Ūkinių pastatų liaudies terminija

184 Robertas Stunžinas | Folk terminology of farmhouse buildings Folk terminology of farmhouse buildings ROBERTAS STUNŽINAS Institute of Lithuanian Language KEY WORDS: construction folk terms, farm buildings names, synonyms, ambiguous terms, related terms, generic terms Scientific terms name the concepts of the field of science as a certain envelope named without connection with the concept is spontaneous, complex, heterogeneous and microsystems of lexical units system. However, they are members of the system. The emergence of folk terms connected by various semantic connections (for more on the origin of folk terminology of the dwelling house and its parts, synonymy, polysemantic, relation of genus and species and other matters see Stunžinas 2010: 130–143; 2011: 142–153). This article examines the popular terms for farm buildings1. They are analyzed in terms of the named concepts, origin and semantic relationships (synonymy2, polysemantic and relation of genus and species). The material is taken from the living language sources: the Great Dictionary of Lithuanian Language (electronic edition), the Druskininkai dialect dictionary, the Kaltanėnai dialect dictionary, the Kazlų Rūda dialect dictionary (I volume), the Kupiškėnai dialect dictionary (I volume), the Lazūnai dialect dictionary, the North-Eastern Dūnininkai dialect dictionary, the Zanavykai dialect dictionary (I–III volumes), the Lithuanian Language Atlas (I volume). In total, 196 different folk terms are analyzed3. 1 The term building is used in the meaning of a "house". It can also be used in the meaning of any building, see building "building, hut" (DŽ6). Farm buildings are complex structures in which farm supplies, clothing, grain, feed are stored, as well as buildings for holding livestock, cooking, bathing and auxiliary buildings. The farm buildings (cottages) do not include dependent and uncomplicated structures of various purposes – pavilions, roofs, outbuildings. The terminology of this group will be analyzed separately. 2 The article examines folk terminology as a set of terms of the whole folk language, in which synonymy and polysemancy are expressed. In addition, folk terms can be studied within the dialect, as its terminology system (for more details see Клепикова 1974: 31). 3 In the sources examined, it is possible to detect a number of variants of terms that are not considered separate terms in this article (for more on the concept of variant see Stunžinas 2008: 111–112). 185Terminologija | 2012 | 19 1. CONCEPT, ORIGIN OF TERMS, SYNONYMIES AND HIERARCHIC RELATIONSHIPS Lithuanian traditional farm buildings developed over centuries, changed. This may have contributed to the abundance and diversity of folk terminology in this area. For example, one of the first above-ground buildings with an open fireplace was a Žemaičių house – until the 16th century it was used for living and keeping livestock. With the development of livestock farming, a variant of residential building with rooms for keeping livestock was formed in Žemaitija. He was awarded the Order of Merit (1942–45). The residential house and farm buildings are described in the works of historians and ethnographers. One of the first to describe the traditional Lithuanian dwelling house, the barn connected to it, and the farm buildings in Lithuanian in the 19th century was the educator, historian, and ideologist of the national revival Simonas Daukantas. In his descriptions you can find the traditional names of the buildings: "The first of their huts in those forests was called nams, or namas, namaitis, which is why the whole nation from the ancient times was called nomads, by the way, people living in houses. <...>. The second door in that wall was as small as the big one, and led from the house to the barn, or barn, so called from the word tverti, from which they later called the whole life a barn, or manor, which at first was fenced off from the house, one of the side walls with the house itself, in which the livestock were tied by borders, cows, oxen, by the way” (Daukantas 1976: 429–430). Over time, the purpose of the house changed and it became a summer living room, kitchen, storage room or barn (about the development of the building see Butkevičius 1958: 157). Data from living language sources indicate that the term house refers to any farm building – “residential or some kind of hut; barn; bovine; separately built small cabin with a stove for summer“4 LKŽe. The term trobesys – "some farm building" in LKŽe, ZanavŽ3 481 also has a similar meaning. These two synonyms can be considered central terms of the microsystem under consideration – other terms are linked to them by hierarchical relationships. There are eighty-four species terms that are related to the related terms house and hut in a hyponymic relationship. Generic terms refer to ten buildings according to their purpose: 1) building for storing grains, grains and other supplies; 2) a building for storing, drying and threshing grain; 3) a building for loading grain and flax; 4) a building for drying linen; 5) a building for hay storage; 6) mau4 The article is based on the values of the sources. 186 Robertas Stunžinas | The building of the folk terminology of shelter buildings; 7) a building for food preparation; 8) a building for keeping livestock; 9) auxiliary buildings; (10) a food processing building. There are 100 terms related to the listed groups by hyponymous links. They go in generic terms and name buildings according to various characteristics (purpose, quality, construction, size, etc.). One of the main on the farm is a building for storing grain, grains and other supplies. Such a building is referred to by three synonymous terms – two Lithuanian and one Germanic: klėtis “a hut or part of a hut for pouring grain, storing clothes or otherwise, sleeping, barn” LKA I 47, KzRŽ I 368, ZanavŽ1 718, svirnas5 LKŽe, LKA I 47, DrskŽ 362, LzŽ 252; ×6špykėrė (German: Speicher) LKŽe, LZRŽ I 47, ZanavŽ3 331. The traditional barn has been described by Daukantas: "The third hut was called klėtis, from the word klėti, raised from the ground by a cubit or half on cobblestones or large stones, grounded and roofed with boards because of the dryness, in which the grains were sleeping, or in pots, clothes, meat, furs and skins were kept, by the way, yields and cast objects; It had sometimes one room, sometimes two, three and four <...>“ (Daukantas 1976: 433). The terms barn and barnhouse are considered partial synonyms – historically they had different meanings. Written sources from the 16th century show that the barn was used for sleeping and storing clothes, and the barn for storing grain (Dundulienė 1982: 114, 1991: 101). Thus, in this article, synonyms are considered to be terms denoting the same and very similar concepts7. Four terms – three Lithuanian and one Germanic – are linked to the terms denoting the klėtis (svirnas) by hyponymous links. They go with the specific names of the barn and indicate the features of purpose, size, quality or construction: drapanė „drapanų skėtis“ LKŽe, KpŽ 434, granary „digger barn“ LKŽe, LKA I 47, ZanavŽ3 236, svirnynas „poor, weak barn“ 5 The meanings of synonymous terms are not written. 6 Crossed out foreign languages. Based on the notes of the Lithuanian language dictionary. 7 The broad concept of synonymous terms is important because of the ambiguity of the meanings of popular terms. In the theory of terminology, synonyms are usually considered to be completely identical terms – duplicates (Ахманова 1966: 13, Даниленко 1977: 53; Головин, Кобрин 1987: 54). Duplicates identify the same objects, have the same distribution, and can replace each other without changing the content (Kuryška 1993: 109). People’s terminology is not characterized by the strictness of meanings and use, so it is difficult to determine exactly which terms are completely identical in terms of meanings and which are not. 187Terminologija | 2012 | 19 LKŽe; "The 100 Most Beautiful Places in the World: The 100 Most Beautiful Places in the World: The 100 Most Beautiful Places in the World: The 100 Most Beautiful Places in the World". Another of the most important traditional farm buildings was a building for storing, drying and threshing grain. This structure and its name have been mentioned by Daukantas: “The fifth hut was also elongated in shape, called a rea, in which the grain was dried, taken out of the pit, laid on the barn” (Daukantas 1976: 436). The living language sources show that this building is called by seven synonyms – five Lithuanian, one Latvian and one Germanic: kluonas LKŽe, LKA I 53, DrskŽ 159, KltŽ 115, LzŽ 123, ZanavŽ1 731, daržinė LKŽe, LKA I 53, jauja LKŽe, LKA I 53, klojimas LKŽe, ZanavŽ1 728, straudinė LKŽe; reja(la. rija) LKŽe, LKA I 53; ×skūnia (vid. vok. žem. schūne) LKA I 53, LKŽe. Reja is considered to be a Latvianism, it is believed to be of Finnish origin (Sabaliauskas 1990: 273, Urbutis 2009: 385; Karulis 2001: 755). The listed terms are associated by hyponymous relations with seven generic terms, denoting the characteristics of the building’s purpose (3 terms), construction (2 terms), size (1 term), construction and size (1 term). Three composite Lithuanian terms refer to a barn for storing grain: javinė daržinė LKA I 53; laukinė daržinė LKA I 53, lauko daržinė LKA I 53. The Germanic skūnia refers to a barn with one or two rows: ×skūnia (Middle Low German schūne) "grain-loading hut with one row" LKA I 53, ×skūnia (Middle Low German schūne) "grain-loading hut with two rows" LKA I 53. One Lithuanian term refers to a small barn – klojimėlis „nedidelis klojimas“ LzŽ 122, and another – according to construction and quality or size – kloniokas „poor material, weak8 barn“ KzRŽ I 373. The building for storing hay is called thirty synonyms. Twenty-seven terms are mononyms – sixteen Lithuanian, six Slavic, one Germanic and four hybrids: daržinė LKŽe, LKA I 56, KltŽ 40, KpŽ 342, daržinėlė KltŽ 40, diendaržinė LKA I 57, jaujė LKA I 57, klaimas LKA I 57, klojimas LKA I 57, kluonas LKA I 57, kluonelis LKA I 57, kluoniukas LKA I 57, padanginė LKŽe, LKA I 57, pašarinė LKA I 57, pridaržė LKA I 57, prieklaimys LKA I 57, priekluonis LKA I 57, stoginė 8 The adjective menkas may have several meanings: menkas 1. ‘small, insignificant size, small volume’; 7. "bad, unsuitable, not good" in LKŽ. 188 Robertas Stunžinas | Folk terminology of cottage buildings LKŽe, LKA I 57, šieninė LKŽe, LKA I 57, ZanavŽ3 271; ×adryna (Brus. адрына, l. odryna) LKA I 57, ×kaladnykas (Brus. холодник, l. chłodnik "tent, leafy") LKA I 57, ×padakė (L. poddasze) LKA I 57, ×pavietis (Brus. павец "woodshed") LKA I 57, ×salošius (L. szałas "tent, shed") LKA I 57, ךopas (L. szopa < German Schuppen LKŽe) LKA I 57; ×skūnia (Middle Low German schūne LKA I 53) LKA I 57, ZanavŽ3 96; ×adrynėlė (Hebrew, from Hebrew adryna and Lithuanian suffix -ėlė) LKA I 57, ×skūnelė (Hebrew, from Hebrew skūnia and Lithuanian suffix -ėlė) LKA I 57, ×skūngalis (Hebrew, from Hebrew skūnia and Lithuanian suffix -yčia) LKA I 57, ךieninyčia (Hebrew, from Hebrew šieninė and Lithuanian suffix -yčia) LKA I 57. Daukantas has written about a building for stowing hay, he called such a building a roof and a garden: "The next hut was called a roof or a garden, an elongated quarter, into which grain, straw or hay was loaded <...> called a roof, because it had a roof, the walls were already logs, already timber" (Daukantas 1976: 437). The building for hay storage is named by three Lithuanian compound terms: fodder garden LKA I 57, hay garden LKA I 57, hay garden LKA I 57. It is important to note that some terms may be considered partial synonyms because they refer to different concepts. According to the data of the Lithuanian language atlas collectors, separate buildings for storing hay were rarely found, mostly hay was stored in buildings presented next to other buildings (LKA 1977: 57). Sometimes buildings for hay storage were built in meadows, they corresponded in their form and construction to those in farms (Butkevičius 1971: 191). These structures had walls and were used as buildings. Two small groups of terms denote a building for loading grain and flax and a building for drying flax. The first is called by three synonyms – two Lithuanian and one Latvian: jauja LKŽe, ZanavŽ1 563, pirtis LKŽe, ZanavŽ2 409; raja (Lat. rija) LKŽe, DūnŽ 301. The group of names of the second building also consists of three synonyms – two Lithuanian and one hybrid: žardinė LKŽe, žardininkas LKŽe; 1980) 1919 – Jaroslav Hašek, Czech composer and pianist (d. priesagos -inčia) LKŽe. A swimming pool is also included in the farm buildings. The main name of the bathing building is a sauna. Aukštaičiai and Dzūkai called a bath room a sauna, Zanavykai and Kapsai – a building for drying flax, Žemaičiai – a room for drying grain. The Žemaičiai named the bathing building perena (LEB 1964: 277). Ethnographers argue that the sauna is the primary meaning of the bathing building. About this wrote Daukantas and sauna in the 19th century. 189Terminologija | 2012 | 19 called the Žemaičių bathing building: „The shack was called sauna; in the sauna itself there was a stove, on half of the walls there were sinks, from the word wash <...>; to which the saunas led not only guests and travellers, but also consignments from foreign nations: in ancient times, the greatest honour was to take a stranger to the sauna and send him away <...>“ (Daukantas 1976: 437). Later, the bathing building was called in different terms, but according to local researchers, the original meaning of the sauna was best preserved by the eastern Highlanders (Butkevičius 1971: 198). From the examined sources it is clear that the group of names of bathing buildings consists of six synonyms: three Lithuanian, two Slavic and one Germanic: pirtis LKŽe, LKA I 58, DrskŽ 267, KltŽ 216, ZanavŽ2 409, jauja LKŽe, perenė LKŽe, LKA I 58, DūnŽ 254; ×banė (Russian, brush dial. баня) LKA I 58, ×laznė (Lt. łaznia, brush. лазня) LKA I 58, LKŽe; 1958. pp. 58. "Baden und LKŽe stuba" (in German). The names of the cottage buildings include four terms denoting food-cooking buildings – three Lithuanian and one hybrid: namas „separately built small hut with a stove for the summer“ in LKŽ, nickname „small hut made of boards, where meat is smoked, cooked in summer, potatoes are baked for pigs“ in LKŽ, viralinė „separate kitchen building or annex, summer kitchen“ in LKŽ, DūnŽ 443, ubladė (hib., from German ubas) „separate hut, where there is a bread-baking oven or where a cattle-house is repaired“ in LKŽ. Ubladė is typical of Žemaičiai, it is a small building with a brick bread oven and a chamber for storing tools. The traditional ublade was described by Daukantas: “The sixth hut is called ublade, in which there was a bread baker kakalys, from that it is called, that under it not only bread and cakes, <...> fish and meat were baked already in the linden beds, already on straw; tengi dried grains, mushrooms and apples for the apple orchard, tengi were also used to grind grains in mills, like at rymionis, where they milled grains and baked bread. As I said, there was also a sauna in those ubladės with the poor, because the stove was also piled on the brickwork” (Daukantas 1976: 436). This building is also known as the Namuliu in the local history works. It is believed that the name of the ubladė originated from the name of the room of the residential house where there was a stove and a chimney (Gutautas, Kneižys 1992: 347). All the names of the buildings mentioned are considered synonyms – they have the same core of meaning and differ only in secondary features. Most of the terminology under consideration consists of terms for buildings used to house livestock. A hundred places are used to name the forts. 190 Robertas Stunžinas | Folk terminology of cottage buildings ten terms. Thirteen terms are to be regarded as general stable names, nine of them are Lithuanian, e.g.: gurbas (Sabaliauskas 1970: 34) LKŽe, LKA I 49, kūginys LKŽe, LKA I 49, pūnė LKŽe, LKA I 49, tvarčiukas LKA I 49, tvartas LKŽe, LKA I 49, DrskŽ 424, KltŽ 365, LzŽ 273, ZanavŽ3 510. It is also known as the House of the House. Historically, the term house originated from the name of the residential building – in the old houses livestock were kept under one roof. With the development of livestock farming in Žemaitija, a new variant of the residential building (also called namaliu by the Žemaičiai) with rooms for keeping livestock was formed (LLA 1965: 42–43). Daukantas also mentions such a building: „The second door <...> led from the house to the barn, or barn, so called from the word tverti, from which later all life called tvaru, or manor, which at first was fenced off from the timber, one side walls with the house itself, in which barn were animals tied by borders, by the way cows, oxen“ (Daukantas 1976: 430). The name of the village is also translated as "Lithuanian village". It is also known by the name of the bathing hut – jauja LKŽe. The building for keeping livestock is called by the name of the structure – cover LKŽe, LKA I 49. There are also five borrowings – three Slavisms, one Latvianism and one Germanism: ×abarės (l. obora LKŽe) LKA I 50, ×stainia (brus. cтaйня l. stajnia) LKŽe, stodas (brus. stado Fraenkel 1962: 910) LKŽe; kūtė (la. kuts) LKA I 49, LKŽe, DūnŽ 162, ZanavŽ1 818; ×staldas (german dial. stall) LKŽe, LKA I 50, ZanavŽ3 163. The name has a regional connotation. The term barn is the most widely used, it is known in common language and in a large area of dialects (southern, central and eastern part of Lithuania). Kūtė is used in the northern part of Lithuania, gurbas – in the north-eastern corner, staldas – in the southern part of Žemaitija, pūnė – in the eastern Highland dialect area, namas, dangtis and abarės – in certain areas of central Lithuania, kūginys – in a small area of eastern Highland dialects (Sabaliauskas 1970: 30–49). Ninety-eight generic terms are associated with common barn names by hyponymous links, denoting features of purpose (92 terms), construction (2 terms) and size (4 terms). The largest group of terms refers to the horse stable. Historians note that this building was called by more than one term: horse stable, horse barn (Daukantas 1976: 430–431). From the sources of living language it is clear that the terms denoting the horse stable form a row of twenty-seven synonyms. Life 191Terminologija | 2012 | 19 word terms are sixteen: four Lithuanian, three Slavic, two Germanic and seven hybrids: arklidė LKŽe, LKA I 50, KpŽ 66, LzŽ 23, ZanavŽ1 58, arkliatvartis LKŽe, LKA I 51, arklinė LKŽe, LKA I 50, arklynkas LKA I 50; ×abarai (brus. илира, l. obora LKA I 50) LKA I 51, ×kaniušnia (brus. канюшня) DrskŽ 136, LKA I 51, ×stainia (brus. cтaйня, l. stajnia) LKŽe, LKA I 51, DrskŽ 346, ZanavŽ3 161; ×staldė (german dial. stall) LKŽe, ×straja (german dial. štraie, štrei) LKŽe; ×arklistaldis (Hebrew, from Lithuanian arklys and German staldas) LKA I 51, ×kaniūkštė (Hebrew, from Slavonic kanušnia and Lithuanian suffix -tė) LKA I 51, ×stainelė (Hebrew, from Slavonic stainia and Lithuanian suffix -elė) LKA I 51, ×stainikė (Hebrew, from Slavonic stainia and Lithuanian suffix -ikė) LKA I 51, ×staininė (Hebrew, from Slavonic stainia and Lithuanian suffix -inė) LKŽe, LKA I 51, ×stojinė (Hebrew, from Slavonic stoinia and Lithuanian suffix -inė) LKŽe, LKA I 51, מirginyčia (Hebrew, from Lithuanian žirgas and Lithuanian suffix -ynyčia) LKŽe. A. Sabaliauskas has pointed out that kanušnė (kaniušnia) is probably borrowed from the Belarusian language, and the forms with insertion -kyra have already appeared in the Lithuanian language soil (Sabaliauskas 1970: 54). The horse stable is also named in twelve compound terms, most of which have Lithuanian elements: arklinis pūnė LKA I 50, arklinis ažudaras LKA I 51, arklinis gurbas LKA I 50, arklinis tvartas LKA I 50, arklių dangtis LKA I 50, arklių gurbas LKA I 50, arklių namas LKA I 50, arklių pūnė LKA I 50, arklių tvartas LKA I 50. A group of mixed terms consists of terms with Lithuanian dependent and borrowed main elements: arklių kūtė (Lat. kuts) LKA I 50, arklių ×staldas (German dialect stall) LKA I 50, arklių ×stelingis (Lat. stelingis "garden", German dialect stellinge "fence") LKA I 51. The cowshed is marked with twenty-two synonymous terms – nine singulars and thirteen compounds. Fourteen terms are Lithuanian – seven single words and seven compound words: bandininkas LKA I 50, galvidė LKŽe, galvijinė LKA I 50, gyvulininkas LKA I 50, karvidė LKŽe, LKA I 50, KzRŽ I 326, karvinys LKŽe, LKA I 50, numas LKA I 50; galvijinė pūnė LKA I 50, galvijų tvartas LKA I 50, karvidis tvartas LKA I 50, karvinė pūnė LKA I 50, karvinis gurbas LKA I 50, karvinis tvartas LKA I 50, karvių pūnė LKA I 50. There are also two Slavisms for cow stable: ×abarės (Brus. абора, lt. obora) LKA I 50, ×valaunios (Brus. валоуня "ox stable") LKA I 50. Six compound terms are mixed – all of their dependent elements are Lithuanian, and the main elements are Latvian or Germanic: herds stable (latin kuts) LKA I 50, cattle stable (latin kuts) LKA 192 Robertas Stunžinas | Folk terminology of farm buildings I 50, cow stables (la. kuts) LKA I 50; herd ×stald (german dial. stall LKŽe) LKA I 50, cattle ×stald (german dial. stall LKŽe) LKA I 50, cattle ×stald (german dial. stall LKŽe) LKA I 50. The group of names of bull stables consists of four synonymous terms – two Lithuanian and two hybrids: jaučiatvartis LKA I 50, jautidė LKŽe; ×builinė (Hebrew, from German builis and Lithuanian suffix -inė) LKŽe, ×jautstaldis (Hebrew, from Lithuanian tautis and German staldas) ZanavŽ1 567. It should be mentioned that the terms denoting cows and oxen barn can be assessed in two ways – as hyponyms of common barn names or as hyponyms of the term cattle. The term "cattle" also goes with the general name of the cattle barn - "cattle barn" in the LKŽ. Pig barn is called nineteen synonymous terms. Six terms are mononyms, of which three are Lithuanian, two are hybrids: kiauliatvartis LKŽe, LzŽ 116, kiaulidė LKŽe, LKA I 51, kiaulinys LKŽe; ×kiaulinčius (Hebrew, from lit. kiaulė and Slav. suffix -inčius) LKŽe, ×kiaulinyčia (Hebrew, from lit. kiaulė and Slav. suffix -inyčia) LKŽe. The same name is also used for the horse stable, which is a canoe stable (Russian: канюшня, LKA I 51). Thirteen terms are compound terms, nine are Lithuanian: kiaulinė pūnė LKA I 51, kiaulinė pūnelė LKA I 51; kiaulinis gurbas LKA I 51, kiaulinis gurbeliokas LKA I 51, kiaulinis gurbelis LKA I 51; kiaulinis tvartas LKA I 51, kiaulinis tvarčiukas LKA I 51, kiaulinis tvartelis LKA I 51, kiaulinis tvartukas LKA I 51. The group of mixed terms is dominated by terms with Lithuanian dependent and hybrid main elements: kiaulinė ×kūtelė (Hybrid, from Latin kuts and Lithuanian suffix -elė) LKA I 51, kiaulinis ×staldalis (Hybrid, from German staldas and Lithuanian suffix -alis) LKA I 51, kiaulinis ×staldukas (Hybrid, from German staldas and Lithuanian suffix -ukas) LKA I 51. One term has a Lithuanian dependent and a Latvian principal – kiaulių tvartas (latin kuts) LKA I 51. Sheep barn is marked with seven synonymous terms: five Lithuanian, one Germanic and one hybrid: avidė LKŽe, avikinė LKŽe, avinykė LKŽe, DrskŽ 25, avininkas ZanavŽ1 86, avitvartis LKŽe; ךkūnia (German dialect schūne) LKŽe; ×avinyčia(hibr., iš liet. avis ir slav. priesagos -inyčia) LKŽe. There are few known species of birds. The chicken barn is referred to by five synonymous terms: three Lithuanian, one Slavic and one hybrid: vištidė LKA I 52, LKŽe, vištinė LKŽe, vištinykas LKŽe; ×coot (brus. кoтyx, l. kotuch) LKŽe, KltŽ 103; ×chickenhouse