honor of that god every four years, called the Isthmian Games OD 1984 275). It seems very simple: if the Games took place at Olympia, they were the Games of Olympia; if at Isthmia, the Games of Isthmia; if at Nemea, the Nemean Games. This is also what is established in the Dictionary of Sports Terms (compiled by Stanislovas Stonkus, 1996 and 2002): Games of Olympia – “ancient Greek festivities and athletic contests in honor of the god Zeus. — — Δ held every 4 years at Olympia. — —” STŽ 1996 and 2002; Isthmian Games STŽ 1996, Isthmian Games, also called Isthmiad STŽ 2002 (but Olympiad means only 1. “the four-year period between two ancient Greek Games of Olympia,” and 2. Δ Olympic Games STŽ 1996 and 2002), Nemean Games STŽ 1996 and 2002, as well as Roman and Capitoline Games STŽ 1996 and 2002. This is enshrined even in the title of Stanislovas Stonkus’s book Olympic Sport. Olympia and the Olympic Games (2000), and in its explicit statement: “The name of the Games of Olympia derives from the name of the place where they were held” (OS 2000: 25). This is also attested by Ancient Greek Ὀλύμπια – the Olympic games, or games in honour of Olympian Zeus (while the place is Ὀλυμπία) GrEnL 1968. It is unclear why the Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia has wavered on this point: antiquity 122 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antikizmai... Games – “ancient Greek and Roman (c. 8th century BC–4th century AD) celebrations of art and sport, held periodically in honor of gods and distinguished citizens, and on the occasion of various state events. In ancient Greece there were cultic games, commemorative games, ↗ Panathenaea, Panhellenic games (the 4 most important, recognized by all Greek city-states: ↗ Olympic Games – the most significant Δ, ↗ Pythian Games, ↗ Isthmian Games, ↗ Nemean Games), and frequent, less important regional games” VLE I 2001 (Stanislovas Stonkus); Olympic Games, Olympiad – 1. “ancient Greek celebrations and athletic contests in honor of the god Zeus” (and Olympia – “<...> the Olympic Games were held in honor of Zeus” ↗ Olympic Games 1” Nijolė Juchnevičienė), although definition 2 says that the “origins of the modern Games lie in the ancient Greek sports G a m e s o f O l y m p i a” VLE XVI 2009 (Stanislovas Stonkus). So why this inconsistency? The Nemean Games (also in honor of Zeus, and in Zeus’s grove!) VLE XVI 2009, VLE VII 2005 57 (the incorrect Nemean Games LA 1996 73 28), and the Isthmian Games (in honor of another Olympian, Poseidon) VLE VIII 2005, VLE VII 2005 57, are named by location, whereas the most significant Games—as if their name were somehow generic—are not called the Games of Olympia, but merely Olympic Games? Olympiad is treated inconsistently: it is equated with Olympic Games, Olympiad 1. “ancient Greek <...>” VLE XVI 2009, yet Olympiad (Greek Olympias, genitive Olympiados) is defined as 1. “<...> a four-year cycle between regularly held Panhellenic ↗ Olympic Games 1; 2. ‘a four-year cycle that begins on January 1 of the first year of each ↗ Olympic Games 2 (i.e. the modern Games – J. K.)’; and only 3. ↗ Olympic Games 2 VLE XVI 2009. But why not also ↗ Olympic Games 1? This is an incomprehensible, illogical contradiction. Greek ’ολυμπιάς, άδος – Olympiad – 1. “ancient Greek athletic Games in honor of the god Zeus, held in the city of Olympia <...>” TŽŽ II 2000. If, according to the g r a m m a r of other languages, the name of the ancient Games of Olympia does not differ from the name of the modern Olympic Games (with a clarifying qualifier perhaps added only to avoid ambiguity out of context – Olympic Games of Ancient Greece – Altgriechische Olympische Spiele – Олимпийские игры древности / Древней Греции STŽ 1996 / 2002), then Olympic Games – Olympische Spiele – Олимпийские игры, as a synonym for Olympiad – Olympia-de – олимпиада, means both sets of Games without any separate explanation, although sometimes it is explicitly distinguished: Olympiad – 1. “ancient Greek athletic Games in honor of Zeus, held in Olympia <...>; Olympic Games,” 2. “international sporting competitions organized since 1896 on the model of the ancient <...>; Olympic Games” SWO 1997. If an Olympiad were not the Games of Olympia, on what basis would it be Olympic Games?! Terminologija | 2009 | 16 123 The Games held at Delphi (in the region of Pytho, at the foot of Mount Parnassus) in honor of Apollo Pythios, that is, the victor over the dragon (or serpent) Python (a funeral rite for Python was performed during them) – Greek Pythia (athla) – are called various things in Lithuanian: simply the plural Pythia TŽŽ 1985, TŽŽ II 2000, TŽŽ 2001 (while the four-year cycles are Pythiads OS 2000 63), Dnvd 1995 43 12, even LoLieŽ 2007; Pythian Games TŽŽ 1985, TŽŽ 2001, AntŽ 1998 99, even LoLieŽ 2007; 2Pythia, ōrum (although Isthmia, ōrum – Isthmian Games), Pythian games OD 1984 277, Pythian contests HŠv 1994 88, Pythian contests SenGrK 2007 55, 56, 154, Pythian Games BM and RT 2000 109, and Pythian Games – Pythia Games – Pythia-Spiele – Питу̀щкие игры STŽ 1996 and 2002, and also VLE IV 2003 (entry Delphi), VLE VII 2005 57, VLE VIII 2005 (entry Isthmian Games). However, the priestess Pythia STŽ 1996 (actually pythia) has nothing to do with this, and the ancient name of Delphi, Pytho, is not Pythia STŽ 2002, but Pytho GrLieŽ 1979. These cult Games, held in honor of Apollo Pythios (not Pythian STŽ 2002), would therefore most accurately be called Pythian Games in Lithuanian. The four-year cycles began to be counted from 586 BC – Pythiads STŽ 1996 656 and 2002 718 would also be suitable names for these Games. The ludi Apollinares celebrated by the Romans, who adopted Apollo, should not be called Apollonian festivals in Lithuanian, as in AntŽ 1998 44: first, they were not festivals but games; second, they are simply Games of Apollo – like the Kristupas Summer Festival or the Jonas Jablonskis Conference. Pythian stadium is possible, AntŽ 1998 (entry stadium). But Pythian melody OD 1984 39 and Pythian ode SenGrK 2007 54 should be Pythian. Nenuosekliai padaryta ir LoLieŽ 2007: Nemeaeus adj. [Nemea] – Nemėjo (leo), Isthmius adj. [Isthmus] – Istmo, Isthmia, ōrum [Isthm(i)us] – Istmo žaidynės, bet, deja, 2Pythia, ōrum – pitijos, pitinės žaidynės ir Olympiacus, Olympicus, Olympius adj. – Olimpi(j)os, olimpin(is), 2Olympia, ōrum [Olympius] – olimpinės žaidynės, 1Olympia, ae – Olimpija, Dzeusui skirta vietovė Elidėje, kur kas ketveri metai būdavo rengiamos o l i m p i n ė s žaidynės, taip pat stadium – 1. satdijas (<...> 192 m – olimpinis stadijas). When even somewhat questionable usage appears in serious works, there is little point in dwelling at length on periodicals. Nevertheless, notable oddities and outright absurdities, both old and very recent, cannot be left unmentioned. For example: The huge <...> s t a t u e, m a d e of ivory, depicted t h e f o u n d e r a n d r u l e r o f t h e O l y m p i c G a m e s, Z e u s, s e a t e d o n a t h r o n e i n c r u s t e d w i t h g o l d a n d p r e c i o u s s t o n e s. <...>. <...>. This statue, <...>, was i n s t a l l e d i n A t h e n s. <...> a thunderbolt struck the O l y m p i c s t a t u e Šv 1980 14 23. Zeus is the ruler of the Olympic Games, and his statue is even called Olympic, but it was erected- 124 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antikizmai... …in Athens!.. Another person quarrels with chronology, culture, and grammar alike: It is believed that the first Games were held in 776 BC, back when Homer had not yet been born. <...>. <...>. Athletes trained in palaestras, in gymnasiums. — — — In 85 BC the Roman ruler Sulla ordered the Games to be transferred from Athens to Rome, <...>. — — — And in 393 AD the Roman emperor Theodosius I the Great prohibited the Olympiads. <...> Sav with TV 2004 33 10. Yet another writer makes a veritable jumble of errors in thought, facts, and language: According to another version, the organizer of the Olympic Games was not Zeus but his son Heracles, who could not tolerate insults. — — — Running, wrestling, and chariot racing were included in the compulsory program of the first Games. — — — The custom of admitting women to competitions [?] took hold — J. K. and <...>. At first the Olympic Games were held exclusively in Greece. They were later banned (...), and after some time were revived and spread throughout the world. <...>. <...>they are held every four years so that we can find out which inhabitant of Earth fights best, runs fastest, and jumps most nimbly. — — — The new Panathenaic Stadium was built on the site of the old stadium, — — — Sav with TV 2008 32 26. The poet Homer, too, fails to stay in his proper place and time: Homer the commentator. If we are to believe great Homer, the following types of sporting events were organized in ancient Greece: fights to first blood with a long spear, archery, discus throwing, javelin throwing, wrestling, running, and chariot racing Sav suTV 2008 32 26. The Byzantine (Middle Greek) forms Feodosijus (=Theodosius), Panafinai (=Panathenaea) and the Slavicism važnyčiotojas (=charioteer)float in a dreadful mire of cultural ignorance. In concluding this discussion of the ancient Greek Olympian Games, it must be emphasized: this is how Lithuanian grammar works. If other languages use an adjective or a prepositional construction in this or similar cases, we are not their slaves—after all, we do not say Moscowish (Московский) University, University in Kraków (W Krakowie), or at Berlin (zu Berlin). The adjectives here are also Greek Ὀλύμπιος and Latin Olympius. Lithuanian grammar is no worse than the grammar of any other language; adopting the patterns of other languages in place of our own would merely be an act of self-mockery. If this is done out of ignorance, one should accept the help of those who understand the matter—linguists. Lithuanian grammar is one and the same for everyone; there is no separate grammar for sport or anything else (motor vehicles, the oil industry, advertising,...). That would prevent errors such as these: Early in the morning <...> we were already in ancient Olympia. In 776 BC the first Olympic Terminologija | 2009 | 16 125 Games OP 2007 2 37. In 1901, from distant Ustyuzhna, Vincas Pietaris wrote to his nephew: mountain (i.e. zophū) institute, Academy medical, medical faculty, legal faculty, faculty mathematical and philological, technological institute. forest institute, Junkerska school, vajanua academy V.PietRR 1973 539–540. Lithuanian was in great distress then... But as early as 1935 Jonas Aleksandravičius wrote: Olympian Games. Seventy years later, a specialist in ancient culture makes a curious claim: The Olympic competitions, or Olympiads, took their name from the place where they were held—Olympia SenGrK 2007 244. In fact, in 776 BC the first Olympian Games were held. Olympian Games, even before they were banned, were fading: The 175th Olympic Games are called the Roman Games, <...> transferred from Olympia to Rome VLE I 2001 582. But their numbering—the 175th counted from the Olympian Games—is rather arbitrary, and they never took root in Rome. The Romans changed not only the location but also the name of the Games: instead of Greek ἄθλα and ἀγῶνες, they used Latin Ludi Romani: Latin ludi—first of all, “entertainments, games, jokes”; ludus—even “elementary school” LoLieŽ 2007 (as with Greek σχολή—“free time; release, freedom, rest; inactivity; idleness; slowness, delay; leisure activity; conversation among learned men, intellectual work; study, exercise, lecture; work, treatise; school” GrLieŽ 1979), although the Romans also borrowed Greek ἀγών—not only “contest; struggle, battle” (Agon Capitolinus—Capitoline Games STŽ 1996 and 2002), but—interestingly and significantly—first of all “gathering” GrLieŽ 1979. Olympic Games—a gathering of athletes and contests—were called Ὀλυμπιάς, ἀδος (and victory!) GrLieŽ 1979 by the Greeks themselves; only Latin olympias, -adis—an Olympiad—means “a four-year period between Olympiads,” while the Games were Olympia, -ōrum LoLieŽ 2007. We should adhere to the authentic Greek tradition and not spread the false idea that an Olympiad is only that four-year interval (which became a very important unit for counting years among the Greeks, but is insignificant in the modern era of the Olympic Games). MODERN—WORLDWIDE OLYMPIC GAMES The Olympian Games lasted almost exactly 1,200 years (incidentally, this is the lifespan of an ethnos as determined by Lev Gumilev). For almost as many years there was silence, until, toward the end of the Renaissance, in 1604, on R. Dover’s initiative, the English Olympic Games were held at Cotswold STŽ 1996, STŽ 2002 720—the The Cotswold Games OS 2000 70. Mention is made of the doctoral dissertation of the Englishman D. West (1703–1756) on the Olym- 126 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antibizmai... pijos žaidynių istorijos (OS 2000: 69), jų atgaivinimo mintį skelbė Johanas Bazedovas (1924–1790) ir Johanas Herderis (1744–1803), o moksliškai 1793 m. pagrindė J. K. F. Gutsas-Mutsas (OS 2000: 70). Panašių žaidynių vyko ir daugiau – iš viso 17, o paskutinės buvo 1892 m. Anglosaksų olimpiada, davusi pradžią Britų Sąjungos žaidynėms (OS 2000: 72). Jos visos „žadino mintį atgaivinti O l i m p i j o s ž a i d y n e s, davė gerų praktinių pamokų“, bet vis dėlto vadinamos pseudoolimpinėmis žaidynėmis STŽ 2002. Iš naujosios eros lyderių anglosaksų iniciatyva bandė susigrąžinti senosios eros viešpačių graikų nepriklausomybę atgavusi (1832) karta: „1859 m. graikų armijos majoras Evangelis Capas (E. Zappas OS 2000 71), <...>, organizavo P a n g r a i k i j o s „o l i m p i a d ą“ (AtM 1981: 11). Ir 1870, 1875, 1888, 1889 m. Atėnuose vyko Pangraikijos žaidynės, „kurių tikslas buvo atgaivinti senovės graikų O l i m p i j o s ž a i d y n e s“ (STŽ 1996 ir 2002). Vadinamojo atgaivinimo kryptį esmingai keitė ir įtvirtino prancūzų baronas Pjeras de Kubertenas (Pierre de Coubertin, 1863–1937), kai „Sorbonos universiteto salėje pasakė garsiąją frazę: – <...> o l i m p i n e s i d ė j a s reikia atkurti ne vienoje šalyje, bet tarptautiniu mastu“ (AtM 1981: 11). 1894 m. steigiamajame kongrese išrinktas Tarptautinis olimpinis komitetas (TOK), patvirtinta olimpinė chartija, numatyta 1896 m. Atėnuose surengti pasaulio olimpines žaidynes. Negalima tvirtai teigti, kad siekta a t g a i v i n t i Olimpijos žaidynes (kaip sakoma STŽ 1996 ir 2002) – tai buvo tik olimpinio sąjūdžio ir olimpizmo (labai tiksliai – neolimpizmo OS 2000 8) idealų pagrindas ir pavyzdys, netikslu sakyti, kad siekta atgaivinti olimpines idėjas AtM 1981 11 ir olimpines žaidynes VLE IV 2003 212 – tai buvo ne paprasta tąsa, o kūrybiška kaita ir plėtotė. Išradingai pasakyta: Senovės Graikijos o l i m p i a d ų i d ė j a s atgaivino ir pratęsė naujųjų laikų o l i m p i n ė s ž a i d y n ė s AtM 1981 5, 1896 m. įvyko A t ė n ų o l i m p i n ė s žaidynės – O l i m p i j o s ž a i d y n i ų dvasia, jų atminimui ir garbei, todėl olimpinėmis; bet Atėnų, o ne atėninės žaidynės. O pačiu oficialiausiu – Olimpinės chartijos – lygmeniu jos yra Olimpiados žaidynės OCH 1998 16 (Olimpias Games OS 2000 421), tik tas oficialumas viešumo labai retas. Whether from Olympia—the place in southwestern Greece where Zeus the Olympian was worshipped and where the Olympiad was held, in the northwest of the Peloponnese peninsula, in the valley of the Alpheios River near the Gulf of Kyparissia on the Ionian Sea—or from Olympus—the mountain abode of the gods in northeastern Greece near the Gulf of Therma on the Aegean Sea—the adjective denoting place, association, or origin is, unfortunately, the same: o l y m p i c (: Olympia and Olympus), as with Greek (walnut): Greece, Italian Terminologija | 2009 | 16 127 (trout): Italy, Sicilian (sumac): Sicily, French (rose): France, Spanish (goat): Spain, Austrian (mugwort, sage): Austria, Icelandic (lichen): Iceland, Greenlandic (whale, builis, gailis): Greenland, Indian (elephant, breadfruit, olas, rhinoceros, sesame): India, Bengali (ficus): Bengal, Chinese (perch, carnation, juniper, ash, ginseng): China, Ussurian (dog, water crowfoot): Ussuri, Japanese (willow, ginger, maple, larch, quince, rabbit): Japan, Australian (anchovy, perch, sprat, tuna): Australia, Malaysian (dolphin): Malaysia, Brazilian (fox, otter): Brazil, Colombian (chub): Colombia, Californian (iešmutis, jautryklis): California, Turkish (trout): Turkey, Arabian (acacia): Arabia, Syrian (hamster): Syria. Sometimes -ij- is retained to distinguish meanings (linijinis—“linear,” not lin inis; galvijinis—“cattle-related,” not galvinis), and sometimes simply by tradition—Asian (donkey, buffalo, shrew), -ė (pjuklažuvė, stinta): Asia; Caspian (kirtiklis, shlak), -ė (perpelė): Caspian Sea; Baltic (stoklė): Baltic Sea. There has never been, and never will be, an “Olympian” adjective in this sense. But the form makes it impossible to know whether an “Olympic” St John’s wort is characteristic of Olympia or Olympus. Forms in other languages have also become conflated: Russian олимпийский, Polish olimpijski, German olympisch, English olympic, French olympique, Italian olimpico, Spanish olimpico. The greatest problem with the adjective “Olympic” is not the uncertainty about the region of origin of some St John’s wort (one mullein is indeed said to come from Olympus—“Olympic,” LA 1996 239 17), but its grammar, for example: “Olympic (=of Olympus) gods” Č.KalDS 1981 17, VN 1984 127 3. Correct, but long ago amended by A. Pupkis: “Olympic (=Olympian) calm” MK 1985 2 7. The real disaster is the journey of the ancient Greek Olympian Games to Olympus and the association of the origins of the modern Olympic Games with Olympus, for example: In honor of Zeus’s great victory [over his father Cronus], his son Heracles established the Olympic Games. According to legend, Heracles chose a beautiful plain for the Games, <...>. One of the hills there was named after Mount Olympus, the dwelling place of the Greek gods Vd 2004 53 69. And not a trace of Olympia or its Olympians!.. Other people’s ignorance reaches all the way to Olympus, for example: The Olympic flame is lit in Greece, on Mount Olympus, and the relay carries it to the city hosting the Olympic Games. The same will happen in 1976, <...>. The Olympic torch will be lit on Mount Olympus, <...> M ir G 1975 12 58. The Olympic flame will be lit on Mount Olympus LTV 2007-10-10 (Gintarė Grikštaitė). If it is “Olympic,” does that mean it comes only from Olympus? They offer answers without a question mark. And even if someone knows of Olympia, “Olympic” leads them to Olympus: In Olympia, the first athletic competitions were held 28 centuries ago in honor of Zeus <...>. In the 4th century AD these events were completely discontinued. 128 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antikizmai... The competitions were revived at the end of the 19th century thanks to the Frenchman Pierre de Coubertin. His heart now rests at the foot of Olympus. Each time, the athlete carrying the lit Olympic flame pauses by de Coubertin’s white monument M and G 1983 11 21. It is a great virtue to keep silent when one does not know... OLYMPIC – ESSENTIAL, SUBJECT-SPECIFIC AND INDIRECT STŽ 1959 has Olympic Games, as well as Olympic committee, Olympic flame, Olympic oath, Olympic record, Olympic medal, Olympic distance, Olympic circle. Later, Olympic era, Olympic flag, Olympic emblem, Olympic symbol, Olympic ritual, Olympic congress, Olympic movement, Olympic solidarity, Olympic season, Olympic recognition, Olympic quota, Olympic order, Olympic awards, Olympic attaché, Olympic identity card, Olympic city, Olympic village, Olympic poster, Olympic press, Olympic coin, Olympic film were also added, as well as the Olympic Cup – “an IOC cup awarded to organizations and cities for an especially great contribution to the development of the Olympic movement. Δ Established in 1906 by P. de Coubertin (P. de Coubertin)” STŽ 1996 and 2002. STŽ 1996 and 2002 also include the Olympic twelve-legged event, and STŽ 2002 the Olympic eight-legged event. In the periodical press, combinations with the relational adjective Olympic are very numerous and varied, and very common: Olympic festivals KV 1980 51 12, Olympic competitions T 1978 114 4, 1980 223 4. Sav with TV 2010 5 4, Olympic sport M 1976 2 31, MksIL 2010 1 6, Olympic sport T 1981 127 4, Olympic discipline (i.e. event) VN 1980 176 4, Olympic program S 1984 91 4, Olympic regatta M and G 1980 6 10, Olympic swimming T 1980 173 4, Olympic sprint S 1979 33 4, Olympic marathon P 1982 3 149, Olympic distances M and G 1980 6 10, Olympic exercise T 1979 72 3, LP 1980 55 2; Olympic rules M and G 1980 6 10, Olympic schedule LP 1980 60 3, Olympic regime T 1980 164 3, Olympic rehearsal T 1975 225 3, Olympic starts VN 1980 181 1, athletes’ Olympic dispute T 1980 178, Olympic debut S 1980 178 4; Olympic stadium KV 1992 30 1, Olympic facilities T 1978 223 4, 229 3, 1980 173 4, 1981 230 3, Vd 2008 21 74, Olympic equipment T 1984 129 2, Olympic shooting range LP 1980 55 2, Olympic channel KV 1992 30 1, Olympic track T 1978 228 4; Olympic prizewinner T 1980 183 3, Olympic medallist LP 1980 55 2, Olympic hero LP 1989 71 2, athlete’s Olympic status S 1980 143 3; Terminologija | 2009 | 16 129 Olympic medal T 1976 39 4, Olympic metal Šv 1980 11 18, Olympic laurels T 1978 96 4, Olympic crest Šv 1980 4 18, Olympic honorary pedestal Šv 1978 8 21, 1980 4 18, Olympic heights S 1981 7 19, T 1981 101 3, MokslL 2010 1 6; Olympic activity Šv 1980 4 19, Olympic academy KmT 1989 210 3, MlskL 2010 1 6, Olympic school T 1979 83 1, Olympic education MkslL 2010 1 6, Olympic pedagogy MkslM 2010 1 6, Olympic upbringing MkslM 2010 1 6, Olympic culture Mksl 2010 1 6, Olympic ideas Mksl 2010 1 6, Olympic ideals Mksl 2010 1 6, Olympic values Mksl 2010 1 6, Olympic injunction – to participate L and M 1984 16 1, Olympic principles S 1981 67 4, Olympic statutes S 1981 67 4, Olympic history T 1980 182 3, Sav with TV 2008 5 15; Olympic capital T 1978 114 4, Olympic Moscow T 1978 223 4, Olympic Tallinn M ir G 1980 6 10, Olympic construction S 1978 103 2, T 1978 229 3, architect’s Olympic exam L and M 1982 34 9, Olympic furniture Šv 1979 9 1, Olympic orders Vd 2008 21 74, Olympic altar Šv 1980 4 19, Olympic flamelet M ir G 1981 6 38; official Olympic language S 1987 24 4, Olympic expenses Vd 2008 21 74, Olympic treasury and budget T 1978 114 4, Olympic holding company “Top” LA 1996 163 18, Olympic lottery T 1976 247 4, Olympic post office T 1978 114 4, Olympic postage stamps LP 1980 54 3, Olympic bus T 1984 181 4, Olympic screen T 1978 223 4, Olympic film report T 1978 223 4, Olympic television and radio T 1978 251 4, Olympic television commission T 1983 26 4, Olympic Šiauliai equipment T 1983 26 4, Olympic [mobile television] station variant T 1979 103 4, Olympic book S 1978 103 3, Olympic handbook T 1979 36 4, Olympic news T 1980 164 3, Olympic chronicle LP 1979 26 3, Olympic reports S 1978 103 2; Olympic paraphernalia L and M 1980 6 3, Olympic mascot L and M 1980 6 3, Olympic teddy bear T 1980 179 4, Olympic souvenir L and M 1980 6 3, Olympic theme T 1978 114 4, L and M 1980 6 3, Olympic products L and M 1980 6 3, Olympic coins M ir G 1980 10 38, Olympic exhibition VN 1980 181 4, T 1982 168 4, KmT 1987 195 4; Olympic years M ir G 1978 5 45, LP 1980 104 4, Olympic cycle T 1978 251 4, Šv 1981 7 19, 130 1, KV 1982 40 14, Olympic quadrennium LA 1996 163 18, Olympic hours Šv 1980 12 28, Olympic steps MkslL 2010 1 6, Olympic Centennial Park LA 1996 163 18; Olympic veteran T 1980 182 3, Olympic youth L and M 1977 35 14, Olympic debutante LP 1980 62 2, Olympic longevity Šv 1980 4 18, 130 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antiklimai... Olympic celebrities LP 1980 62 2, “Olympic reserve” young footballers T 1976 163 3, Olympic reserve T 1982 171 4; Olympic emblem T 1979 214 4, Olympic passport T 1979 214 4, 1980 154 3, Olympic certificate T 1984 86 3, Olympic colors S 1980 69 4; Olympic mission LA 1993 36 15, Olympic delegation T 1980 164 3, Olympic brigade S 1980 69 2, Olympic visit T 1980 164 3, Olympic friendship Šv 1980 4 19, Olympic social evening LP 1980 62 1; Olympic dream Šv 1980 3 9, 1981 7 19, Olympic anxiety T 1976 234 4, Olympic concerns VN 1978 252 3, Olympic tension LP 1980 60 3, Olympic fever Vd 2009 1 25, Olympic passions L and M 1982 46 12; Olympic duties T 1979 214 4, Olympic hierarchy T 1979 214 4, Olympic role T 1979 214 4, Olympic motives T 1978 206 4, Olympic surprises Šv 1980 11 18; Olympic tourist routes T 1980 136 3, J. Lingys’s “Olympic Polka” T 1980 111 3, Olympic smile L and M 1980 29 13, Olympic monotony L and M 1983 39 6, Olympic inertia L and M 1983 39 6, L and M 1980 29 13, “Olympic” thieves T 1984 188 3. Journalistic stylistic flourishes (incidentally, much of this crop was apparently gathered straight from the Russian journalistic threshing floors...) are more clearly revealed in sentences and phrases, for example: With each Olympic cycle, the Olympic family grows T 1978 251 4. Little by little, women are conquering more and more space beneath the “Olympic sun” T 1978 228 4. <...> The Olympic relay has been passed on <...> to the city of Los Angeles LP 1980 62 2. <...> like Antaeus, he drives his spear into the Olympic distance L and M 1983 43 12. Estonian athletes <...> were the first to open the Olympic gates M ir G 1984 9 34. [Weightlifting] the winners’ “Olympic blow” S 1988 42 4. The pages of the 1980 Moscow Olympics—boycotted, stagnant—are unforgettable, for example: The Olympic tolling of the chimes rings out KmT 1982 139 2 (Mindaugas Barysas, article headline). But will ill-wishers try to throw a spanner in the Olympic works? T 1980 164 3 (Mindaugas Barysas). 1980 is an Olympic year, so the achievements in every sport are viewed through an Olympic prism T 1980 202 4. Stylistic routine and clichés continue to spread by inertia: The great Olympic carousel begins to turn LA 1992 144 15. <...> the sails of the Games signal an Olympic storm LA 1992 147 3. Advertising makes its own unimaginative contribution: “Olympic Gas Station,” “Olympic Shoe Repair,” “Olympic Fried Chicken” T 1984 177 3, “Olympic menu” T 1978 206 4. Commerce has the smell of “Olympic money” KV 1980 51 12, “Olympic dollars” T 1983 214 3, “Olympic” (i.e., double) prices T 1984 214 3. Terminologija | 2009 | 16 131 As early as 1981, it was said: “Some seem entirely unnecessary, for example: Olympic defeat, Olympic travelers, an ‘Olympic man’ (Klimavičius 1981: 44), but to add that they are unnecessary is unnecessary; one can make them necessary...” Also to be added here are non-Olympic athlete Šv 1981 16 28, non-Olympic dis-fancija T 1984 181 4, four pre-Olympic years T 1980 202 3, pre-Olympic season S 1983 131 4, pre-Olympic battles S 1983 131 4, post-Olympic calm M 1980 12 16, post-Olympic cake L and M 1980 43 9, pre-Olympic, Olympic and post-Olympic “Inturist” routes T 1980 163 3, anti-Olympic policy T 1980 172 3, 1982 139 2, 1984 167 3, anti-Olympic spirit T 1984 167 3, anti-Olympic intrigues T 1980 175 3, anti-Olympic spectacle T 1980 175 3, anti-Olympic farce 1980 163 3, Carter-led anti-Olympic “marathon” against the Soviet Union KV 1980 51 12, “anti-Olympic Games” T 1980 172 3, anti-Olympic medals T 1980 170 4, anti-Olympic arena T 1980 172 3. Also Paralympic Games, otherwise Paralympics STŽ 1996 and 2002, Paralympic Committee LA 1996 174 19 and special (for people with intellectual disabilities) Olympic Games STŽ 1996 and 2002, Lithuanian National Special Olympics Committee. This group is supplemented by combinations with the adjective “sporting,” though here, apart from the more elaborate ones—Olympics-80 sports program T 1978 228 4, sports games LP 1978 83 4, sports events Šv 1980 14 23—and the most elaborate ones—the International Olympic Committee’s sporting wisdom T 1980 97 3, sports officials’ sporting shortsightedness R 1990 128 3, Rimantas Oškutis’s sporting smiles Šv 1980 14 15—there are also many that should definitely be corrected: sporting (=sports) competitions T 1978 230 4, sporting (=sports) school KV 1980 50 13, the honorable title of the Indians’ sporting (=sports) genius AtM 1981 25, sporting (=sports) heights KV 1980 50 13, sporting (=sports) ethics T 1978 230 4, sporting (=sports) construction T 1976 247 4, sporting (=sports) facilities T 1978 114 4, sporting (=sports) bloc T 1980 289 1, sporting (=sports) architecture M 1977 9 32, AtM 1981 32. STŽ 1996 gives the terms sports competitions, sports calendar, sports functions, sport, sports school, sports section, sports hall, sports forum, sports traditions, sports management, sports delegation, sports ethics (and the athlete’s own ethics), sports court of honor, humanization of sport, sports law, sports policy, sports science, sports informatics, sports medicine, sports structures, sports inventory, sports equipment, sports device, sports tools, sports clothing, sports footwear, sports shoes, sports shorts, sports shirts, sports sweater, sports press, sports journal. 132 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antik-žmai... sports almanac, sports enthusiast, sports sponsor, sports worker, sports manager, sports community activist, sports columnist, sports journalist, sports reporter, sports museum (STŽ 2002 additionally includes sports supplies, sports physician, sports meteorology, sports ontology, sports gnoseology, sports personality, sports language) and sporting activity, sports games, sports dances, sport fishing, sporting weapon, sports sled, sporting skill, sporting achievement, sporting success, sporting failure, sports injury, sporting experience, sporting title. OLYMPIAD (SPORTS AND OTHER KINDS) AND OLYMPIADIC, OLYMPIAD PARTICIPANT The Olympic Charter states: “The term ‘Olympiad’ denotes a period of four consecutive years. An Olympiad begins with the opening of the Games of one Olympiad and ends with the opening of the Games of the next Olympiad” (OCH 1998: 16). But here the usage has gone too far: I declare the Olympic Games of the XXI Olympiad of the modern era, in Montreal, open! Monr 1978 32. The sports Olympiad is rather rare. Primarily—in an unofficial sense—it means the Olympic Games, but not exclusively: it also denotes certain competitions somewhat resembling the modern Olympic Games, though nowhere near the same level—not universal in scope and with a narrower program: the Chess Olympiad—“world team chess competitions between national teams. Held <...> since 1927 for men (...) and since 1957 for women” STŽ 1996 and 2002; the Lithuanian National Olympiad—“a sports festival-gathering of Lithuanians from around the world. Held 17–31 July 1938 in Kaunas (sailing and rowing competitions in Klaipėda)”—and the Lithuanian National Student Olympiad—“comprehensive competitions for athletes from Lithuanian secondary schools. Held in Kaunas on 12–14 June 1938 <...>. Alongside the sports competitions, choir and expressive-reading contests were held” STŽ 1996 and 2002; the Lithuanian Rural Olympiad (since 1989) STŽ 1996 and 2002; and the two-name Northern Sports Festival, otherwise Polar Olympiad (held in Murmansk since 1934, international since 1970) STŽ 1996 and 2002. A special anniversary event stands apart: the Golden Olympiad—“at the 1996 Summer Olympic Games, held to mark the centenary of the revival of the modern Olympic Games” STŽ 2002 (STŽ 1996). In textual usage, Olympiad in the sense of “Olympic Games” is uncommon, but the term was often used—undoubtedly under the influence of Russian usage—for the extraordinary Moscow Olympiad (boycotted by some countries because of the USSR’s invasion of Afghanistan); the competitions organized by its boycotters were called anti-Olympiad Šv 1980 15 20. “controlympiad” T 1980 172 3(2x)), for example: Olympiad organizers Terminologija | 2009 | 16 133 T 1980 182 3, Olympic medalists T 1980 179 4, the Olympic flame T 1980 154 4, Olympic symbolism L ir M 1980 6 3. It should be remembered here that it was precisely from the Olympics that a series of words began: spartakiad (in the second decade of the 20th century in Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Russia) STŽ 1996 and 2002, universiade—“world student <...> games” (since 1924 in Warsaw) STŽ 1996 and 2002, Alpiade—“a mass, comprehensive event of mountaineers’ training climbs and competitions, often a celebration” (since 1933) STŽ 1996 and 2002, Veteraniade—“track-and-field competitions for veterans” (since 1967) STŽ 1996 and 2002, Ikariade—“world aviation sport games” (since 1991) STŽ 1996 and 2002, Gymnastiade—“a large gymnastics festival—various mass gymnastics performances and displays of its forms, as well as performances by individual gymnasts, contests, variety acts, concerts <...>” STŽ 2002. There were also Olympic years KB 1980 1 50, Olympic production KV 198 20 12, anti-Olympic activity (at various times there also occurred Spartakiad-related—Spartakiad hopes S 1974 152 2, Spartakiad fervor T 1979 104 4). The less common Olympic Games VN 1980 181 1 (nx), Munich Olympic Games S 1981 3 4. Various mixtures occur, for example: at the Olympic Games / Olympic Games T 1978 114 4, at the Summer Olympic Games, at the Moscow Olympic Games / Munich Olympic Games S 1981 3 4, Olympic Games / Olympics LA 2000 195 28. STŽ 1996 also introduced olimpiadininkas—participant in Olympic Games—Olympiakämpfer, Olympiateilnehmer, Olympier—олимпиец—“a member of a national Olympic team who has participated or is participating in the Olympic Games.” The word Olympics spread beyond sport, for example: “‘From the land of the Nemunas to Olympic heights’—under this slogan, a mass health and sports Olympiad is held in our republic, continuing the traditions of the earlier event ‘From the Amber Baltic to Olympic Moscow’ T 1981 101 3. There were also some unexpected leaps, for example: international homing-pigeon Olympiad Šv 1974 15 30, world sport-pigeon Olympiad MG 1979 2 27, traditional lumberjacks’ Olympiad [USA] Šv 1975 5 31. Humorists also had their say: family Olympiad “From the People’s Gate to the Theatre” Šl 1979 7 8, “Olympiad” in the bedroom M ir G 1977 10 37, “Olympiad of foolish records” KV 1976 42 12, Olympiad of foolishness Šv 1969 21 21. The connection between sport and art was by no means forgotten: In 1940, <...> People’s Art Houses were established in Lithuania—a center for directing amateur activities—and preparations began for the Lithuanian amateur arts Olympiad KB 1978 7 27. Mexico City 134 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antikizmai... The Olympiad became a folklore Olympiad M 1977 9 32. <...> they called this traditional [Poetry Spring] festival an Olympiad of the poetic word KB 1980 8 27. The first Beatles fans’ Olympiad was held in Rome L ir M 1979 13 13. Also mentioned were art Olympiads KV 1971 18 8, song Olympiad M 1970 3 36, art Olympiad L ir M 1991 5 2, even a Sorbian-language Olympiad in Germany T 1977 72 3. However, no consistent system or regularity is apparent. Olympiad has taken root among serious-minded young people—these are various schoolchildren’s academic Olympiads Vd 2007 32 40, for example: in 1934, mathematicians at Leningrad University organized the first mathematics Olympiad, <...>. Olympiads soon spread <...> and to other countries. <...>. In 1951, the team of mathematicians at Vilnius University organized a mathematics Olympiad for Vilnius schoolchildren M ir G 1979 4 5. Other similar events are associated with science, for example: schoolchildren’s project Olympiad TMkt 1976 27 2, young programmers’ Olympiad M 1981 9 5, “Nature Protection” Olympiad T 1979 112 4, schoolchildren’s photo Olympiad LP 1983 28 4, the all-union “Student and Scientific and Technological Progress” Olympiad M ir G 1978 10 44. A journalist describes an international book exhibition-fair as a kind of book Olympiad T 1979 209 4. There is also an adjective here—Olympiad problem collection TMkt 1976 20 4, M ir G 1979 10 30, TMkt 1987 86 4, Olympiad problem NKn 1979 5 36. olimpiadininkas is used consistently to mean “Olympiad participant” M 1969 12 30, KmT 1987 191 2, LA 1994 103 9. Vd 2008 22 63. OLYMPIAN AND OLYMPIONIK Olympian for more than 70 years now – 3. in sport – “a participant in the Olympic Games, especially a winner” TŽŽ 1936 (though 1. “a god, an inhabitant of Olympus”; 2. “a majestically calm person”), but there is even Olympic games... Look at this ambiguous Olympus – simply Olympus has already become overloaded, both in sport and elsewhere, for example: The world press calls this duel between the contenders [B. Spassky and M. Tal] at the foot of the chess Olympus the event of the century T 1965 269 4. <....> on a journey to the chess Olympus, the contenders reached the halfway point T 1965 269 4 [but the chess Olympiad STŽ 1996 and 2002, already mentioned, is something different!]. The Armenians are a proud people who value their glorious history. The days of their Olympus recall conquered territories stretching from the Mediterranean Sea to the Caspian Vd 2008 9 79. Vienna’s concert Olympus P 1975 11 160, the Olympus of joy T 1980 86 4, the Olympus of power KmT 1986 139 4. One could even put an ellipsis here... STŽ 1959 gives Olympian terminological status. Nevertheless, an attempt was made to eliminate this ambiguity: “Anyone competing in a sports Olympiad should also be called an Olympiad participant, not an Olympian Terminologija | 2009 | 16 135 called. That Olympian is precisely what encourages confusion between Olympia and Olympus” (Klimavičius 1978: 4). But people have taken a liking to Olympian and use it even more widely, for example: an Olympian of health and sport Šv 1977 19 22, T 1979 55 4, political anti-Olympians M ir G 1982 8 37, Olympians will perform for Olympians (“Trimitas”—a participant in the Moscow Olympic Games, who performed successfully in the Olympic Village and elsewhere) T 1980 294 4. Even TŽŽ II 2000 gives Olympian as b) “a pupil participating in an Olympiad; an Olympiad winner.” Much was due to the Vilnius Olympians’ Club (founded in 1991), Olympians’ Street in Vilnius—and STŽ 2000’s approval of Olympian. But nowhere else is it so: it is participant in Olympic Games – Olympiakämpfer, Olympiateilnehmer, Olympier – олимпиец STŽ 2002 (sometimes Olympian seems to be avoided in favor of participants in the Olympic Games OS 2000 335). Russian олим- ну-ец will certainly have had the greatest influence—a form that has not been correctly understood: Олимпи-я regularly yields олимпи-ец, like австри-ец, инди-ец, сир-и-ец (compare Polish olimpij-czyk and German Olympi-er), whereas Lithuanian olimp-ietis is clearly derived from Olimp-o (after all, an inhabitant of Venec-ijos is a venec-ij-ietis, and of Vilk-ijos – vilk-ij-ietis). Standardization that disregards principles can lead far astray. This seems to open the way to the deliberately already discouraged incorrect form žalgir-ietis (not an inhabitant!). The word Olympian slipped in just once in the translation of J. Parandovskis’s novella OD 1984 23. Now, if there is a modern Olympian, then there is also an ancient one—from Olimp-ij-os, for example: Olympia was an important social and religious centre, and in its temples valuable gifts were received from Olympians seeking the gods’ help Vd 2008 21 74. The Greeks also considered it a special dish, and so future Olympians were given broth to drink Sav su TV 2009 53 36. The meaning “a participant in the Olympic Games, especially a winner” is a misunderstanding. The meticulous Greeks distinguished between olýmpios and olýmpio-nikēs, that is, a victor at Olympia; compare Nikē, the goddess of victory; Nikandras, “man of victory”; Nikiforas, “bearer of victory”; Nikodemas, “conqueror of the people” (a short form of all three is Nikas). Olimpionikas was already used by the sports historian V. Saulis: By 776 BCE, the Games were already recognized throughout Greece; the names of the Olympic victors—the Olympionikoi—were engraved on marble columns erected on the banks of the Alpheus AtM 1981 8. Olimpionikas means “winner of the Olympic Games” OD 1984 276; in the text, 180, 205, but also winner of an Olympiad 167. Olimpionikas, “in ancient Greece, a winner of the Olympic Games,” also appeared in TŽŽ 1985. STŽ 1996 agrees: “One may also call a winner of the modern Olympic Games this.” STŽ 2002 goes further: “Sometimes this is also what a winner of the modern Olympic Games is called 136 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antikizmai... of the Games.” It is also in use, for example: Our Olympionikoi OS 2000 142. Theoretician and historian of sport Jonas Žilinskas has used it—even the feminine form Olimpionikė TMtr 1984 4 P16. INHERITED ANTIQUISMS IN ATHLETICS Some antiquated terms in the field under discussion passed into later eras and survived into modern times. The word athlete already had two meanings in antiquity: 1. “in ancient Greece before 500 BCE, any participant in athletic competitions (gymnic), chariot races (hippic) and contests (music)”; 2. “from 500 BCE, a person who trained purposefully for a long time and took part in competitions” STŽ 2002. In J. Parandovskis’s novella, athlete is rare (OD 1984 88, 97, 169, 233); the Lithuanian competitor is used most often (4, 17, 22, 41, 78, 112, 148, 150, 156, 167, 174, 226, 231, 247, 249, 264–267, 269, 270), or more rarely contestant (7). Today, athlete means not only 4. “<...> a sportsperson who regularly competes,” but also 3. “a strong person, <...>” STŽ 2002. From ancient athletics to modern athletics (STŽ 2002), meaning 2. “one of the oldest and principal sports, comprising walking, running, jumping, throwing and combined events”; 3. “a system of physical exercises that develops strength, endurance, speed and other qualities”; and even 6. “organized activity of trained people through competitions” STŽ 2002, the concept differs not only in the range of types—recreational, or restorative, and developmental, or conditioning: health, military and the broadest, sports—mass and representative, track and field and heavy athletics STŽ 2002—but also in a certain lack of definition. Consequently, the meanings of modern sport and athletics, sportsperson and athlete are not clearly distinguished in usage. In some antiquated athletics terms, not only have the ancient and current meanings diverged, but the entire microsystem has changed. A striking example is gymnastics: 1. “in ancient Greece, sport, the sum of physical exercises, physical education in the broad sense”; Greek gymnastics: 1. “in ancient Greece, all kinds of physical exercises performed after removing ordinary, everyday clothing—exercises to improve health and well-being, as well as sports and competitive exercises, <...>”; 2. “from the 4th century BCE Δ, education through the body, which, together with artistic education, provided free men and women with the foundations of a basic education”; ancient gymnastics: “a complex of physical exercises used in the educational system of ancient Greece and Rome. Δ consisted of palestrics [physical exercises—basic (various kinds of running, throwing, wrestling, boxing), military, and special (riding, charioteering, swimming and spheristics, that is, various ball games)], orchestics (acrobatics and choreographic exercises, Terminologija | 2009 | 16 137 “Developing primarily grace of movement and agility, and games,” and gymnastics 2. “In Europe—a type of exercise with equipment, on apparatus, or without it”—Swedish (pedagogical, military, medical, or therapeutic, and aesthetic), German, and Czech Sokol gymnastics (the Czech Sokol system of physical education), sports and artistic (expressive) gymnastics; 3. “a means of physical education—a system of special physical exercises that strengthens human health and develops physical fitness”—fitness and educational gymnastics, as well as therapeutic and hygienic, compensatory and corrective gymnastics, occupational gymnastics, yoga gymnastics, etc. STŽ 2002. The term gymnasion differs even more: “a building of an ancient Greek school, with a courtyard where an exercise ground was laid out for gymnastics, games, and athletics; later, an enclosed sports facility with bathing and washing rooms. Young men exercised there naked (Greek gymnoi) or lightly clothed, <...>. – – – [they] began to evolve from sports schools into schools of hygiene and health and of spiritual education for ephebes [this was because ‘educated people condemned excessive adoration of sport’ AntŽ 1998 161]. Gymnastics was practiced at the Athenian Δ, and politics, philosophy, and literature were studied. The Δ was a place of intellectual and physical activity for the citizens of ancient Greece” STŽ 2002 (unjustifiably and needlessly modernized as gymnasium STŽ 1996, and perhaps over-precisely rendered as gymnasias AntŽ 1998, SenGrk 2007 237—it should be gymnasion). The gymnasion of Olympia was “an open area surrounded by columns, the most important part of which was a portico (open gallery) 219.5 m long and 11.3 m wide. A track was marked here, equal to the distance of the classical Olympia (one stade). <...>. <...>” STŽ 2002, whereas today gymnasium means 2. “a general secondary school, usually preparing pupils to study at an institution of higher education” TŽŽ 2001. Gymnopaedia—“a festival of Apollo in Sparta, an annual festival of the ancient Greeks at which naked young men danced and performed gymnastic exercises” STŽ 2002—had no continuation at all in European culture. Gymnast meant 1. “In Antiquity, a highly qualified teacher at a gymnasion, a sports trainer—educator and physician, with specialized knowledge of anatomy and psychology, as well as of the treatment of diseases”; 2. “the leader and trainer responsible for preparing ancient athletes for athletic games. The Δ’s main function was to draw up a program for preparing athletes for the games”; whereas today it means 3. “an artistic or sports gymnast who regularly takes part in competitions” STŽ 2002 [also, not leaders at all, are the ancient pankratiast—“an athlete in pankration” STŽ 2002, “a participant in boxing in ancient Greece” TŽŽ 136, OD 1984 67; peltast—“a lightly armed soldier in ancient Greek and Hellenistic states, with a leather shield (pelta) and spear” TŽŽ 2001; heliast “ancient”. 138 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antikizmai… Atėnų helijėjos narys“ (: helijėja „sen. Atėnų prisiekusiųjų teismas“) TŽŽ 2001, bet skiriasi eklezias – 1. „Atėnų eklezijos narys; <...>“ (: eklezija „sen. Graikijos poliuose – tautos susirinkimas; <...>“, eklesija AntŽ 1998, SenGrK 2007 68), nors 2.* „bažnyčios tarnas, dvasininkas“ TŽŽ 2001, o krikščionių Eklez iastas VLE V 2004, XV 2009 (ne Ekl esiastas ŠR II 1991 585, ŠR 1998 1008 – kaip ir ne Jerusalė, nes tai nėra graikiški istorizmai, o ir dabarties gyvenimo žodžiai) – „Mokytojas“: „Mokytojo (Koheleto, Pamokslininko, Ekleziasto) knyga (hebr. qōhēlēt, gr. ekklēsiastēs, lot. ecclesiastes) pagal hebrajišką ir graikišką pavadinimą siejama su bendruomenės ar susirinkimo vadovu <...>“ ŠR 1999 708]. Dar buvo gimn z iarchas „gimnaziono vadovas – <...>“ STŽ 2002, bet nei šiuolaikiško gimnasto, t. y. „gimnastikuotojo“, nei gimnasisto, t. y. „gimnasiono mokinio“ nebuvo (suši u laikinta leksika yra g i m n a s t ų stadiono aikštė AkmIL 1962: 60). Šitas antikinių ir šiuolaikinių reikšmių ir mikrosistemų skyrimasis vargu leistų į šiuolaikinę mikrosistemą sklandžiai įsiterpti antikinės motyvacijos, bet modernaus turinio terminui, kurį 1962 m. sukūrė olandų mokslininkas K. Riksdorpas, – gimnologija „savarankiška sporto mokslo sritis, anatominiu, biomechaniniu, fiziologiniu, psichologiniu, sociologiniu požiūriu nagrinėjanti fizinius pratimus ir jų taikymą, turinti didaktinę-edukologinę, taip pat filosofinę-antropologinę prigimtį“ STŽ 2002 – aiškesnė būtų gimnastikologija. Perhaps the most prominent and significant of the inherited archaisms would be stadion. However, explanations of the origin, content, and changes in meaning of this word (term!) must begin with the non-inherited archaism—the historicism stadion. First, it must be clearly understood that this stadion is based on the stade, and the stade is primarily not a sports (athletics) term, but the name of a unit of measurement. It originated in Babylon, and only later became widespread in Greece. Therefore, the mythical explanation that the stade was the 600 feet—192.27 m—of Heracles, the hero who founded the Olympic Games, must be rejected. But that is less than the 600 feet (194 m or 195 m) of a typical Babylonian, not to mention the Assyrian-Chaldean-Persian stade (230.4 m), and even the stade of the Greeks themselves—the Ionians—stade—210 m. And why was the divine stade of Pythios (i.e., Apollo) so humanly tiny—only 165 m? It is therefore best to leave aside the whole mythology of variations in the value of the stade’s length (in ancient Greek, stade—1000 m—a kilometer) and return to the more plausible explanation: “a stade is the distance a person walks while the entire disk of the Sun emerges into view” STŽ 2002 (here the variation in length depends on walking speed). From Greek σταδίου, meaning a certain “measure of length,”... Terminologija | 2009 | 16 139 the meanings “a stade race” and a specially constructed “running track,” and even “a running event” itself; later, when other events were also held on those tracks, and the “competition venue” was surrounded in a horseshoe shape not only by standing room for spectators but also by benches, the meaning had become “a competition building.” The meaning “a period, phase—stage” is the most remote. When Latin stadium, borrowed from Greek, passed into the Romance languages—Italian stadio, Spanish estadio, French stade—the meanings “stade,” “stadion,” and “stage” had not yet separated into distinct, albeit similar, lexemes. And English stadium, borrowed from Middle French, also has three meanings. But at a later point in civilization, and in a more distant part of Europe, they diverged—German Stadion – stadium and stade, but Stadium – stage; Polish stadion – stadium and stade, but stadium – stage. Stage was recorded as early as SNŽŽ 1907—“degree, interval, period”; SNŽŽ 1924—“degree, interval in someone’s development or evolution”; TŽŽ 1936—“a certain period or degree in the development of an event or thing.” Yet we find no stade here; there is only stadion—1. “a unit of length in ancient Greece, = 150–190 m,” and 2. “an ancient Greek racecourse” TŽŽ 1936. Similarly in the translated AntŽ 1998: stadion, stade (Greek stadion)—“a permanent track, primarily intended for short-distance running; a structure designed for such races (an enclosed running track); a chariot-racing course; a facility for other sports. <...>. As a measure of road length, the stade was very practical; the only impractical thing was that Greek stades, or stadia, varied: their lengths ranged <...>.” And in a translated Western universal history: “Heracles <....> measures out a stadion in length—192 m. Thus the first event is born: the stadion race, to which, over time, <...>, was added the double stadion” (Ist III 1995 268). Even today, a specialist in classical philology writes: “As the name for a running track and, more generally, a venue for competitions, the word stadion (the more precise form would be stade) came to us too” (SenGrK 2007: 240). It came, but not directly from ancient Greek; it arrived fairly recently through intermediary languages. Standardizing the common-language lexicon according to an ancient Greek template here would merely be a clumsy distortion of actual borrowing processes. Sports journalists and historians sometimes use stage instead of stade: <...> the mythological Heracles, having measured out six hundred feet, named the distance s t a g e Miunch 1974 69. It was Koroibos, a cook from Elis, who won the 1 s t a d e (192.27 m) race AtM 1981 8. And even some lexicographer: stade—5) hist. stage (unit of length) ItLjeŽ 1993. The form stadius is also unsuitable KmT 1987 9 3. A stadion cannot be detached from a stade, yet it is broader in meaning: “In the fifth century BC, the Delphians built a stadion <...>. It hosted not only athletic events, but also musi 140 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antikizmai... competitions of singers, theatrical performances were staged” (SenGrK 2007 220). Therefore, the very rare sports stadium MCzMA 1997 281 does not seem meaningless either. An inherited archaism is also the hippodrome – 1. “a long oval track (770 m at Olympia) for chariot and horse races at the ancient Games” STŽ 2002. A term of similar meaning (“running track”) is the non-inherited archaism paradromos – “an open running track with start and finish lines at ancient sports games” STŽ 2002. Hoplitodromos OD 1984 257 is quite different – “a hoplite’s (a warrior wearing a helmet and shield, and initially also greaves) run” OD 1984 275. A third is hemerodromos OD 1984 251 – “an ancient Greek runner, a messenger” TŽŽ 1936, running for an entire day (: Gr. hēmera ‘day’). There are also doubtful cases, e.g., Gr. σταδιοδρόμος – “a participant in a running event” GrLieŽ 1979 and stadიოdromas – “an ancient Greek running track one stadion in length” STŽ 2002. HISTORICISMS FROM ANCIENT ATHLETICS The truly fundamental concept of Greek athletics, arising from the very spirit of the Hellenes, is agōnas (Gr. agōn): “The Greeks were famous for their fondness for agons (ἀφῶν)—all kinds of contests. Playwrights competed for the best tragedy or comedy; there were contests for poets, musicians, painters, sculptors, epic reciters, dancers, and choruses. Competitions among various craftsmen were well known. Sporting contests were also very frequent and popular. Four sporting competitions were panhellenic, open to all Greeks, wherever they lived. – – – The agonistic Greek temperament was an important factor in the dynamics of cultural progress” (SenGrK 2007 11). The Hellenes, divided into tribes, regions, and city-states (in Roman usage, Greeks), were united only by their common gods and by the events devoted to their worship and the performance of cult rites—Amphictyonies—“religious unions of tribes or city-states,” characterized by “common sacrifices, temples, and the protection of their treasures,” and later also by deliberations on common policy (SenGrK 2007: 154), as well as by the national Games of all Greeks (Panhellenes), founded on cult [in Attica also Synoikia, a festival of civic peace in memory of Theseus, the king who united the 12 communities into a state (SenGrK 2007: 156)]. They are now inaccurately and anachronistically called Games, following the Roman ludi (e.g., ludi Romani, although agon Capitolinius). “The Greeks called them not Games but agons, that is, contests” (AntŽ 1998), and distinguished between athletic contests – ἀγῶνες γυμνικοί – and horse contests – ἀγῶνες ἱππικοί SenGrK 2007 239. TŽŽ 1936 defines agons as “events at the Olympic Games,” agonist as “competitor, wrestler, athlete,” Terminologija | 2009 | 16 141 agonistics as “gymnastic exercises and the art of athletics,” and agonarch as “a leader of gymnastic games.” Considerable precision and completeness are still lacking here. Specialists explain it more broadly and generally: agon means “competition, a spirit of rivalry, a propensity to compete, characteristic of the ancient Greeks and encouraged in ancient Rome. <...>” AntŽ 1998. Here a distinction is made between the sporting and spiritual-artistic agon. The names of performers in ancient drama, protagonist, deuteragonist, and tritagonist AntŽ 1998 21, are also associated with the latter. Even in philosophy, agon was significant. STŽ 1996 and 2002 assign agon a general meaning—1. “competition among ancient Greeks in various spheres of life. Contests were held in music, poetry, painting, sculpture, philosophy, oratory, the arts, and even infant beauty; bodily and spiritual qualities were extolled more than birth and wealth”—and a specialized meaning—2. “the pinnacle of ancient gymnastics: gymnastic competitions at every level, from rivalry in daily practice to public contests,” as well as 3. “competition among professional athletes.” The meanings of the term agonistics are distinguished similarly, though somewhat differently: 1. “an important characteristic of the ancient Greeks—the irresistible drive (STŽ 2002: striving, methods, and means) to compete in various spheres of life, seeking recognition, renown in one’s field, and to enhance the prestige of one’s native city and oneself”; 2. “the pursuit of victory (achievement) in sporting or artistic contests”; 3. “physical exercises in preparation for competitions, aimed at developing the body and its parts harmoniously” STŽ 1996 and 2002.]. In Parandowski’s novella The Discus of Olympia, the spirit of the Greek agon surges forth vividly, but the word agon is absent... Incidentally, a second factor, seemingly (but only seemingly!) opposed to the agon, or rather limiting it, was the Greeks’ remarkable moderation, though this was more characteristic of the Hellenistic age—the maturity of spirit and culture. In discussing Greek agonistics, it does not seem appropriate to fail to distinguish between the sporting and artistic agon. Music contests SenGrĮ 1955 175, artists’ contests SenGrĮ 2007 157, contests among musicians (flute-players and kithara-players) and singers SenGrĮ 2007 157 sound less jarring [now the neologism varžytuvės, coined by Jonas Balvočius-Gerutis (1842–1915), is more usual in such cases, LKŽ XVIII 1997, though it is still absent from DŽ 1993], but the rhapsodes competed, winners of musical contests SenGrĮ 2007 157 evoke sporting fervor and fierceness (incidentally, like Soviet-era milkers’ battles or today’s choir wars)... The word winner: first-place winner is used imprecisely, although second-place finisher SenGrĮ 2007 157 is used. A place is not defeated but won, so the word here should be place-getter. Incidentally, this term is not found 142 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antikizmai... in STŽ 1996 and 2002, only winner, although its definition reads “the winner of a sporting bout or competition.” One can defeat an opponent or win a competition. To conclude on agon, agonist, and agonistics, it should be said that, to avoid confusing Greek concepts with merely similar concepts from later periods and our own time—competition, contest, opponent (even auction and auction sale), quiz, competition, competitor, competitiveness—it is better to use those Greek-derived terms rather than some Lithuanian words as approximate equivalents. A highly significant figure in the Greek agons was the hellanodikas: “Having sacrificed a boar at the altar of Zeus Horkios, the hellanodikai (Ἑλλανοδίκαι) or hellenodikai (Ἑλληνοδίκαι)—that is, the judges called judges of the Hellenes—swore to judge fairly” (SenGrK 2007: 246). More precisely, these were “judges and officials (hellanodikai)” LTE VIII 1981: 316 (or even the reverse—“ancient Greek officials and judges of contests” LE VIII 1956)—“supervisors and officials of the Olympic and Nemean Games, the judges of the competitions. – – Δ Their rights and duties: to check that athletes had completed the required 10 months of preparation for the Games in their native city; to direct and supervise athletes’ preparation for 30 days before the Games’ competitions at the gymnasium in Elis; to determine whether an athlete was eligible to participate (the athlete had to be a free Greek citizen, born in wedlock, and not guilty of disgraceful conduct); to supervise the athletes’ daily regime (...); <...>; to administer the athletes’ oath; <...>” (STŽ 2002). Their importance and dignity were also emphasized by their appearance: “During the competitions they wore purple garments and placed a laurel wreath on their heads” (STŽ 2002). When the Russian-Byzantine form Ellada was used, the form was elanodikai Šv 1975 4 13. J. Parandowski’s novella consistently uses hellanodikai OD 1984 16, 29, 42, 47, 57, 78, 81, 112, 150, 174, 187, 218, 224, 234, 268. Graikų atletinį visapusiškumą gerai rodo pentatlonas. Fiksuotas jau TŽŽ 1936. Pentatlonas Ist III 1995 268 – „penkiakovė: šuolis į tolį, bėgimas [1 stadijo], ieties ir disko metimas, imtynės [dviejų geriausių]“ AntŽ 1998 – turi tam tikrą tąsą šiuolaikiniame sporte (tik labai pasikeitusios rungtys – jojimas, fechtavimasis, šaudymas, plaukimas, bėgimo krosas; visai neseniai imta dar keisti – šaudymą jungti su bėgimu), bet ne iki galo nusistovėjusi terminų mikrosistema: angl. pentathlon ir modern pentathlon, vok. (klassis-cher) Fünfkampf ir moderner Fünfkampf, rus. пентатлон и современное пятиборье STŽ 2002. Lietuviškai ir sporte, ir antikinėje literatūroje neretai neskiriama pentatlonas (penkiakovė) AtM 1981 8, penkiakovė ↗ pentatlonas AntŽ 1998 ir penkiakovė (pentathlon) AntŽ 1998 471, pentatlonas, kitaip klasikinė penkiakovė STŽ 1996, pentatlonas, kitaip antikinė penkiakovė STŽ Terminologija | 2009 | 16 143 2002. Such a mixture is poor in textual usage, for example, in J. Parandowski’s novella (OD 1984): pentathlon 44, pentathlete 21, 65, then pentathlon 68, 104, again pentathlon 108, 203, and at the end pentathlon 206, 207, 219, 225, 230, 265. In the explanatory notes: pentathlon, or pentathlon 277. It is difficult for us to make our own not entirely coherent microsystem more perfect: first, it should be internationally adequate, but the microsystems of other languages also differ, while our internal factors pull in opposite directions—it could be done one way, as a pair of different meanings, pentathlon and five-event competition (cf. biathlon and two-event competition, triathlon and three-event competition, quadrathlon and four-event competition), or another way—as ancient pentathlon and modern pentathlon; yet there is also another modern one, the athletics pentathlon: women’s (though the heptathlon is now more common) and men’s (though the decathlon is more important). There is no point in replacing pentathlon with a Lithuanian word, since there is already a whole -athlon series—biathlon, triathlon (and ultratriathlon), quadrathlon STŽ 2002. And pentathlon could never become pentatlonas SenGrK 2007 239, because that series—not Greek but modern-language (though based on Greek material!)—would not allow it (system pressure). A very characteristic archaism is pankration Ist 1995 268—“an ancient sport combining boxing and wrestling; a contest between athletes combining blows with fists, feet, and elbows, twisting the joints of the arms and legs, and other moves” STŽ 2002, “wrestling and boxing together” AntŽ 1998. Pankratia (Latin), meaning “ancient Greek boxing” TŽŽ 1936, is inaccurate; so is pankratijas OD 1984 25, 64, 158, 250, 265—“a type of contest combining wrestling and boxing” OD 1984 277, “a synthesis of boxing and wrestling” OD 1984 256, “a mixture of wrestling and boxing” OD 1984 56, SenGrK 2007 242. Among such Greekisms, the usual Lithuanian adaptation—amphitrionas, buleuterionas, embrionas, enchiridionas, hiparionas, sinedrionas,...—stands apart from ganglijas, which changes the ending -ion to -ijas (as in Russian ганглий, though Polish ganglion, German Ganglion), and išijas (as in Russian ишиас, German Ischias, Polish ischias). The usual Lithuanian form is pankrationas (as in Russian панкратион, Polish pankration / pankration, German Pankration), whereas the efforts of specialists in classical philology do not accord with the tendency of the norms. The athlete of pankration is a pankratiast STŽ 2002, OD 1984 67, 261, 277 (not pankratistas OS 2000 43). The Greek combat sport boxing – punching – Faustkampf – кулачный бой STŽ 2002 is now known without its Greek name. In the translation of J. Parandowski’s novella: kumščiakovė OD 1984 158, 256, 265, 270; boxer OD 1984 57, 67, 255, 263; even boxing OD 1984 256, boxer OD 1984 265. Modern boxing is, nevertheless, not so bloody. 144 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antikizmai... The still older Greek wrestling also has no Greek name—1. “a combat event at the Olympic Games (from 708 BC). — — — the wrestler won by throwing the opponent to the ground three times” STŽ 2002. Greco-Roman, otherwise classical wrestling, began to be practiced in the 18th century and was initially called French wrestling STŽ 2002; it is quite far removed from Greek wrestling (combat also on the ground). Worth mentioning is stadionikas—“the winner of a one-stadion running race (at Olympia, 192.24 m)” STŽ 2002—Olympic victor. At the XIV Olympic Games (724 BC), the diáulos appeared—“an event in the running competitions at the ancient Greek Olympic Games: a two-stadion (384.54 m) out-and-back track race; a double race” STŽ 2002. Knowing that an aulos was played continuously during the one-stadion race makes the name for the double race, diaulos, clear. Four years later the distances began to grow, but one word, dolichos, sufficed—“a running event at the ancient Greek Olympic Games: a race of 8, later 10, then 12, and finally 24 stadia (about 4,600 m); the long-distance race” STŽ 2002, also OD 1984 248. The variant dolichodromos, i.e. a 24-stadion (4,714.5 m) race AtM 1981 8, OS 2000 38 may also be authentic, but the form would be dolichodromas. Of great importance not only to the history of athletics but also to that of all Greek culture is the palaestra (<παλη—“wrestling” SenGrK 2007 237)—1. “a gymnastics school in ancient Greece” (incidentally, 2. “in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, this was also the name for the legal profession until the 18th century,” while palestrantas meant “the name for a lawyer in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until the 16th–18th century”), palestrika—“the art of wrestling and gymnastics”; palestritas—“wrestler, gymnast” TŽŽ 1936; palaestra—1. “an area surrounded by a portico (...) for physical exercise (...) wrestling, and boxing”; 2. “a school in ancient Greece where boys aged 12–13 learned wrestling, boxing, gymnastics, and dancing”; 3. “a sports facility <...> at Olympia—a building standing at the center of the gymnasium (66X66 m), containing various rooms for physical exercise and ball games, as well as rooms for hygiene procedures and baths” STŽ 2002. In short: “the gymnasium refers to the whole complex of facilities, while the palaestra is the sports ground” (SenGrK 2007 237). The trainer paidotribas SenGrK 2007 183 was inseparable from the palaestra, and he “would teach boys the traditional events of the pentathlon: <...>. Boxing and pankration (...) were introduced into the training program later, when they reached adolescence” SenGrK 2007 178–179 (not pedotrivis OS 2000 31). Terminologija | 2009 | 16 145 MODERNISMS IN SPORTS TERMINOLOGY – ANACHRONISMS Historisms reflect the reality of a bygone era, but anachronisms distort it—in this case, these are modern sports terms used when discussing ancient athletics in place of the words used at the time. A most genuine anachronism is sport (“systematic physical training of the body,” STŽŽ 1923), a term unknown to the ancient Greeks and not used in their time. Consider athlete—“a participant in contests in antiquity,” TŽŽ 1936 (vaguely defined as “a very strong, sturdy person,” SNŽŽ 1907); gymnasts at the Olympia Games Aistis 1991 164; gymnastic and athletic exercises SenGrk 1955 175. Yet in J. Parandowski’s novella we find sport OD 1984 265, 267, as well as the sporting life of Greece OD 1984 261. It is written: “The Greeks invented s p o r t competitions” (SenI 1995: 6), but it is noted in the same passage that the word athletics is from Greek. The dictionary of antiquity has only athlete, “a man seeking to win a prize in combat”; there is no entry for gymnastics, only sport. This entry discusses chariot racers, runners, wrestlers, the pentathlon (pentathlon), boxing, and pankration, and says that “these events were called gymnastics (...)” AntŽ 1998, although the entry itself on sport begins as follows: “The word derives from the medieval Latin word disportus—carrying away, scattering. It spread through English.” And there it is, even used in place of Greek gymnastics. In Dalia Dilytė’s textbook Culture of Ancient Greece, there is a chapter entitled Sport SenGrK 2007 237–244, though it also includes athletic competitions (as opposed to equestrian competitions), athletic events, athletics SenGrK 2007 239, 243. There is discussion of athletic competitions in Mycenaean culture OS 2000 19 and agons, agonistics OS 2000 19, but this is called sport in antiquity OS 2000 16. The entry on sport in STŽ 2002 begins with Homer (and even Egypt in 2050 BC), but there was no such thing as sport in antiquity. Latin gymnicus is translated as gymnastics, sport; lūdī gymnici—sporting games LoLietŽ 2007. The meanings and sheer variety of the English noun sport are striking: 1) sport; fishing; hunting; sporting games; races (athletic sports—athletics); 2) plural sports competitions; 3) colloquial sportsperson; 4) colloquial fine fellow, person; 10) colloquial fan; and 5) amusement, fun; play; joke; 7) American gambler; 8) colloquial dandy, beau; but also 6) “object of ridicule,” and even 9) biology, “variant, subspecies, deviation from the normal type” (verb sport—1) to play- 1 This meaning, the one most detached from the system, is either treated in Lithuanian not as a separate meaning but as a homonym—sport2—biology, “a somatic mutation in plants, <...>, characteristic of hybrid fruit-tree seedlings,” TŽŽ 1985 and 2001 (also a homonym in TŽŽ 1969); or, in terminography, this sport is replaced by the clearer term sport—a somatic mutation AugBioŽ 1998; or usage remains uncertain: sport—sport, mutation ŽŪŽ 1971, ALŽŪTŽ 1977. A variety <...> changes over a long period. <...>. Changes arising at growth points of long or adventitious shoots are called “bud sports” or bud mutations MS 1975 12 6. 146 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto term inijos istorijos: antikizmai... to amuse, 2) to do sport, 3) to joke; 4) to wear; to display, show; and 5) biology, “to deviate from the normal type”), and also sportsman—1) sportsperson; hunter; fisherman; racer; rider and 2) “an honest, upright person” (that is, an honest man, a righteous person) ALKŽ 1975. Thus English sport belongs to the group of international words known as false friends (translator’s false friends). This is recorded in the relevant English–Russian dictionary (АПиРАС „ЛДП“ 1969). The deception is so blatant that perhaps no one is actually misled, out of sheer surprise. It may also help explain the word’s origin. Drawing on G. Satyrov’s article in the journal Физическая культура в школе (1959, No. 7), Jonas Žilinskas published an account of the origin of the word sport. Unlike the Prussians and Austrians, famed for drilling and training soldiers (for parades), and unlike the Germans and Swedes, famed for gymnastics, the English, who fostered their navy, “widely cultivated games and outdoor pastimes,” which were called disports; English desport was borrowed from Old French desport (Žilinskas 1959: 3). A little later, a similar explanation appeared in LE XXVIII 1963, adding that Old French desport derives from Late Latin disportare. In English lexicography, Middle English disport is considered a borrowing from Middle French desport, formed from the verb desporter < des- + porter “to carry” (Webster’s Dictionary Unabridged 1981). Middle (or Old) French desporter means “to carry away” → “to finish work,” while desport means “the end of work” → “leisure time” → “pastimes, games.” The English, fond of brevity, disregarding the borrowing’s original structure, reinterpreted (decomposed) and shortened it: from dis-port they formed sport (though the obsolete form disport—1. amusement; 2. to amuse oneself, to enjoy oneself is still recorded in ALKŽ 1975). And by 1828, English sport had become a loanword back into French as French sport (Robert 1993). An anachronism in the Olympia Games is the English word trainer, as well as training, to train. J. Parandowski’s novella uses to exercise OD 1984 25, 64, 82, 94, 95, 112 (after all, English train also means to exercise), less often to perform exercises 89, and very often exercise 10, 22, 31, 37, 41, 47, 50, 57, 59, 60, 71, 74, 87, 107, 172, 175, 207, 210, 262 (sometimes exercises 89), for example: to complete one’s exercises 19, 172; to make up for missed exercises 88; to do exercises 93; but also training 264, and a mixed usage: Alongside the regular e x e r c i s e s, he also had his own t r a i n i n g sessions, <...> 76. The Anglicism “to train” is also anachronistic: They trained in gymnasia and palaestras (palaisthoi) SenGrK 2007 237. However, J. Parandowski’s novella also gives the authentic Greek name for an instructor: aleiptas: Some had slaves or old athletes who served them as t r a i n e r s. That is, they were a l e i p t a i, masseurs, and amazed everyone with their art. <...>. The youths could not do without them; the aleiptai were at once their guardians, <...> OD 1984 23. But the discussion begins with the trainer: Terminologija | 2009 | 16 147 Nearby, old athletes usually walked about or sat on benches, waiting for someone to hire them as coaches 17. And so it is expressed—the authentic aleiptas 104, 191, 256, becomes an anachronistic coach 48, 67, 191, 226, 261. STŽ 1996 and 2002 give the Latinized form aliptis. When the authentic Greek name is unknown, it is better to use the available Lithuanian term (formed as a neologism) rather than an anachronistic Anglicism. It is unclear why J. Parandowski’s tale is so inconsistent—English startas OD 1984 29–31, 183, 184, 187, 212, although finish 28, 30, 31, 51, 184, 185, 215, 258, e.g.: from start to finish 156, 248, between start and finish 249. Why the Latin heroldas 9, 30, 36, 59, 182, 188, 191, 196, 213, 247, 251, 256, and not the Lithuanian herald? Why do the Greek halterai OD 1984 38 turn into the German word dumbbells (Greek haltéres, Latin manipuli)—“swung in the hands while performing the long jump; from this came the Greek name Δ (cf. hallesthai—to perform a jump)” AntŽ 1998, and also AtM 1981 9. “A very Greek, distinctive feature was that the training and competitions for all the pentathlon events were accompanied by the playing of the aulos” (SenGrK 2007 242). J. Parandowski’s artistically depicted Olympic Games in Olympia also mention “a slave who played the aulos for the jumpers and the discus and javelin throwers” (OD 1984 38). Incidentally, free citizens, like Athena, inventor of the aulos, gave it up because blowing into it distorted the face... “The musician usually played what was called a diaulos (two auloi of different sizes)” (MuzEnc I 2000), joined by a single mouthpiece (also called twin auloi—Greek δίδυμοι αὐλοί—SenGrK 2007 55). The aulos player, auletes MuzEnc I 2000 is mistakenly rendered as aleutas HŠv 1994 67, 142. Also found here is the spond a u l a s OD 1984 235, 239, 242, 244, whose first element resembles the word spondophoros—“an official of the cult of Olympia. There were three of them. Their duties included announcing the Olympic Games” OD 1984 278 (cf. Greek spondē—“a libation to the gods,” spondai—“a truce”) STŽ 2002), who also served as herald of the Olympiad. The Notes to J. Parandowski’s tale and STŽ 2002 do not include spond a u l a i, which for some reason blow not the aulos but flutes: spond a u l a i with flutes OD 1984 235. The spond a u l a i began to play flutes 239. The spond a u l a i played without taking the flutes from their lips 242. Before the spond a u l a i drew the flutes away from their bluish, swollen, wood-like lips 244. Thus, alongside the aulos, a lexical anachronism flutesuddenly appears out of nowhere (Italian flauto, Old French fleute—cf. Latin flatus—1. blowing, breeze LoLietŽ 2007). Alongside flute OD 1984 221, 239, 241, only flutist 38, 244, 258 is used, not the Greek auletes. The same author correctly writes: “Nowadays, in the literature of authors from various nations 148 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antikizmai... an unwary translation, flute, supplied by someone has become widespread, but it is incorrect to call the aulos by that name, since it has nothing in common with the flute” (SenGrK 2007: 55), but then: In the fourth century BC, Pericles also added competitions for musicians (flute players, kithara players) and singers SenGrK 2007 157. AntŽ 1998, however, almost entirely rejects the aulos: aulos (Greek aulos) ↗ flute, while flute (Greek aulos, Latin tibia). Elsewhere, instead of an auletes, even a trumpeter appears, OD 1984 253, Ist III 1995 268. Words from modern times are unsuitable for Antiquity—not only is the period’s character lost, but historical reality is also distorted. CONCLUSIONS The history of sport in Lithuania is relatively short, but the history of Lithuanian sports terminology encompasses the entire system of concepts in world sport (from Antiquity), as well as its changes and development. It has not been studied systematically, although this is the only way to make a substantial contribution to its standardization, especially the pressing work of Lithuanizing terms (creating Lithuanian equivalents) and adapting forms to Lithuanian. There have been many cases not only of wavering standardization, but also of disruption, disregard for the historical authenticity of terminology, and distortion. Sports dictionaries (1959, 1996, 2002) have reduced their number, but much effort is still needed, especially in usage. Recorded in 1935 as Olympia Games, for almost the entire Soviet period (in both sport and history) they were, following the Russian pattern, called Olympic Games; now they are once again becoming—as is proper—Olympia Games, although people still stumble over the wording. Lack of understanding of Lithuanian grammar continues to trip people up. Athens or Beijing Olympic Games are used successfully, but it is still not well understood that calling the Olympia Games Olympic Games would be equivalent to calling them Athenian Games (and indeed it is equivalent to calling them Pythian Games); many other languages use adjectives in both cases rather than a noun in the genitive. The adjective Olympic in modern Olympic Games is clearly motivated (cf. Greek walnut). Yet alongside the many well-founded combinations with this adjective there are also numerous rather vague, highly elaborate, and even empty expressions characteristic of its semantic meaning, often formulaic. Largely under the influence of Russian, olympiad is most often used (and sometimes explicitly claimed) to mean not the Olympia Games (although the sense of olympiad is also supported by spartakiad, universiad,...), but rather “the four-year period between Games.” The most modern meaning of olympiad—“a schoolchildren’s academic competition”—also gives rise to olympiad-related (not Olympic) and olympiad participant (not Olympian). The sports term olympietis (Olympian) arose irregularly, modeled on Russian олимпи-ец, which was not correctly understood: regularly, олимпи-ец: Олимпи-я (similarly in Polish, Terminologija | 2009 | 16 149 olimpij-szyk: Olimpj-a, German Olympi-er: Olympi-a). Having become detached from Olympia, they identify with Olympus... Is an olympiad participant only of schoolchildren’s rank? Incidentally, other languages generally have the modest expression “participant in the Olympic Games”—English participant in Olympic Games, German Olympiakämpfer, Olympiateilnehmer. The ancient olympionik, “winner of the Olympia Games,” is now also accepted and sometimes even proposed with the meaning “winner of the Olympic Games,” but it still remains as in Russian. The word gymnastics is inherited from Greek, but its conceptual content has changed considerably (as has that of gymnast); moreover, Greek gymnasìonas differs from the modern gymnasium. Stadium has changed little, but its ancient counterpart, stadion, is purely a historicism. Hippodrome was inherited without significant change. Perhaps the most prominent ancient historicisms are agon (recorded as early as 1936) and hellanodikes; pentathlon, pankration, and others are well known. An undesirable phenomenon is terminological anachronism, that is, the use of terms from modern sport (modernisms) in place of familiar historicisms: the English sport instead of ancient athletics and gymnastics, coach instead of aleiptes, and so on. This distorts historical reality. 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DŽ 1993: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. III pat. ir pap. leid., Vilnius. GrEnL 1968: Greek-English Lexicon compiled by Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott. Oxford. GrLŽ 1979: Graikų-lietuvių kalbų žodynas. Sudarė R. Mironas, Vilnius. Hor 1977: Horacijus. Lyrika. Vert. H. Zabulis, red. Vald. Petrauskas, Vilnius. HŠv 1994: D. Dilytė. Heladės šviesa. Vilnius. Ist III 1995: Istorija 3. Vert. A. Nastopkaitė ir A. Merkytė, red. L. Patriubavičienė, Vilnius. ItLŽ 1993: V. Petrauskas. Italy-lietuvių kalbų žodynas, Vilnius. Jarmala A. 1974: Apie žodį stadionas. – Lietuvos pionierius 81. Č. KalDS 1981: Č. Kalenda. Dorovės samprata. Red. T. Povilaitytė, Vilnius. KB: Kultūros barai (journal). Klimavičius J. 1974: Dar kartą apie stadioną. – Lietuvos pionierius 91. Klimavičius J. 1978: Kas turėtų rūpintis sporto kalba. – Kalba Vilnius 19, 4. Klimavičius J. 1981: Įmantrumas – klaidos brolis. – Naujos knygos 9, 42–45. 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SWO 1997: Słownik wyrazów obcych. Red. E. Sobol, Warszawa. Šl: Broom (magazine). Šv: Lighthouse (magazine). ŠR II 1991: Holy Scripture 2. Translated from Latin by J. A. Skvireckas, Vilnius. ŠR 1998: Šventasis raštas. Senasis ir Naujasis Testamentas. Senąjį Testamentą iš hebr., aram. ir gr. k. vert. A. Rubšys, Vilnius. ŠR 1999: Biblija arba Šventasis Raštas. Ekumeninis leidimas, Vilnius. Terminologija | 2009 | 16 151 T: Truth (weekly newspaper). TMkt: Soviet Teacher (newspaper). TMtr: Soviet Woman (magazine; P – magazine supplement Little Belly). TŽŽ 1936: Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. Sudarė K. Boruta, Pr. Čepėnas, S. Sirutytė-Čepėnienė, redagavo J. Žiugžda, peržiūrėjo Vacl. Biržiška, Pr. Dovydaitis, Kaunas. TŽŽ 1951: Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. Redagavo I. V. Liochinas ir F. N. Petrovas, vertė O. Katinskaitė, Ch. Lemchenas, J. Talmantas, lietuviškąjį leidimą redagavo Ch. Lemchenas, Vilnius. TŽŽ 1969: Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. Redagavo I. Liochinas, S. Lokšina, F. 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Žilinskas J. 1959: Žodžio sportas kilmė. – Sportas 115, 3. Ž.AntŽm 1987: G. Hattneris. Žymūs antikos žmonės. Vert. V. Manikaitė-Kazanskienė, red. L. Stanevičius, N. Chijenienė, Vilnius. ŽUŽ 1971: A. Anskaitis V., Kilas M. Rusų–lietuvių kalbų žemės ūkio terminų žodynas, Vilnius. АРиРАС „ЛДП“ 1969: Англо–русский и русско–английский словарь „ложных друзей переводчика“. Составили В. В. Акуленко, С. Ю. Комиссарчик, Р. В. Попова. В. Л. Юхт, под общим руководством В. В. Акуленко, Москва. FROM THE HISTORY OF SPORTS TERMINOLOGY: ANTICISMS, HISTORISMS AND MODERNISMS – ANACHRONISMS The history of Lithuanian sport is relatively short, though the history of Lithuanian sports terminology covers the whole concept system of world sport (from the times of Antiquity), its alternations and development. It has not been researched consistently, and only such research could have an essential input into its normalization, creation of Lithuanian equivalents, and adjustment of terms for the Lithuanian language. There was a lot of variation, even disarray, disregard and distortion of the historical reality of terminology. Dictionaries of sport (1959, 1996, and 2002) helped to reduce them, but still a lot of effort is needed, especially in the field of usage. In 1935, the term Olympic Games was recorded. During the Soviet era, on the analogy of the Russian term, it was changed to Olympic Games (olimpinės žaidynės). An attempt is being made to reintroduce Olympic Games of Olympia, although the attempt founders on a lack of understanding of Lithuanian grammar. Using olimpinės žaidynės instead of the historical Olympic Games of Olympia is like using Aienian Games instead of Athenian Games (the Olympic Games in Athens). The motivation for the adjective in olimpinės žaidynės is clear, although next to the numer- 152 Jonas Klimavičius | Iš sporto terminijos istorijos: antikizmai... ous reasoned word-combinations with this adjective there are many indefinite, elaborate, empty and frequently clichéd word-combinations. Mostly under the influence of Russian, olimpiada is often used not in the sense of Olympic Games of Olympia (though in this sense olimpiada is supported by spartakiada, universiada...), but rather in the sense of ‘a four-year period between Games’. From the most recent meaning of olimpiada—‘a school competition in a particular subject’—the words olimpiadinis (but not olimpinis) and olimpiadininkas (but not olimpietis) are derived. The word olimpietis (participant in the Olympic Games) appeared inconsistently, following the Russian word олимпи-ец, which was misunderstood. Consistently, the form would be олимпи-ец: Олимпи-я (compare Polish olimpii-szyk: Olimpi-a, German Olympi-er: Olympi-a). The Lithuanian form olimpietis moves further away from Olympia and closer to Olympus. Olimpiadininkas (participant in the Olympic Games) remains at the level of school competitions. In other languages, olimpietis becomes a rather modest ‘participant in the Games’—participant in Olympic Games in English, Olympiakämpfer and Olympiateilnehmer in German. Ancient olimpionikas ‘a winner of the games in Olympia’ sometimes is being allowed and proposed in the meaning of ‘a winner of the Olympic Games’. The word gimnastika (gymnastics) was inherited from Greeks, but the content of this concept has changed a lot (the same with gimnastas (gymnast)). Greek gimnasionas (a school in ancient Greece) and modern gimnazija (gymnasium) differ even more. Stadionas (stadium) has not changed much, but its antique foundation stadijus is now just a historism. Hipodromas (racecourse) was inherited without serious alterations. The clearest antique historisms are agonas (agon as ‘contest’) (recorded in 1936) and helanodikas (Hellanodikos), pentatlonas (pentathlon), pankrationas (pankration) and similar words are well known. Anachronisms of terminology, i.e. terms of the modern sport (modernisms) used instead of well-known historisms when talking about the ancient athletics are unwanted. Such are, for example English words sportas (sport) – instead of antique atletika (athletics) and gimnastika (gymnastics) and treneris (trainer, coach) – instead of alepīs. In these cases historical reality is distorted. Received 2009-12-28 Jonas Klimavičius Erfurto g. 56-14 04107 Vilnius, Lietuva Terminologija | 2009 | 16 153