Pastatų konstrukcijų ir jų sudedamųjų dalių liaudies terminija

Folk terminology for building structures and their components ROBERTAS STUNŽINAS Institute of the Lithuanian Language KEYWORDS: folk construction terms, names of building structures, synonyms, polysemous terms, generic terms, specific terms Folk terminology denoting traditional buildings, structures and their parts, construction tools and materials is a rich and interesting lexical layer and an important source of scientific terminology. A considerable part of this terminology has been recorded in the works of regional researchers, which describe the characteristics of homestead buildings, structures and their parts, as well as regional similarities and differences. Many folk construction terms are found in sources documenting facts of living speech—dialect dictionaries, the Atlas of the Lithuanian Language, and the academic Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language. Analysis of the terms in these sources and their microsystems reveals the diversity, regional character, vividness, synonymy, polysemy, homonymy, and hierarchical relations of the means of expression used in terminology denoting residential and farm buildings (for more on the microsystems of terminology for residential houses and farm buildings, see Stunžinas 2010: 130–142; 2011: 142–153; 2012: 184–198). Ethnographers’ works also discuss the components of traditional buildings in considerable detail; they provide names for principal structures and their parts, for example: čerpe LEB 233, gontai LEB 233, grebėstas LEB 233, grindys LEB 211, kazilas LEB 233, kraigas LEB 235, lota LEB 233, lubos LEB 211, ožys LEB 235, pamatas LEB 230, sąlaida LEB 232, sąspara LEB 210, siena LEB 220, skarda LEB 233, sluogstis LEB 235, sparas LEB 233, stogas LEB 211, šulas LEB 231, vėtrinė LEB 233. Considerably more folk terms denoting building structures and their parts can be found in sources presenting living-language data. The aim of this article is to examine the terminology for building structures and their parts found in such sources in terms of the concepts denoted, origin, and semantic relations—synonymy1, 1 In this article, as in earlier work, folk terminology is examined as the set of terms used across the folk language as a whole, in which synonymy and polysemy are manifested. Folk terms can also be studied within the boundaries of a dialect, as its terminological system (for more, see Klepikova 1974: 31). 180 Robertas Stunžinas Pastatų konstrukcijų ir jų sudedamųjų dalių liaudies terminija polysemy, homonymy, and hierarchy—relations. The material was drawn from the following sources: the academic Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (electronic edition), the Dictionary of the Druskininkai Dialect, Dictionary of the Kaltanėnai Speech, Dictionary of the Kazlų Rūda Speech (vol. I), the Dictionary of the Kupiškėnai (vol. I), the Dictionary of the Lazūnai Dialect, Dictionary of the Northeastern Dzūkian Speech Varieties, Dictionary of the Zanavykai Speech (vols. I–III), and the Atlas of the Lithuanian Language (vol. I). In total, 422 distinct folk terms2 are analyzed3. 1. CONCEPTS, ORIGIN OF TERMS, SYNONYMY, AND HIERARCHICAL RELATIONS Traditional Lithuanian buildings displayed considerable regional variation. For example, the Samogitian house is characterized by a long and wide body, low walls clad vertically, a massive, thatched half-hipped roof, and a complex floor plan. The body of an Aukštaitian dwelling is long and narrow, its walls of medium height, and its roof a thatched gable roof. Porches were built at the entrance, and two transverse walls divided the entire building into three main sections. Traditional homes in Suvalkija share many features with Samogitian and Aukštaitian homes. However, traditional Lithuanian buildings also shared structural characteristics: they typically had horizontal-log walls, interlocking corner joints, thatched roofs in half-hipped, hipped, or gable forms, stone foundations, and so on (LEB 216–224). Names for foundations and their parts. In Lithuania, stone foundations have no tradition—most old buildings were erected directly on the ground. Masonry foundations are attested from the 17th century onward (MS 2008: 18). Sources of living speech show that a foundation is referred to by three terms—a Lithuanian term, a Slavic term, and a hybrid: pamatas ‘the lower part of a structure, on which the entire structure rests’ LKŽe, LKA I 35, fundamentas (from Belarusian хундамент Fraenkel 1962: 3054) LKA I 35, KzRŽ I 200, pamūra (hybrid, Lithuanian pa- and Polish mur LKŽe) LKA I 35. Three terms denoting stone and masonry foundations can be regarded as specific names—a Lithuanian term, a Slavic term, and a hybrid: papamatis ‘stones under 2 The sources under examination contain many term variants, which are not treated as separate terms in this article (for more on the concept of a variant, see Stunžinas 2008: 111–112). Only principal variants are analyzed; these are defined as the terms most widely used or identified as principal in the sources. 3 The article draws on material from the author’s dissertation (see Stunžinas R. Folk Construction Terms, Vilnius, 2011). 4 The term’s origin and source are indicated in parentheses. Terminologija | 2013 | 20 181 “a foundation made of foundational timber,” LKŽe, DūnŽ 238, xpodmūrauka (1. podmurówka LKŽe) “a masonry-built foundation,” LKA I 36, pamūrė (hybrid, Lithuanian pa- and Polish mur LKŽe) “a masonry-built foundation,” LKA I 35, DrskŽ 243. Buildings erected without foundations were characterized by clay-covered structures called pašaliai. These were made of clay and gravel to protect the lower log courses from damp and cold. This method of reinforcing foundations was characteristic of residential buildings until the 19th century (LLA 1965: 46). The structures under discussion are designated by two Lithuanian terms: pašalys “an area along the outside of a building wall” LKŽe, pamatas “earth piled up outside along a wall (or stone or masonry foundation), a pašalys” LKA I 35. Two Lithuanian terms denote other structures associated with foundations: antpamatis “a raised mound piled around a house along its foundation for warmth” LKŽe, popėdis “the foundation stone for a barn’s supports” LKŽe. Floor terminology. In traditional dwellings, barns, granaries, and porches, the clay floor was rammed until the 19th century. In rural dwellings built in the 19th–20th centuries, plank floors were already being laid. Earthen floors survived into the 20th century in the entrance halls and storage rooms of Aukštaitian dwellings, the main rooms of Žemaitian houses, and farm buildings (VLE II 2002: 82). The sources examined show that a rammed-earth floor is designated by twelve terms—nine single-word terms and three two-word terms. Eight of the single-word terms are Lithuanian and one is Latvian: asla LKŽe, LKA I 36, DrskŽ 20, KzRŽ I 29, grendymas LKA I 37, DrskŽ 111, KzRŽ I 251, LžŽ 86, ZanavŽ I 496, grinda LKŽe, kluonas LKA I 37, laitas LKŽe, LKA I 37, plonas (Latvian plāns) LKA I 37, LKŽe. By metaphorical extension based on similarity of function, the floor is named after a part of the human body—padas LKŽe, LKA I 37, KltŽ 195. The floor is also designated metonymically by the material from which it is made—molis LKA I 37, žemė LKŽe, LKA I 37. One two-word term has two Lithuanian components; two have Slavic main components and Lithuanian dependent components: molio grindys LKA I 37, molinėxpadlaga (Polish podłoga, Belarusian падлога) LKA I 37, molinisxpamastas (Polish pomost LKŽe) LKA I 37. The term asla is also used to mean a plank floor. This structure is designated by six terms in all: three Lithuanian, two Slavic, and one Latvian: asla LKA I 36, KpŽ I 73, grindys LKA I 37, KzRŽ I 255, KpŽ I 742, ZanavŽ I 507, paklotė LKA I 38, xpadlaga LKŽe, LKA I 37, ZanavŽ II 302, xpamastas LKŽe, LKA I 38, xparlagas (Latvian pārlags, 182 Robertas Stunžinas Pastatų konstrukcijų ir jų sudedamųjų dalių liaudies terminija cf. Russian перелог) LKŽe, LKA I 38. Two Lithuanian terms function as subtype names and designate floors serving various purposes: pagrindas “a poor-quality, lower floor, a subfloor” LKŽe, juodgrindės “a poor-quality, lower floor” ZanavŽ I 576. Names for walls and their parts. The walls of traditional buildings were of three types: post, timber-frame, and log structures. Post structures were the oldest and most primitive; they disappeared because they were drafty and short-lived. Timber-frame structures were also rare in Lithuania—they were characteristic of non-forested areas and poor builders. Log structures predominated in Lithuania from the mid-first millennium. They supported the roof securely and retained heat well. Log-building methods varied across traditional buildings: in eastern Lithuania, the wall logs were joined with lap joints; in the west, they were joined along flat surfaces (MS 2008: 18; LLA 1965: 46). The sources examined yielded the greatest number of terms for log structures and their parts. The entire log framework is designated by five synonymous terms of different origins: three Lithuanian, one Slavic, and one Germanic: graža “the assembled walls of a wooden building (without roof or foundation)” LKŽe, KpŽ I 712, rentinys LKŽe, DrskŽ 302, kertinys LKŽe, xzrūbas (Slavic) LKŽe, LzŽ 293, xriūmas (Germanic; Sabaliauskas 1990: 265) LKŽe. A log wall is designated by two Lithuanian synonyms: siena LKŽe, DrskŽ 324, LzŽ 233, ZanavŽ III 47, sienojus LKŽe. A Lithuanian term serves as a subtype name for a narrowing wall of a building—skliautas “the narrowing wall at the end of a house in the attic” LKŽe. The plural form of this term designates a subtype concept—the narrowing wall of a granary. The group of names for this structure consists of seven terms in all—one Lithuanian and six Slavic: skliautai LKA I 49, xpadvolas (Polish powala “ceiling of a log wall”) LKA I 49, xpavolas (Polish powala) LKA I 49, xpavalašas (Polish powala) LKA I 49, xviškos (Belarusian вышки) LKŽe, LKA I 49, xvolas (Polish wał “embankment”) LKA I 49, xzakatas (Belarusian заком “the gable of a cottage, the front gable”) LKA I 49. A wall log is designated by three synonymous Lithuanian terms: medžias KltŽ 166, sienojas LKŽe, DrskŽ 324, sienolis LKŽe. Subtype terms designate wall logs according to various distinguishing features. Most terms name wall logs according to their location and purpose. The group of names for the lower wall logs comprises eight synonymous terms: one Lithuanian, two Slavic, one Germanic, and four hybrid: pam atinis LKŽe, LKA I 35, xpadamentas (Belarusian хундамент) LKŽe, xpadrūba Terminologija | 2013 | 20 183 (Slavic) LKA I 36, LzŽ 181, xšvelys (German Schwelle LKŽe) LKŽe, xbalkinis (hybrid, German Balken and Lithuanian -inis) LKŽe, xpabalkinis (hybrid, Lithuanian pa-, German Balken and Lithuanian -inis) LKŽe, xpadamentinis (hybrid, Belarusian хундамент and Lithuanian -inis) LKŽe, xpamūrlotis (hybrid, Lithuanian pa-, Polish mur and German Latte) LKŽe, LKA I 36. The middle wall log is designated by the Lithuanian term įmatas LKŽe. The group of names for upper wall logs consists of ten synonyms—nine Lithuanian and one Slavic: gegninis LKŽe, KpŽ I 627, grąžas LKŽe, ilginis LKŽe, kreklinis LKŽe, krekūinė LKŽe, pagegninis LKŽe, perejinis LKŽe, perlaidas LKŽe, sparinis LKŽe, xlabokas (Slavic) LKŽe. According to size, wall logs are designated by three terms—Lithuanian, Germanic, and hybrid: sienojokas “small wall log” LKŽe, xbalkigalis (hybrid, German Balken and Lithuanian galas) “small log end” LKŽe, xbalkis (Belarusian бал(ь)ка Urbutis 2009: 422) “thick log” LKŽe, KzRŽ I 52, ZanavŽ I 103. Two Lithuanian and one Slavic term designate wall logs according to their structural features: krump-linis “a log in a wooden house with a notch or tooth made to join it to another log” LKŽe, pervaras “a long barn wall log running from one end to the other” LKŽe, xbrusas (Polish brus, Belarusian брус) “log end, square log” LKŽe. A short wall log is metaphorically named after an animal: šuniukas LKŽe. The row of log courses around the four walls is called by the Lithuanian term vainikas LKŽe, KltŽ 375, LzŽ 278, ZanavŽ III 554. The group of specific names comprises terms designating foundation and upper crowns. The foundation crown is denoted by three terms with the same meaning, two Lithuanian and one Germanic: pakertalas LKŽe, pamatai LKŽe, xšveliai (German Schwelle) LKŽe. The upper crown of log courses is called by two synonymous terms—Lithuanian and Slavic: gegninis LKŽe, xmūrlotas (Polish murlat, German dialect mūrenlatte) LKŽe. A connecting log is designated by one Lithuanian and two Slavic terms: sija KltŽ 270, LKŽe, xbrosas (cf. brusas l. brus, Belarusian брус LKŽe) ZanavŽ I 175, xbalkis (Belarusian бал(ь)ка Urbutis 2009: 422) LKŽe, DrskŽ 27, KzRŽ I 52, ZanavŽ I 103. The group of specific names comprises ten terms designating connecting logs according to function and affiliation. Seven terms are Lithuanian, one is Slavic, and two are hybrids: ilginė “a beam on which the ceiling is laid” LKŽe, jungas “a beam joining the floor joists somewhat below the ridge” LKŽe, permetė “a transverse beam connecting things” LKŽe, sanvirža “a transverse reinforcing beam” LKŽe, stapas “a supporting beam” LKŽe, užla “a ceiling beam” LKŽe, virdis “barn- 184 Robertas Stunžinas Pastatų konstrukcijų ir jų sudedamųjų dalių liaudies terminija cross-beam or floor beam” LKŽe, xzavolas (Slavic) “lower floor or barn beam” LKŽe, xskersbalkis (hybrid, Lithuanian skersas and German Balken LKŽe) “cross-beam” LKŽe, xtrambalkis (hybrid, Lithuanian tramas and German Balken LKŽe) “a main transverse beam supporting longitudinal beams” LKŽe. The strength and heat-retaining capacity of log walls depended on how closely the wall logs fitted together. Logs were fitted together in three ways: with notches on top, underneath, and with flat surfaces (MS 2008: 19). The various grooves, notches, cuts, and channels in logs are designated by seven terms: five Lithuanian, one Slavic, and one Germanic: kertė “a cut in a log or tree” LKŽe, DrskŽ 148, karpas “a notch in a log, the cutting of house corners” LKŽe, mazgas “the place where logs are cut and joined together” LKŽe, rentimas “a cut, notch, or nick (in wall logs)” LKŽe, šonkaklis “a notch for interlocking wall logs” LKŽe, xpozas (Belarusian naz, Polish paz) “a lengthwise groove cut into a log so that joined logs fit more closely together” LKŽe, ZanavŽ II 458, xkanė (German Kanne) “a notch at the end of a log for joining corners” LKŽe. The gap between wall logs is designated by five synonyms—three Lithuanian, one Slavic borrowing, and one term of uncertain origin: sienotarpis LKŽe, sklinda LKŽe, tarpsienis LKŽe, xžalabas (cf. Polish žłób) LKŽe, xbukantas LKŽe. This term is thought to be a Slavic borrowing; cf. kantas (Polish kant, kąt) LKŽe. The place where walls intersect is called by five synonymous terms: three Lithuanian, one Latvian, and one Slavic: kampas LKŽe, KzRŽ I 314, LzŽ 105, ZanavŽ I 609, kertė LKŽe, sąspara LKŽe, DrskŽ 317, ZanavŽ III 20, stūrys (Latvian stūris) LKŽe, xkantas (Polish kant, kąt) LKŽe. In the works of regional researchers, it is stated that the methods of joining logs are called sąspara and kertė (raktu, capu). In one case, the ends of the crossed logs protrude, while in the other the ends are trimmed (LEB 232). Some of the terms can be found in the sources examined: sąspara LKŽe, ZanavŽ III 20, kertė LKŽe, xcapas (Polish cap, German dialect žape) “a cut made for joining logs, a joint” LKŽe, KzRŽ I 101, KpŽ I 272, ZanavŽ I 203. It has been observed that in colloquial speech two terms are used instead of rakto5: the Lithuanian spyna LKŽe, ZanavŽ III 145, and the Slavic xzomkas (Polish zamek) LKŽe. A component of a post construction is designated by two synonyms—Lithuanian and Germanic: stulpas LKŽe, DrskŽ 353, xstenderis (German dialect ständer) LKŽe. 5 In the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, this term is marked as a regional word: The walls of log houses are usually built from 13 log crowns; at the corners, the logs are joined with a key (corner joint, cap joint), less often to a post (upright) rs LKŽe. Terminologija | 2013 | 20 185 Names of window structures and their parts. The simplest windows were frameless openings cut into the wall and covered with sliding boards. From the 16th century, the windows of residential buildings had frames. Animal bladders, hides, paper, and fabric were placed in them; later, from the 17th–18th centuries, glass was used. The first glass windows were made from small, irregularly shaped pieces of glass reinforced with wooden slats. In 17th–20th-century village cottages, windows with four or six sections predominated (MS 2008: 20). The Lithuanian term langas LKŽe, DrskŽ 184, KltŽ 136, KzRŽ I 426, LzŽ 139 is used as the general name for a wall opening. Specific terms name windows according to their purpose, size, and quality. Three terms are Lithuanian: antralangis “a second window fitted for the winter” LKŽe, KzRŽ I 21, ZanavŽ I 45; langalis “a poor, inferior, small window” LKŽe; and langelynas “a poor window” LKŽe. The Germanism xliūkas (German Lücke) LKŽe denotes a ventilation window. The window frame is designated by nine synonymous terms, three of which are Lithuanian: įstatas LKŽe, stakta LKŽe, apylangės LKŽe. The group of foreign terms consists of four Slavicisms and two Germanisms: xbalanka (Belarusian балонка) LKŽe, KpŽ I 139; xpelčiai (Belarusian пяльцы) LKŽe; xšiubai (Belarusian шиба) LKŽe; xšupleda (Polish szuflada <, German Schublade) LKŽe; rėmai (German dialect räm) LKŽe, KltŽ 246; and xšlengė (German Schlenge) LKŽe. The panes of glass fitted into this structure are designated by five Slavicisms: stiklas (Slavic stьklo Fraenkel 1962: 906) LKŽe, DrskŽ 348, KltŽ 291, LzŽ 245; xbalanka (Belarusian балонка) LKŽe; xkletka (Polish klatka) LKŽe; xkvartka (Russian форточка) LKŽe, ZanavŽ I 824; and xšiba (Belarusian шиба) LKŽe. The window-opening mechanism is designated by two Lithuanian synonyms: vyris LKŽe and vinginis LKŽe. The Lithuanian term prielangis LKŽe denotes the window-frame lining. A ventilator is designated by two Lithuanian synonyms: langelis LKŽe, LzŽ 139, and puslangis LKŽe. From the 16th to the 19th century, hinged or sliding shutters were used with framed windows. Their construction resembled that of doors; they were decorated with small openings in the shape of hearts, moons, or other forms (MS 2008: 21). Sources from living speech show that closing shutters are called by four terms—two Lithuanian and two hybrid: langinė LKŽe, KzRŽ I 426; langavietė LzŽ 139; xlanginyčia (hybrid, Lithuanian langas and Slavic -inyčia) DrskŽ 184, KltŽ 137; xlangaravyčia (hybrid, from langinyčia LKŽe, Lithuanian langas, Slavic -inyčia) LKŽe. Sliding shutters are denoted by the Lithuanian term braukšlė LKŽe, while interior ones are designated by the hybrid xbarbynyčia (hybrid, Lithuanian barbenti and Slavic -inyčia) LKŽe. The group of names for other component parts of window structures comprises ten terms. The lower window board is designated by five synonymous terms: 186 Robertas Stunžinas Pastatų konstrukcijų ir jų sudedamųjų dalių liaudies terminija three Lithuanian, one Slavic, and one hybrid: palangė LKŽe, KltŽ 199; antlangis LKŽe; prielangis LKŽe; skrynia (Belarusian скрыня, Polish skrzynia) LKŽe; xlanginyčia (hybrid, Lithuanian langas and Slavic –inyčia) LKŽe. The board on the outer side is designated by two Lithuanian synonyms: priešpalangė LKŽe and užlangė LKŽe. The term užlangė LKŽe also denotes a small shelf above the window. Such a shelf is also designated by the Lithuanian term langė LKŽe and the hybrid xlanginyčia (hybrid, Lithuanian langas and Slavic –inyčia) LKŽe. Names of door structures, their parts, and opening mechanisms. Tradicinių pastatų durys buvo kelių tipų. Paprasčiausios konstrukcijos virpstinės durys darytos iš skaldyto spygliuočio medžio sandariai suglaustų plačių lentų. Išprūdinių durų konstrukciją sudarė rėmas užpildytas lentų išprūdomis, dvisluoksnės durys atsirado duris apkalant lentomis. Ūkinių trobesių durys buvo pinamos vytelėmis, šiaudų grįžtėmis, nendrėmis, gyvenamųjų namų ir svirnų durys puoštos ištapyt ais ornamentais, profiliuotais apvadais. Staktos rengtos dviem būdais – baigtame rentinyje kirstos angos arba staktos statytos į apatinį rentinį. Stiprių staktų reikėjo atsiradus sunkesnėms pakabin amoms durims (MS 2008: 20). Iš gyvosios kalbos šaltinių matyti, kad duris įvardijančių terminų yra tik šeši. Du lietuviški terminai laikyti bendraisiais pavadinimais: durys LKŽe, KltŽ 56, KzRŽ I 171, KpŽ I 492, ZanavŽ I 341, vartai LKŽe. Terminas vartai eina ir rūšiniu pavadinimu – juo dar vadinamos didelės suveriamos kluono durys: vartai „didelės suveriamos durys“ LKŽe. Kiti rūšiniai lietuviški terminai žymi duris pagal paskirtį, konstrukciją ir priklausymą: durelės „gyvenamųjų namų užpakalinės, prastosios durys“ LKŽe, pusdurės „per pusę darinėjamos durys (ppr. dūminėje pirkioje apačia užsidaro, o viršus paliekamas dūmams išeiti)“ LKŽe, varčia „kluono durys“ LKŽe. Durų rėmai vadinami penkiais terminais: dviem lietuviškais, dviem slaviškais ir vienu germanišku: stakta LKŽe, varčia LKŽe, xadverija (brus. odberbja Fraenkel 1962: 2) LKŽe, KzRŽ 1 3, KpŽ I 6, LzŽ 18, xlušėkas (l. uszak) LKŽe, xšlengė (vok. Schlenge) LKŽe. Terminu stakta taip pat įvardijama viršutinė staktos dalis. Rūšiniu pavadinimu eina latvizmas velvė (la. velve) LKŽe – juo vadinama gaubta durų stakta. The parts of the doorframe are mostly designated by Lithuanian terms. The lower part of the frame is denoted by the Lithuanian term slenkstis LKŽe, KltŽ 281, LzŽ 239, ZanavŽ III 106. The group of names for the upper part comprises five synonymous terms—four Lithuanian and one hybrid: stakta LKŽe; įmata LKŽe; kepurėtas LKŽe; viršdurė LKŽe; xkaptūrinis (hybrid, Polish kaptur Terminologija | 2013 | 20 187 and Lithuanian -inis LKŽe) LKŽe. The side part is called by the Germanism ᵡšvelius (German Schwelle) LKŽe. The side jamb part of a building used for storing grain is designated by the Slavism ᵡvėreja (Slavic) LKŽe, LzŽ 283. Jamb cladding is denoted by two synonymous Slavisms: ᵡabletūra (Polish tablatura) LKŽe, KpŽ I 2, ᵡlemperija (Polish lamperija) LKŽe, ZanavŽ II 49. The opening mechanisms of the oldest post-built doors are named by eleven synonymous terms—nine Lithuanian and two Slavic: bėgis LKA I 56, bėgūnas LKA I 56, bėgūniukas LKA I 56, kukta LKŽe, LKA I 56, sąvarstė LKA I 56, sukučiai LKŽe, LKA I 56, varas LKA I 56, vartikšlis LKŽe, LKA I 56, vyriai LKA I 55, ᵡkačka (Polish dialectal kaczka) LKA I 56, LKŽe, ᵡkašė (Polish kosz, Belarusian, Russian кош) LKŽe, LKA I 56. Later iron opening mechanisms are denoted by thirteen synonymous terms—seven Lithuanian, one Latvian, three Slavic, and two Germanic: gembės LKA I 56, kabas LKA I 56, kabikas LKA I 56, kablys LKA I 56, kukis LKA I 56, vašas LKŽe, vyriai LKA I 55, kengė (Latvian ķeņķis “hook,” German dialectal kenning “hook”) LKA I 56, ZanavŽ I 657, ᵡprabajus (Belarusian прабой) LKŽe, LKA I 56, ᵡzoviesai (Belarusian завеса) LKA I 56, ᵡkriūgai (Belarusian крюк “hook,” Russian крук “hook”) LKA I 56, ᵡhokas (German Haken “hook”) LKA I 56, ᵡkrampas (German Krampe “staple”) LKA I 56. Names for room coverings. The general name for a room covering is the Lithuanian term lubos LKŽe, LKA I 36, DūnŽ 181, DrskŽ 197, KzRŽ I 467, KltŽ 154, LzŽ 151, ZanavŽ II 99. Specific names are terms that identify ceilings by their association, purpose, and composition. The ceiling of a dwelling house is called by seven synonymous terms: two Lithuanian terms, two Slavisms, one Latvianism, one Germanism, and one hybrid: lubos LKŽe, LKA I 36, DūnŽ 181, KzRŽ I 467, KltŽ 154, LzŽ 151, ZanavŽ II 99, užlos LKŽe, ᵡstalevonia (Belarusian dialectal сталя́ванне) LKA I 36, LKŽe, ᵡpacesas (Belarusian паўе́ч) LKA I 36, grindys (Latvian dialectal grida “ceiling”) LKA I 36, ᵡdekis (German Decke) LKA I 36, ᵡlubavonia (hybrid, Lithuanian lubos and Slavic -vonia) LKA I 36. Five specific terms designate the ceiling of a dwelling house according to its quality, purpose, and composition. By origin, these are three Lithuanian terms, one Slavic, and one hybrid term: juodlubės “poor-quality, second ceilings” ZanavŽ I 576, lubokšliai “poor ceilings hastily made from board scraps or sticks” LKŽe, palubys “second ceiling” LKŽe, ᵡsupitas (Polish sufit) “a ceiling covering the black ceiling” LKŽe, ᵡgipsdekis (hybrid, Greek gypsos and German Decke LKŽe) “plastered ceiling” LKA I 36. 188 Robertas Stunžinas Pastatų konstrukcijų ir jų sudedamųjų dalių liaudies terminija The ceiling of an annex to a dwelling house is designated by two synonymous terms—a Lithuanian and a Slavic one: užlos LKŽe, LKA I 36, xviškos (Belarusian вьшки) LKŽe. The ceiling of a building used for storing grain is called by twelve synonymous terms, seven of which are Lithuanian: kartys LKŽe, lubos LKA I 48, palundai LKŽe, DrskŽ 242, užlelės LKA I 48, užlos LKA I 48, užulaidinis LKA I 48, virdys LKŽe. The same concept is also designated by four Slavisms and one hybrid: xgrėdai (Russian гряда “garden bed, row,” Belarusian града “garden bed, row”) LKA I 49, xpakarnės (cf. Polish podchodny) LKŽe, xpalotai (Belarusian палаці, Russian полати) LKŽe, xstalevonia (Belarusian dialectal сталяванне LKA I 36) LKA I 49, LKŽe, xlubavonia (hybrid, Lithuanian lubos and Slavic -vonia) LKA I 48. The terms užlos and užlelės also designate the ceiling of an annex to a building used for storing grain. Such ceilings are also called by the term užlikės LKA I 48. The term xgrėdai LKA I 49 also denotes plank flooring used as a ceiling. The group of names for the ceiling of a building used for storing hay consists of two Lithuanian terms and one Slavic term: virdys LKŽe, grandai LKŽe, xviškos (Belarusian вьшки) LKŽe. Two specific terms denote barn ceilings according to their composition: riek lės “a pole ceiling in a barn or elsewhere for storing or drying things” LKŽe, ZanavŽ II 520, užlaidas “a plank ceiling above the doors of a threshing barn or barn” LKŽe. The ceiling of a building used for housing livestock is designated by four synonyms—two Lithuanian, one Slavic, and one hybrid: grįslai LKŽe, KpŽ I 744, užleliai LKŽe, ZanavŽ III 538, xgrėdai LKŽe, xpagrėdai (hybrid, Lithuanian pa- and Belarusian града “garden bed, row”) LKŽe. Names for roof structures and their parts. The oldest traditional dwelling-house roofs were hipped, with low attics. In the mid-19th century, čiukuriniai roofs appeared—broken-hipped roofs with small triangular gables and partly exposed vaults. The latest type is the gable roof; it is covered with thatch, shingles, boards, tiles, or sheet metal, and its gable ends are boarded (LEB 233). The sources under examination show that the upper part of a building is designated by five terms—three Lithuanian and two Slavic: stogas LKŽe, LKA I 34, ZanavŽ III 182, dangtis LKŽe, LKA I 35, palėpė LKŽe, xdokas (Polish dach) LKŽe, DrskŽ 70, LžŽ 61, xstriekas (Polish strzecha) LKŽe, LKA I 35, DrskŽ 352. The terms stogas, dangtis, dokas and striekas are also used as specific roof names. The Atlas of the Lithuanian Language (I 35) states that in some parts of Lithuania doku refers to a roof made of sheet metal or boards, while strieku refers to a thatched roof. Examples from the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language show that a thatched roof is also called stogas and dangtis, for example: Stogas da šiaudinis, kiauras jau Pb LKŽe. Kūlių reikėjo stógui dengti Terminologija | 2013 | 20 189 Plšk LKŽe. Straw is needed to cover the roof Ds LKŽe. The Lithuanian term striegtas LKŽe is used as a specific designation for a thatched roof; it refers to a straw roof laid with the ears pointing downward. A barn roof has a separate name, apdanga LKŽe. The parts of the roof are designated by twenty-four terms. The group of names for the upper part of the roof consists of sixteen synonymous Lithuanian terms, for example: antstogis LKŽe, bemblys LKŽe, čiukuras LKŽe, kaugas LKŽe, kraigas LKŽe, DrskŽ 164, ZanavŽ I 751, kurtinys ZanavŽ I 816, pasulabis LKŽe, statgalis LKŽe, stogviršis LKŽe, šelmuo LKŽe, viršustogė LKŽe. The group of names for this structure contains many metaphorical terms: based on similarity of position, the structure is designated by names for natural phenomena, animal body parts, and household objects: gūbrys LKŽe, ketera LKŽe, skiauteris LKŽe, šerys LKŽe, žirklė LKŽe. Vincas Urbutis (1981: 74) wrote that ketera is understood metaphorically: the top of the roof is, as it were, compared to an animal’s hump or back. The end sections are designated by two Slavicisms: xčytas (Pol. szczyt) “the end of a roof, boarded with planks; gables, pediment” LKŽe, DrskŽ 54, xlabėkas (Sl.6) “the sloping triangular part of a building’s roof at the end” LKŽe, LžŽ 138. The roof edges are designated by four synonyms—three Lithuanian and one Slavic: bamblys LKŽe, zimblys LKŽe, zvimblė LKŽe, xpastriekis (Pol. podstrzesze) LKŽe. The lower sections are designated by two Lithuanian terms: paražė “the lower part of a thatched roof” LKŽe, pasterblys “the lower part of a roof, down to where it meets the building wall” LKŽe. The roofs of traditional buildings had three types of construction: post-supported, beam-supported, and raftered. The post-supported type is the oldest and was the first to disappear (MS 2008: 19). The supporting poles of this structure rest on the gailinis and pagegninis wall frameworks. This type of construction is characteristic of eastern and central Lithuania. The raftered construction is later; its load-bearing roof poles rest on the wall’s pagegninis wall plate (LLA 1965: 50). The oldest construction is denoted by the Lithuanian term pėdžia “a vertical post supporting the roof in an old-style threshing barn” LKŽe. Most of the terms found designate elements of the raftered construction. The main load-bearing roof pole is called by eight terms, six of which are Lithuanian: gegnė LKŽe, KltŽ 71, KpŽ I 627, ZanavŽ I 420, krakas LKŽe, kreklas LKŽe, KltŽ 120, LžŽ 128, krekva LKŽe, stiegis, and one is metaphorical: ožys LKŽe. Metapho- 6Labėkas, labokas may also be considered hybrids (Skardžius 1996: 126). 190 Robertas Stunžinas Pastatų konstrukcijų ir jų sudedamųjų dalių liaudies terminija The basis for metaphorical designation may be considered to be external resemblance; it is likely that this term derives from Russian козлы LKŽe. The pair of non-Lithuanian terms consists of one Germanism and one hybrid: xsparas (Ger. Spar, Spare Sabaliauskas 1990: 266) LKŽe, ZanavŽ III 136, sparinis (hybrid, from Ger. Spar, Spare (Sabaliauskas 1990: 266) and Lith. -inis) ZanavŽ III 137. A pair of rafters is called by two synonyms—one Lithuanian and one Slavic: žagas LKŽe, xkazilas (Rus. козлы) LKŽe. The pole nailed onto the rafters is designated by two synonyms—one Lithuanian and one Slavic: grebėstas KltŽ 80, KzRŽ I 250, LKŽe, ZanavŽ I 494, lota (Pol. łata, Ger. Latte) LKŽe. Twelve terms designate the crosspieces joining the rafters, most of them Lithuanian: panta “a crosspiece joining the roof poles, rafters of a building” LKŽe, ZanavŽ II 329, permetis “a transverse pole joining the kreklas” LKŽe, skersinė “crosspiece” LKŽe, skersplautis “a crosspiece joining rafters, a panta” LKŽe, varža “a small beam joining rafters, a crosspiece, a brace” LKŽe. Almost a third of the Lithuanian terms are metaphorical: by virtue of functional or other similarity, a structural component is named after a garment, a building fitting, or an animal body part: juosta “a crosspiece joining rafters” LKŽe, LzŽ 99, laktelė “a crosspiece, a strap joining rafters (roof poles)” LKŽe, vilkausis “a transverse beam joining a rafter to a wall plate, a permetė” LKŽe. These parts are also called by three non-Lithuanian terms: xkardielis (Pol. kardel) “a rafter strap, a crosspiece, to hold the rafters more firmly” LKŽe, xbendelis (Ger. Binder) “a piece of wood that braces the rafters, a strap” LKŽe, xantsparis (hybrid, Lith. ant- and Ger. Spar, Spare Sabaliauskas 1990: 266) “a rafter crosspiece, a strap” ZanavŽ I 46. The hybrid xkaziljuostė (hybrid, Rus. козлы LKŽe and Lith. juosta) LKŽe denotes a rafter crosspiece. The roof framework is called by the Lithuanian term grebėstas LKŽe. The roof plate is metaphorically named after a head covering, based on similarity of position: kepurė LKŽe. This construction is also called by the hybrid xapičėpas (cf. 1. оцеп) LKŽe. The roofs of traditional buildings were covered with shingles, boards, wooden roofing tiles, sheet metal, reeds (in coastal districts), but mostly with straw: sheaves and trakniai. The straw was laid either with the ears pointing upward (the most common method) or downward (in southern Lithuania) (LLA 1965: 51). The group of terms designating straw and its bundles is the largest, comprising sixteen terms, mostly Lithuanian. Small bundles are called by three synonymous Lithuanian terms: bamblys LKŽe, ZanavŽ I 108, zimblys LKŽe, raišalas LKŽe. Long bundles are designated by four Lithuanian terms: ilginiai “whole, unbroken, unmixed rye straw” LKŽe, kūlys “large Terminologija | 2013 | 20 191 ‘bundles of long straw for thatching a roof’ LKŽe, kūlynė ‘a small bundle of straw (usually made from three handfuls) for thatching a roof’ LKŽe, motelė ‘a small bundle of long straw used to thatch the edges of a straw roof’ LKŽe. In spoken language, kūliu also refers to a stone: The stones heat up [in the sauna]; we pour [w]ater so that there will be steam, and wash with warm [w]ater Gršl. There won’t be enough stones for the foundation Tl LKŽe. However, this name for a stone is characteristic of Samogitia and is thought to be a word of Curonian origin (Vitkauskas 1966: 163). Works by local historians report that in Samogitia bundles of straw are called ilginiais (LLA 1965: 51). The group of names for the edges of a straw bundle comprises nine synonyms, seven of them Lithuanian, e.g.: damblis LKŽe, dvikūlė LKŽe, DrskŽ 81, kūlaitis LKŽe, kūlelis LKŽe, kulikas LKŽe, pasterblys LKŽe. Such a bundle is also named after a bird—šarkiukai LKŽe. In addition, it is designated by one Slavism and one hybrid: špyga (Belarusian фіга, Polish figa, Russian фуа) LKŽe, ˟burčiukas (hybrid, German Borte LKŽe and Lithuanian -iukas) LKŽe. In traditional buildings, straw was fastened to the transverse roof poles with laths and withies. Ethnographic works mention several names for the laths, e.g.: gniutelės, klotės. The withies are called kliugelės (LEB 235). The spoken-language sources examined show that the group of names for fastening laths comprises eighteen synonymous terms, thirteen of them Lithuanian: klostė LKŽe, blakštas LKŽe, klotė LKŽe, DūnŽ 142, krekvelė LKŽe, matarelis LKŽe, prieraišas LKŽe, stoglazdė LKŽe, strieglazdė LKŽe, šatra LKŽe, šegždė LKŽe, verpstelė LKŽe, varža LKŽe, vija LKŽe, DrskŽ 459. The fastening laths and rods are also called by two Latvianisms, one Slavism, and two hybrids: gniutelė (Latvian gņuta, gņutele) LKŽe, kniutė (Latvian gņuta, gņutele) LKŽe, lota (Polish łata, German Latte) LKŽe, KltŽ 153, KzRŽ I 466, ZanavŽ II 98, kraikl otė (hybrid, Lithuanian kraikas and German Latte) ZanavŽ I 751, prielotė (hybrid, Lithuanian prie- and German Latte LKŽe) LKŽe. The withies used to tie down the straw have two Lithuanian synonymous names: prieraišas LKŽe, prievija LKŽe. Structural elements that secure and protect a thatched roof are called slogščiais, kryžiokais (in southern Lithuania, Suvalkija, and coastal districts), lėkiais (throughout Lithuania) (LLA 1965: 51, 71). The sources examined show that seventeen terms of different origins designate roof-fastening elements. Fourteen of the terms are Lithuanian, e.g.: gegnė ‘a ridge pole on top of a thatched roof, ridge ornament’ LKŽe, kreginis ‘crossed poles on a roof’ LKŽe, kreigamedis ‘a pole crossed over another on a roof so that the wind does not carry off the ridge’ LKŽe, kreiglys ‘roof ridge ornament’ LKŽe, krekvos ‘crossed laths on the ridge of a thatched roof’ 192 Robertas Stunžinas Pastatų konstrukcijų ir jų sudedamųjų dalių liaudies terminija of a thatched roof’ LKŽe, lėkis ‘two laths nailed together and fastened crosswise on the ridge so that the wind does not tear it apart; ridge pole, ridge ornament’ LKŽe, slogstis ‘two crossed laths supporting the roof ridge; ridge pole, ridge ornament’ LKŽe, svarlas ‘two laths nailed together and fastened crosswise on the ridge of a thatched roof so that the wind does not tear it apart’ LKŽe, žaginėlis ‘roof reinforcement with ridge ornaments’ LKŽe, žarginys ‘ridge pole, ridge ornament’ LKŽe. The protective structure is also named using animal names: šarkiukai ‘crossed poles nailed together to reinforce the ridge of a thatched roof’ LKŽe, ož eliai ‘crosswise crossed poles used to press down the ridge; ridge ornaments’ LKŽe, kiškis ‘roof ridge ornament, crossed laths supporting the thatch’ LKŽe, žirgelis ‘decoration at the ends of a roof’ LKŽe. Animal names arose from the decorative function of these elements. The most common decorative motifs are horse heads and birds. Among bird motifs, the rooster’s head was most common; it is characteristic of Samogitia (LLA 1965: 74). The same structure is called by one Slavism and two Germanisms: xragavikas (Polish dialect rogownik) ‘a crossed pole fastening the roof ridge’ LKŽe, xgėvelis (German dialect Gevel, German Giebel) ‘two laths nailed together and fastened crosswise on the roof ridge so the wind does not tear it apart; ridge pole, ridge ornament, small ridge ornament’ LKŽe, ZanavŽ I 443, xžėgliai (German Segel) ‘two crossed poles reinforcing the ridge; ridge boards’ LKŽe. There are considerably fewer terms denoting other types of roofing. The group of names for split roof shingles comprises five synonymous terms—two Lithuanian, two Slavic, and one Germanic: shingle LKŽe, wood shingle LKŽe, gontas (Polish gont) LKŽe, KpŽ I 703, ZanavŽ I 480, xdronyčia (Polish dranica) LKŽe, DrskŽ 73, xskindelis (German Schindel) LKŽe. A clay roofing material is referred to by seven synonymous terms: one Lithuanian term, three Slavicisms, one Latvianism, one Germanism, and one hybrid: stiegelė (cf. Lithuanian stiegti Skardžius 1996: 77, Latvian tēgula Fraenkel 1962: 904) LKŽe, čerpe (cf. Belarusian чэран) LKŽe, DūnŽ 61, KzRŽ I 107, KpŽ I 283–284, xdokauka (Polish dachówka) LKŽe, KpŽ I 430, koklis (Belarusian кахля, German Kachel) LKŽe, KltŽ 116, kėgelis (cf. Latvian kēglis) LKŽe, xdek panė (German Dachpfanne) LKŽe, roof tile (hybrid, Lithuanian roof and Belarusian плита LKŽe) LKŽe. A metal sheet is designated by three synonymous loanwords—from Finnish, Slavic, and German: sheet metal (Finnish. Fraenkel 1962: 797; Sabaliauskas 1990: 227) “a sheet of iron or another metal” LKŽe, DūnŽ 326, ZanavŽ III 67, xblėka (Belarusian бляха, Polish blacha LKŽe, Smoczyński 2007: 63) LKŽe, KltŽ 22, LzŽ 37, KpŽ I 201, ZanavŽ I 150, xblėta (Germanic) LKŽe. According to V. Urbutis, the acute-accented form is known in the west Terminologija | 2013 | 20 193 The accent blėta is a Germanism that arose directly from German Blatt. The circumflex-accented forms blė̀tą (blė̃tą) and blėka should be considered borrowings mediated by Slavic languages (Urbutis 2009: 402). Names for boards and bricks. An elongated plate cut from wood and used as part of various structures is known by three synonyms—a Lithuanian, a Slavic, and a Germanic one: lenta LKŽe, DrskŽ 189, KltŽ 144, KzRŽ I 444, LzŽ 145, ZanavŽ II 54, lota (Pol. lata, Ger. Latte) LKŽe, ⁽ˣ⁾dielė (Ger. Diele) LKŽe, ZanavŽ I 277. Specific terms denote boards according to their function, manufacturing characteristics, size, and quality. Boards are most often named by Lithuanian terms according to their function, for example: antlubė ‘a board nailed where the ceiling boards join’ LKŽe, antslenkstis ‘a board nailed onto a threshold’ LKŽe, drablentė ‘a board nailed horizontally above the foundation to keep water from running over it’ LKŽe, durstyk las ‘a board end for flooring’ LKŽe, luba ‘a ceiling board’ LKŽe, pavartė ‘a board laid at ground level in the doorway of a barn’ LKŽe, DrskŽ 254, pėra (cf. Lat. piere Fraenkel 1962: 573) ‘one of the boards used to clad the outside of a building’ LKŽe, perlentė ‘a transverse board’ LKŽe, prieduris ‘a board covering the doorframe’ LKŽe, užlaidinys ‘a board nailed to the upper wall log (to protect the wall from rain)’ LKŽe, vėj alentė ‘a board nailed to the battens at the end of a roof, protecting it from the wind’ LKŽe, vėtrinė ‘a board nailed to the ends of the battens to keep the wind from damaging the roof’ LKŽe. Two terms are non-Lithuanian—one Slavic and one hybrid: ⁽ˣ⁾šaliauka (Pol. szalówka) ‘a small board for cladding house walls’ LKŽe, DrskŽ 364, ⁽ˣ⁾vėtrauka (hybrid, Lithuanian vėtra and Slavic -ovka) ‘a board nailed to the end of a roof to protect it from the wind’ LKŽe. A board sawn from the outside edge of a log is designated by six terms of different origins: one Lithuanian, three Slavic, one Germanic, and one hybrid: šonlentė LKŽe, ⁽ˣ⁾tartyčia (Pol. tarcica) LKŽe, ⁽ˣ⁾apal ka (Pol. opalka) LKŽe, KpŽ I 45, balanas (Belarusian болона Fraenkel 1962: 31) LKŽe, ⁽ˣ⁾švartė (German dialect schwarte) LKŽe, ⁽ˣ⁾pašvartė (hybrid, Lithuanian pa- and German dialect schwarte LKŽe) ‘the first board cut from the outside of a log, a slab’ LKŽe. The Lithuanian term skerslentė LKŽ denotes a board cut from twisted wood. A thin board is designated by two synonyms, one Germanic and one Slavic: lystė ZanavŽ II 85, ⁽ˣ⁾dronvčia (Pol. dranica) LKŽe, KltŽ 52. A thick board is called by two synonymous Germanisms: ⁽ˣ⁾dilė (Ger. Diele) LKŽe, ⁽ˣ⁾planka (German dialect planke) LKŽe, while a poor-quality board is designated by the Lithuanian term lentpalaikė DūnŽ 173. Parts of boards are mostly designated by non-Lithuanian terms, for example: lentgalys LKŽe, KzRŽ I 444, ZanavŽ II 54, ⁽ˣ⁾plozas (Belarusian плаз) ‘the flat 194 Robertas Stunžinas Pastatų konstrukcijų ir jų sudedamųjų dalių liaudies terminija part, the flat surface (of a board)’ LKŽe, xabzojus (Pol. obz oj LKŽe) ‘the untrimmed edge of a board’ KzRŽ I 2, xbuomkantis (German dialect bōm, Ger. Kante) ‘the rounded edge of a board’ LKŽe. The edge of a board is designated by three synonyms—two Lithuanian and one Germanic: briauna LKŽe, KltŽ 25–26, žambas LKŽe, xkanta (Ger. Kante) LKŽe, DrskŽ 137. The group of names for board joints, notches, and grooves comprises four terms of different origins: one Lithuanian, one Slavic, one Germanic, and one hybrid: spraudis LKŽe, xš puntas (Pol. szpunt) LKŽe, xgropa (Middle Low German grope) LKŽe, xpatelka (hybrid, Lithuanian patelė and Slavic -ka) LKŽe. A clay product is designated by two Slavicisms: plyta (Belarusian plita, Pol. plyta Fraenkel 1962: 625) LKŽe, DrskŽ 273, ZanavŽ II 440, xcegla (Pol. cegła) LKŽe. Brick waste used in construction is called by three synonymous hybrid terms: plytgalys (hybrid, Belarusian nлima and Lithuanian galas) LKŽe, ZanavŽ II 440, xplytstukis (hybrid, Belarusian nлima and German dialect stuk, stak) LKŽe, pusplytė (hybrid, Lithuanian pusė and Belarusian nлima) LKŽe. 2. POLYSEMY AND HOMONYMY OF TERMS The folk terminology of construction, characterized by precision and vividness in its designation of small-scale concepts, is marked by polysemy. Polysemy may have been caused by the indistinct boundaries of specialized concepts, semantic development, or the transfer of a designation on the basis of certain associations. This terminology contains polysemous terms linked by diverse relations: terms denoting closely related concepts, terms with differentiating features of belonging, function, and composition, terms related by association and metaphor, and terms whose semantic connections are unclear (see Stunžinas 2009: 68–92 for further discussion). Polysemy may vary across the terminologies of different microsystems. For example, in the microsystem of terminology for farm buildings, polysemous terms most often denote closely related concepts distinguished by differences in function (see Stunžinas 2012: 184–198 for further discussion). In the terminology of the dwelling house and its parts, polysemous terms may denote closely related concepts distinguished by functional features, or concepts from different categories that share general functional characteristics (see Stunžinas 2009: 68–92 for further discussion). About one fifth of the terms denoting structures and their constituent parts have the same form but different meanings—eighty-four terms form thirty-seven series of polysemous or homonymous terms. Most are polysemous terms denoting different Terminologija | 2013 | 20 195 structures located in the same place or occupying a similar position, structures and their constituent parts, or different adjacent constituent parts of structures (16 rows), e.g.: xbalanka “window frames” LKŽe, KpŽ I 139 – xbalanka “window glass” LKŽe, bamblys “edge of a thatched roof” LKŽe – bamblys “small bundle of straw placed on the roof” LKŽe, ZanavŽ I 108, gegnė “roof rafter” LKŽe, KltŽ 71, KpŽ I 627, ZanavŽ I 420 – gegnė “pole laid along the top of a thatched roof, ridge pole” LKŽe, grebėstas “roof framework” LKŽe – grebėstas “pole nailed onto the rafters” KltŽ 80, KzRŽ I 250, LKŽe, ZanavŽ I 494, xlanginyčia “shutters” DrskŽ 184, KltŽ 137 – xlanginyčia “windowsill” LKŽe, pamatas “the lower part of a building, on which the entire building rests” LKŽe, LKA I 35 – pamatas “the ground raised along the outside of a wall (or stone or masonry foundation)” LKA I 35, pasterblys “the lower part of a roof up to where it meets the building wall” LKŽe – pasterblys “a small bundle tied onto the lower lath” LKŽe, prieraišas “a batten for pressing down roof straw” LKŽe – prieraišas “a twig for tying straw to a lath” LKŽe, šarkukai “cross-nailed poles used to reinforce the ridge of a thatched roof” LKŽe – šarkiukai “twisted bundles of straw used when starting to thatch a roof” LKŽe, varčia “doorframe” LKŽe – varčia “barn door” LKŽe, xviškos “granary vaults” LKŽe, LKA I 49 – xviškos “barn ceiling” LKŽe. In these cases, the common feature of the polysemous terms is the location occupied. Some polysemous terms denote related concepts and refer to structures or constituent parts of different locations, composition, or purpose (11 rows), e.g.: xdronyčia “thin board for roofing” LKŽe, DrskŽ 73 – xdronyčia “thin board” LKŽe, KltŽ 52, xlubavonia “ceiling of a dwelling house” LKA I 36 – xlubavonia “barn ceiling” LKA I 48, prielangis “board covering the window frame” LKŽe – prielangis “windowsill” LKŽe, xstalevonia “ceiling of a dwelling house” LKA I 36, LKŽe – xstalevonia “barn ceiling” LKA I 49, LKŽe, xšlengė “window frame” LKŽe – xšlengė “door frame” LKŽe, užlangė “small shelf above a window” LKŽe – užlangė “exterior windowsill” LKŽe, užlelės “barn ceiling” LKA I 48 – užlelės “ceiling of a barn annex” LKA I 48, vyriai “wooden opening mechanism” LKA I 55 – vyriai “metal opening mechanism” LKA I 55. Some polysemous terms denote related and subordinate concepts (7 rows), e.g.: dangtis “roof” LKŽe, LKA I 35 – dangtis “thatched roof” LKŽe, LKA I 35, xgrėdai “barn ceiling” LKA I 49 – xgrėdai “barn ceiling made of boards” LKA I 49, lubos “covering of a room” LKŽe, 196 Robertas Stunžinas Pastatų konstrukcijų ir jų sudedamųjų dalių liaudies terminija LKA I 36, DūnŽ 181, DrskŽ 197, KzRŽ I 467, KltŽ 154, LzŽ 151, ZanavŽ II 99 – lubos “ceiling of a dwelling house” LKŽe, LKA I 36, DūnŽ 181, KzRŽ I 467, KltŽ 154, LzŽ 151, ZanavŽ II 99 – lubos “barn ceiling” LKA I 48, stogas “roof” LKŽe, LKA I 34, ZanavŽ III 182 – stogas “thatched roof” LKŽe, LKA I 34, ZanavŽ III 182, vartai “door” LKŽe – vartai “large double door” LKŽe. Some terms are related by a whole–part relationship and denote a structure and one of its parts (2 rows): gegninis “upper log course” LKŽe – gegninis “upper wall log (wall beam) on which the rafters are set” LKŽe, KpŽ I 627, stakta “door frame” LKŽe – stakta “upper part of a doorframe” LKŽe. A pair of homonyms consists of terms of different origin: the Lithuanian grindys “board flooring” LKA I 37, KzRŽ I 255, KpŽ I 742, ZanavŽ I 507 and the Latvian grindys (Latvian dialectal grīda “ceiling”) “ceiling of a dwelling house” LKA I 36. CONCLUSIONS 1. Sources of spoken language contain many traditional vernacular terms denoting building structures and their constituent parts. The 422 terms refer to more than 200 traditional building structures and their parts. Most terms name roofs and their parts (32%) and walls and their parts (20%); somewhat fewer refer to doors, windows and their parts (11% and 9.5%), floor coverings (9.5%), and boards (9.5%). Few terms denote floors (4.7%), foundations and their associated components (2.4%), or bricks (1.4% of all terms). 2. The terminology for traditional building structures and their parts is Lithuanian: native Lithuanian one-word and compound terms make up almost two-thirds (63%) of all terms. Terms of foreign origin account for more than a quarter (28.9%), while hybrid and mixed-composition terms amount to less than a tenth (8.1%). Slavicisms predominate among loanwords, making up more than two-thirds (70%) of all borrowings. Germanisms constitute over a fifth (21%), while Latvianisms account for less than a tenth (9%). 3. Almost a third (30%) of structures and their parts are referred to by several terms. Concepts are most often denoted by long synonym series: series of five or more terms account for more than a third (37%) of all synonym series. Two-member synonym series make up less than a third (30%), three-member series a quarter (24%), and four-member series one twelfth (8%) of all synonym series. The largest are the series for fastening battens (18) and the roof Terminologija | 2013 | 20 197 groups of names for the upper part (16 synonyms). In terms of origin, synonym series containing terms of different origins predominate (90%). 4. The hierarchical structure of the terminology for building structures and their parts is uncomplicated. Most often, terms form a two-level hierarchy; only a small proportion of concepts are designated by three-level terms. One third (31%) of the terms examined are specific terms. They most often name concepts according to affiliation (34%), function (25%), or location (18%), and much less frequently according to structural features (11%), size (7%), or quality (4%). 5. Some terms (3%) name concepts by means of certain associations. Structures and their parts are metaphorically named using the names of animals and their parts, household objects, parts of the human body, and natural objects. Metonymic terms name concepts according to the material from which they are made. 6. One fifth (19%) of the terms have the same form but different meanings. Most are polysemous terms denoting different structures and/or their components occupying similar locations, or terms naming related concepts that denote structures or their components in different locations, of different composition, or serving different purposes. Less often, polysemous terms designate generic and specific concepts, or name a structure and one of its parts. A pair of homonyms consists of terms with the same form but different origins. ŠALTINIAI DrskŽ – Druskininkų tarmės žodynas. Sud. G. Naktinienė, A. Paulauskienė, V. Vitkauskas, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1988. DūnŽ – V. Vitkauskas. Šiaurės rytų dūnininkų šnektų žodynas, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1976. KltŽ – A. Vilutytė. Kaltanėnų šnektos žodynas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2008. KzRŽ I – A. Pupkis. Kazlų Rūdos šnektos žodynas A–M, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2008. KpŽ I – K. Vosylytė. Kupiškėnų žodynas A–H, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2007. LžŽ – J. Petrauskas, A. Vidugiris. Lazūnų tarmės žodynas, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1985. LKA I – Lietuvių kalbos atlasas 1. Leksika. Red. K. Morkūnas, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1977. LKŽe – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (I–XX, 1941–2002), elektroninis variantas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2005. – www.lkz.lt. ZanavŽ I–III – Zanavykų šnektos žodynas 1. A–K, 2. L–R, 3. S–Ž, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų institutas, 2003–2006. LITERATŪRA Fraenkel E. 1955–1962: Litauisches etymologisches Wörterbuch I–II, Heidelberg: Carl Winter. Universitätsverlag, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. LEB – Lietuvių etnografijos bruožai, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla, 1964. LLA 1965: Lietuvių liaudies architektūra 1. Kaimo gyvenvietės ir gyvenamieji namai, Vilnius: Mintis. MS 2008: Medinė statyba: jaukių namų žinynas, Kaunas: UAB „Dangus“. Sabaliauskas A. 1990: Lietuvių kalbos leksika, Vilnius: Mokslas. 198 Robertas Stunžinas Pastatų konstrukcijų ir jų sudedamųjų dalių liaudies terminija Skardžius Pr. 1996: Rinktiniai raštai 1, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. Smočyński W. 2007: Lietuvių kalbos etimologinis žodynas, Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas. Stunžinas R. 2008: Variantiniai statybos liaudies terminai Lietuvių kalbos žodyne. – Terminologija 15, 111–130. Stunžinas R. 2009: Daugiareikšmiai ir homoniminiai statybos liaudies terminai. – Terminologija 16, 68–92. Stunžinas R. 2010: Gyvenamojo namo ir pagrindinių jo dalių liaudies terminijos sinonimija. – Terminologija 17, 130–142. Stunžinas R. 2011: Gyvenamojo namo ir pagrindinių jo dalių rūšiniai liaudies terminai. – Terminologija 18, 142–153. Stunžinas R. 2011: Statybos liaudies terminai, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Stunžinas R. 2012: Ūkinių pastatų liaudies terminija. – Terminologija 19, 184–198. Urbutis V. 1981: Baltų etimologijos etiudai, Vilnius: Mokslas. Urbutis V. 2009: Baltų etimologijos etiudai 2, Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. Vitkauskas V. 1966: Apie kai kurių žemaitiškų žodžių vartojimą. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 8, 155–168. VLE II 2002: Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 2, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Клепикова Г. П. 1974: Славянская пастушеская терминология, Москва: Наука. FOLK TERMINOLOGY OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTIONS AND THEIR PARTS The article deals with folk terminology of constructions and their parts of traditional Lithuanian buildings in respect of concepts, origin and semantic relations: synonymy, polysemy and hierarchy. The researched terms are taken from various lexicographical sources of Lithuanian folk terminology. There are 422 terms in the researched sources which name about 200 different constructions and their parts. The majority of terms name roof and wall constructions and their parts, for example dangtis (roof), kraigas (ridge), gegnė (rafter), siena (wall), sienojas (log), pamatinis (main log). A smaller part of the terms name door and window constructions and their parts, room coverings and planks, for example durys (door), stakta (door frame), langas (window), apylangės (window frame), lubos (ceiling), juodlubės (sound boarding), lenta (plank), špuntas (rebate). A few terms name flooring, foundation, foundation parts and bricks, for example grindys (floor), pamūra (foundation), papamatis (foundation stones), plyta (brick). The majority of terms are of Lithuanian origin (63%), for example asla (dirt floor), pamatas (foundation), užlos (ceiling). Slavic, Germanic and Latvian borrowings make up more than one quarter (28.9%), hybrids and terms with mixed composition – less than one tenth (8.1%), for example dokas (Pol. dach) ‘roof’, švelys (Germ. Schwelle) ‘lower balk’, stūrys (Latv. stūris); pamūra (Lith. pa- and Sl. mur) ‘foundation’, molinė (Lith.) padlaga (Sl. podłoga, Belar. падлога) ‘dirt floor’. Less than one third (30%) of the researched constructions and their parts are named using more than one term. Lines of synonyms naming constructions are rather long and they consist of synonyms of different origin. Groups of names for laths and roof tops are the largest – they consist of 18 and 16 terms. Terms naming constructions have a simple hierarchy. Usually terms make a two-level hierarchy and only a few terms make a three level hierarchy. One third of terms can be viewed as specific terms. Such terms name constructions and their parts of different dependence, purpose or place, for example pamatas ‘foundation’, podmūrauka ‘masonry foundation’. Terminologija | 2013 | 20 199 One fifth of terms are polysemous. Most often polysemous terms name different constructions or parts of constructions of the same place, for example balanka ‘window frame’ – ‘window glass’, grėbestas ‘roof frame’ – ‘rafter lath’. Other terms name generic and specific concepts or name construction and part of it, for instance dangtis ‘roof’ – ‘straw roof’, stakta ‘door frame’ – ‘top of door frame’. Pairs of homonyms consist of terms of different origin – Lithuanian grindys ‘floor’ and Latvian grindys (from Latvian grīda ‘ceiling’) ‘ceiling’. Gauta 2013-10-04 Robertas Stunžinas Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius E. paštas [email protected] 200 Robertas Stunžinas Pastatų konstrukcijų ir jų sudedamųjų dalių liaudies terminija