Europos Sąjungos kibernetinio saugumo terminai su dėmeniu „kibernetinis, (-ė)“: reikšmės, kilmė, sinonimija ir variantai

European Union cybersecurity terms containing the component cybernetic, (-al): meanings, origin, synonymy, and variants ROBERTAS STUNŽINAS European Commission Institute of the Lithuanian Language KEYWORDS: cybersecurity, cybercrime, cyberwarfare, terminology In his annual State of the European Union address on 13 September 2017, European Commission President Jean-Claude Juncker devoted considerable attention to cybersecurity. He stated that “[o]ver the past three years, we have made progress in keeping Europeans safe online. But Europe is still not well equipped to ward off cyberattacks. That is why, today, the Commission is proposing new measures to help protect against such attacks” (European Commission press release “State of the Union 2017. Cybersecurity. Commission steps up response to cyber-attacks”). The European Commission press release “State of the Union 2017. Cybersecurity. Commission steps up response to cyber-attacks” states that, in the European Union, more than 4,000 cybercrimes were committed every day last year and as many as 80% of European businesses experienced at least one cybersecurity incident. The economic impact of cybercrime has increased fivefold over the past four years. To equip Europe with the right tools to defend itself against cyberattacks, the European Commission is proposing a wide-ranging package of measures to ensure a high level of cybersecurity in the EU. The proposals include establishing an EU Cybersecurity Agency to help Member States defend themselves against cyberattacks, and developing a new European certification framework to ensure that digital products and services are safe to use (for more information, see the European Commission press release “State of the Union 2017. Cybersecurity. Commission steps up response to cyber-attacks”). Terminologija | 2017 | 24 145 This article examines cybersecurity terms containing the component cybernetic, (-al) and their variants, as used in documents of EU institutions, texts of various kinds, and terminology databases, as well as in cyberspace. The aim of the article is to analyze the meanings, origins, and synonymy of cybersecurity terms containing the components cybernetic, (-al), as used in documents of EU institutions, various texts, and terminology databases. In analyzing the origins of the terms, the relationship between the Lithuanian terms and their English equivalents is taken into account. The terms examined are also compared with cybersecurity terms used in online texts of various styles. The material was drawn from EU institutional documents published in the “Eur-lex” database of European Union legislation and other public documents, the register of documents of the European Council and the Council of the European Union, the interinstitutional European Union terminology database IATE, and press releases issued by EU institutions. Online data were collected using the “Google” search engine; variants of cybersecurity terms were sought using various associative combinations containing the component cybernetic, (-al). In total, approximately 100 Lithuanian cybersecurity terms and their variants are examined from various perspectives. MEANINGS AND ORIGINS OF CYBERSECURITY TERMS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS The main component of the terminological microsystem under examination, cybernetic, (-al), is derived from the internationally originating noun cybernetics and denotes what is related to cybernetics—computers, information technology, and virtual reality1. Cybernetics (Greek κυβερνητική τέχνη—the art of steering or governing; κυβερνήτης—steersman, governor, pilot) is the science that studies the general control processes of various systems, which take place through the collection, transmission, storage, and processing of information (for more information, see lt.wikipedia.org). The origins of cybernetics as a science date back to the 1940s; its pioneers were specialists from various fields (from biology and engineering to the social sciences) who developed studies of communication and control systems in living organisms and machines. As computer science, biology, and engineering developed, cybernetics acquired a futuristic connotation, and words derived from cybernetics (for example, English cyber) began to spread rapidly (for more information, see blog.oxforddictionaries.com). 1 The meaning of the adjective cybernetic, (-al), is described on the basis of the explanation of the English word cyber (cybernetics) (ODE). 146 Robertas Stunžinas Europos Sąjungos kibernetinio saugumo terminai su dėmeniu kibernetinis, (–ė): reikšmės, kilmė, sinonimija ir variantai In EU institutional documents, cybersecurity terms containing the element cyber most often denote malicious actions and activities and their results, e.g.: cybercrime network (52013JC0001), cyber theft (52016DC0410), cyberbullying (52015IP0218), cyber weapons proliferation (52014DC0244), cyber incident (IATE), cyberattack (IATE), cyber attack (IATE), cyberwar (IATE), cybercrime (IATE), cyberstalking (52015IP0218), cyber harassment (52015IP0218), cyber espionage (52011DC0163), cyberterrorism (IATE), malicious cyber activity (52017JC0450). Terms also often denote protection against malicious actions, their examination, and protective measures, e.g.: recovery from a cyber incident (IATE), cyber issues dialogue (consilium.europa.eu/lt/council-eu/preparatory-bodies/working-party-transatlantic-relations/), cyber diplomacy (IATE), cyber defence (IATE), cyber forensics (52017JC0450), cyber preparedness (52017JC0450), cyber intelligence (32017D0689), cyber defence exercises (52017JC0450), cybersecurity training programme (52017JC0450), cybersecurity assurance (52017SC0501), cyber incident detection (IATE), cyber incident prevention (IATE), cybercrime investigation (52016DC0410), cybersecurity-related education (52017JC0450), cyber mitigation measure (32017H1584), cyber incident exercises (32017H1584). The main term in this field, cybersecurity, is defined as “a set of legal, information dissemination, organisational and technical measures designed to prevent, detect, analyse and respond to cyber incidents, and also to restore the normal operation of electronic communications networks, information systems or industrial process control systems following such incidents” (IATE). The term cybersecurity is closely related to the term cyber hygiene. It denotes the protection and maintenance of computer systems and devices in accordance with good cybersecurity practice (IATE). Less frequently, cybersecurity terms containing the element cyber denote properties, measures related to activity and security in cyberspace, a particular state and its change, or an environment or field in which something takes place or is done, e.g.: cybersecurity resilience (52017DC0228), cyber resilience (IATE); cyber measure (52017JC0450, 52013DC0710), Terminologija | 2017 | 24 147 cybersecurity measures and technologies (52017JC0450), cyber weapon (52012IP0457), cyber resource (52013JC0001), cyber-secure measures (52017JC0450); changing cyber threats (52017JC0450), evolving cybersecurity threats (52017PC0477R(01)), cyber situational awareness (52017JC0450), cyber ecosystem (52016DC0410), cybersecurity ecosystem (52017DC0228), cyber threat (IATE), cyber stability (52017JC0450), cyber risk (32017H1584); cyberspace (IATE), cyber domain (P8_TA-PROV(2016)0441). The cybersecurity terminology under examination also includes terms denoting persons and their attributes, e.g.: cyber expert (52017JC0450), cyber spy (52009AE1948), cybersecurity professional (52017JC0450), cybercriminal (IATE), cyber attacker (52017JC0450), cybersecurity entity (32017H1584); cyber capabilities (52017JC0450), cyber skills (52013IP0376), cybersecurity skills (52013IP0376). Most of the cybersecurity terms examined are two-word terms—they account for more than half (54%) of all terms examined. In terms of origin, all the terms examined are mixed, since they contain the mixed-origin element cyber. The main elements are most often terms of native origin (43% of all terms examined), considerably less often borrowings (30%) and terms of mixed origin (27%). Cybersecurity terminology developed by borrowing elements from other fields—the main elements are terms drawn from 2 the fields of warfare (23%) and forensics (13%), e.g.: a) cyberwar (IATE), cyber weapon (52012IP0457), cyber defence (IATE), cybersecurity (IATE), cyberattack (IATE), cyber attack (IATE), cyber intelligence (32017D0689), cyberterrorism (IATE), cyber spies (52009AE1948), cyber espionage (52011DC0163), cyber weapons proliferation (52014DC0244), cyber incident detection (IATE), cyber threat (IATE), cyber attacker (52017JC0450), cyber preparedness (52017JC0450), cyber incident (IATE); b) cybercrimes (IATE), cybercriminal (IATE), cybercrime investigation (P8_TA-PROV(2017)0211), electro- 2 The assignment of terms to particular fields is conditional. 148 Robertas Stunžinas Europos Sąjungos kibernetinio saugumo terminai su dėmeniu kibernetinis, (-ė): reikšmės, kilmė, sinonimija ir variantai cybercrime network (52013JC0001), cyber incident prevention (IATE), computer forensics (IATE), cyberbullying (52015IP0218), cyberstalking (52015IP0218), cyber harassment (52015IP0218). Terms are borrowed less frequently from other fields—ecology, healthcare, physics, politics, economics, technology, computing, geography, education and law—and some terms are attributable to several fields, for example: cyber ecosystem (52016DC0410), cybersecurity ecosystem (52017DC0228), cyber hygiene (52017JC0450), cyberspace (IATE), cyber resilience (IATE), cybersecurity resilience (52017DC0228), cyber diplomacy (IATE), cyber dialogue (consilium.europa.eu/lt/council-eu/preparatory-bodies/working-party-transatlantic-relations/), cyber resource (52013JC0001), cybersecurity market (52017JC0450), recovery after a cyber incident (IATE), evolution of cybersecurity threats (52017JC0450), evolving cybersecurity threats (52017PC0477R(01)), cyber capabilities (52017JC0450), cyber skills (52013IP0376), cybersecurity skills (52013IP0376), cybersecurity-related education (52017JC0450), cyber defence training (52017JC0450), cybersecurity training programme (52017JC0450), cybersecurity entity (32017H1584), cyber domain (P8_TA-PROV(2016)0441), cybersecurity assurance (52017SC0501), cyber expert (52017JC0450), cybersecurity professionals (52017JC0450), cyber measure (52017JC0450, 52013DC0710), cybersecure measures (52017JC0450), cybersecurity system (52017JC0450), malicious cyber activity (52017JC0450), cyber defence standard (52017JC0450), cybersecurity measures and technologies (52017JC0450), cyber situational awareness (52017JC0450), cyber stability. Some terms borrowed from other fields are metaphorical. As already noted, the term cyber hygiene denotes practices for protecting and maintaining computer systems and devices. The terms cyber ecosystem, cybersecurity ecosystem denote an interacting set of technologies for developing protective measures (see IATE). A comparison of the Lithuanian cybersecurity terms under examination with their English equivalents shows that more than half are completely identical in terms of structure and the meanings of their components. The translation methods for terms Terminologija | 2017 | 24 149 In his account of translations into Lithuanian of European Union legal acts, Egidijus Zaikauskas uses the term “correspondence” to describe the matching of components in source- and target-language terms denoting the same concept, where each component of the source-language term corresponds to one component of the target-language term and their essential qualitative characteristics coincide (Zaikauskas 2014: 76). The qualitative characteristics of 49 Lithuanian terms coincide with those of the English terms, for example: cyber situational awareness (52017JC0450) – cyber situational awareness (52017JC0450), cyber attack (IATE) – cyber attack (IATE), cyber defence (IATE) – cyber defence (IATE), cyber policy (32017H1584) – cyber policy (32017H1584), cyber risk (32017H1584) – cyber risk (32017H1584), cyber intelligence (32017D0689) – cyber-intelligence (IATE), cyber defence standard (52017JC0450) – cybersecurity standard (52017JC0450), cybersecurity exercises (32017H1584) – cybersecurity excercises (32017H1584), cybersecurity system (52017JC0450) – cybersecurity systems (52017JC0450), cyber weapon (52012IP0457) – cyber weapon (IATE), cyber warfare (IATE) – cyberwarfare, cyber war (IATE), cybersecurity (IATE) – cybersecurity (IATE), cyber stability (52017JC0450) – cyber stability (52017JC0450), cyber spy (52009AE1948) – cyberspy (52009AE1948), cyber terrorism (IATE) – cyber terrorism (IATE), cyber incident exercises (32017H1584) – cyber incident exercises (32017H1584), work related to cyberspace (32017H1584) – cyber-related work (32017H1584). It can be argued that most Lithuanian cybersecurity terms containing the component cyber may have arisen as translations of English terms. The component-by-component translation strategy, which seeks to select the most precise equivalents for each meaningful component of a term, is characteristic of the translation of EU legal acts (see Zaikauskas 2014: 73 for more details). In some cases, English and Lithuanian terms differ in grammatical number, but are nevertheless considered to correspond, for example: cybersecurity capabilities (52017JC0450) – cybersecurity capacity (52017JC0450), malicious cyber activity (52017JC0450) – malicious cyber activities (52017JC0450). Terms that differ in the number of components are structurally non-identical. In some cases, Lithuanian terms include an additional component or several components that do not add shades of meaning, for example: dialogue on cyber issues (“dialogue between international partners on cyber issues”, see IATE; consilium.europa.eu/lt/council-eu/preparatory-bodies/ 150 Robertas Stunžinas Europos Sąjungos kibernetinio saugumo terminai su dėmeniu kibernetinis, (-ė): reikšmės, kilmė, sinonimija ir variantai working-party-transatlantic-relations/) – cyber dialogue (IATE), cybersecurity professionals (“employees who help protect against cyberattacks and safeguard network systems”, cf. cyber workforce development (cert.org/cyber-workforce-development; 52017]JC0450) – cyber workforce (52017]JC0450). It can be seen that Lithuanian terms are in many cases longer than their English counterparts. Lithuanian terms often include an additional component or several components that make the concept more precise, for example: recovery after a cyber incident (IATE) – cyber recovery (IATE), awareness of cybercrime (52017]JC0450), cybersecurity awareness (52017]JC0450) – cyber-awareness (52017]JC0450), cyber mitigation measures (32017H1584) – cyber mitigation activities (32017H1584), cyber deterrence measures (52017]JC0450) – cyber deterrence (IATE), cybersecurity measures and technologies (52017]JC0450) – cybersecurity capabilities (52017]JC0450), cyber weapons proliferation (52014]DC0244) – cyber-proliferation (52014]DC0244). Some terms have multiple relationships. For example, cyber prevention (IATE) is translated by two more precise equivalents containing additional components: cyber incident prevention (IATE), cybercrime prevention (IATE). The Lithuanian terms are not identical in meaning—the second should be used to refer not to cyberattacks or incidents, but to various forms of illicit online activity, such as harassment in cyberspace (see iate.europa.eu). Furthermore, cyber prevention (IATE) has the synonym cyber incident prevention (IATE), for which cyber incident prevention (IATE) is the equivalent. In some cases, three-word English terms correspond to multiword syntactic constructions, for example: crimes committed using cyberspace (52017]JC0450), crimes committed in cyberspace (52017]JC0450) – cyber-enabled crime (IATE), computer-enabled crime (IATE). Non-identical cases also include those in which English term components correspond to Lithuanian term components or phrases that have a similar meaning in context. For example, the component vulnerability is matched by the phrase security problem; the component hygiene (“hygiene”; cf. hygiene – “the science of health protection, a healthy environment and disease prevention”, DŽe) is matched by the component security, for example: cybersecurity problem (52017]JC0450) – cyber vulnerability (52017]JC0450), cybersecurity – cyber hygiene (IATE). The term cyber hygiene is also translated as cybercrime prevention (52012IP0457). Terminologija | 2017 | 24 151 Lithuanian terms with broader-meaning components are considered non-equivalent, for example: cyber tool (52017JC0450; 52013DC0710) – cyber tool (52017JC0450), tools secure from a cybersecurity perspective (52017JC0450) – cyber-secure tools (52017JC0450), cyber asset (52013JC0001) – cyber assets (52013JC0001). The Lithuanian components are considered broader in view of computer science terminology, in which the term tool has a narrower meaning, for example: tool – “a simple means of performing some action”; means 1. “an object, tool, device, or program required to perform or make something”; 2. “a method or action for accomplishing something” (EKŽe). From the context of the terms cyber tool, tools secure from a cybersecurity perspective, it may be inferred that in the field of cybersecurity these terms refer not only to objects, tools, devices, and programs intended for security, but also to methods and actions for achieving it, for example: “Some stakeholders are calling, in particular, for greater alignment of EU export control policy and for account to be taken of recent policy developments, such as the use of ICT perimeter and surveillance tools (or cyber tools)” (52013DC0710); “Member States are already building up cyber defence capabilities. Moreover, given the distinction between cyber defence and cybersecurity and between dual-use cyber tools and technologies, and the wide divergence in Member States’ approaches, the EU is well placed to help promote synergies between military and civilian efforts” (52017JC0450). In some cases, the same concept is denoted by Lithuanian and English terms whose components have opposite meanings, for example: cybersecurity exercise (32017H1584) – cyber crisis exercise (enisa.europa.eu/publications/ce2016-after-action-report). In this case, one may speak of antonymic translation. This is a transformation in which a positive element is translated as a negative one and, conversely, a negative element as a positive one, without changing the meaning of the sentence in the original language (Maskaliūnienė 2013: 45). The term cybersecurity threat landscape (52017JC0450), containing the component landscape, which denotes a metaphorical and general view of a place, is translated using non-metaphorical terms, for example: changes in cybersecurity threats (52017JC0450), evolving cybersecurity threats (52017PC0477R(01)). E. Zaikauskas identifies demetaphorisation as one of the ways of translating terms: a term word or phrase with a metaphorical meaning in the source language is replaced in the target language by components without a metaphorical meaning, which usually denote other features (Zaikauskas 2014: 81). 152 Robertas Stunžinas Europos Sąjungos kibernetinio saugumo terminai su dėmeniu kibernetinis, (-ė): reikšmės, kilmė, sinonimija ir variantai SYNONYMY OF CYBERSECURITY TERMS Regarding the terminology under study, it is evident that documents of EU institutions most frequently contain cases of synonymy involving terms with the modifiers cyber, electronic, for example: cybercrime (IATE) – electronic crime (IATE), cybercrime prevention (IATE) – electronic crime prevention (32013D0517), cybercrime investigation (P8_TA-PROV(2017)0211), electronic crime investigation (52013JC0001), crimes committed using cyberspace (52017JC0450) – crimes committed in electronic space (52017JC0450). Terms with the component digital are also sometimes used synonymously, for example: electronic diplomacy (IATE), cyber diplomacy (IATE), digital diplomacy (IATE). Also noteworthy among cases of synonymy in this group are those in which synonym pairs consist of terms containing the components cybernetics and electronic space, for example: dialogue on cyber issues (consilium.europa.eu/lt/council-eu/preparatory-bodies/working-party-transatlantic-relations/), dialogue on electronic space issues (ST-9593-2015-INIT3). Synonymy among terms containing the components cyber, electronic, digital arose because terms were used at different times: the most recent documents use terms with the component cyber. One synonym pair consists of terms with different head components and the modifiers cyber and electronic space, for example: cyber threat (IATE), electronic-space danger (IATE). With respect to their head components (threat and danger), these synonymous terms form a pair of lexical synonyms. A similar synonym pair is formed by terms with the head components space and domain, for example: cyberspace (32017H1584), cyber domain (P8_TA-PROV(2016)0441). Both of these terms are equivalents of the English term cyber domain (32017H1584). The recommended equivalent of the English term cyber domain (“the domain of electronic information (data) processing, consisting of one or more information technology infrastructures” (Cyber Security Publication Library)) is cyber domain. The term cyberspace (“the environment in which electronic information is created on individual computers or other information and communications technology equipment and/or transmitted via computers connected to one another through electronic 3 The document reference from the register of documents of the European Council and the Council of the European Union is given in parentheses. Terminologija | 2017 | 24 153 communications networks or other information and communications technology equipment” (IATE)) is the established equivalent of the term cyber space. Terms containing the components capabilities and skills are also classified as lexical synonyms, for example: cyber capabilities (52017JC0450) – cyber skills (52013IP0376). The synonymy of these cybersecurity terms may have been determined by the Lithuanian equivalents skill and capability for the employment term skill (IATE) (see IATE). However, the meanings of skill and capability in employment terminology are not identical: “capability is generally used when referring to the establishment of conditions, a process, or the first signs of something in someone (a skill that has not yet developed); skill is used when a capability, over time, becomes an automated, spontaneous process” (see IATE). In cybersecurity terminology, however, the terms cyber skills and cyber capabilities are used with the same meaning. Further cases of synonymy among head components were found. Head components with the suffixes –ikas and –ėjas form a pair of derivational synonyms, for example: cyber attacker (52017JC0450) – cyber assailant (52012IP0457). Cyber attacker is used in the most recent documents; moreover, this is the only term used in online sources, for example: “‘Positive Technologies Research’ – cyber attackers could remotely execute commands on many computers using Intel Core processors, manufactured since 2015” (15min.lt).4 Cybersecurity terminology features synonymy between native-language and international term components. Cases of absolute synonymy include terms with synonymous components attack and assault that have the same meaning, for example: cyber assault (IATE), cyber attack (IATE). Some synonymous terms differ in all their components, for example: computer forensics (“the field of digital forensics concerned with searching for, recovering, analysing and preserving digital evidence stored on various media, random-access memory (RAM) and other computer components” IATE), cyber forensics (52017JC0450), cybercrime investigation (52016DC0410). Terms denoting different aspects of a concept are considered partial synonyms. For example, terms denoting a process and a whole are used synonymously 4 Derivational synonyms are terms expressed by derivatives belonging to the same derivational category, sharing the same root and differing in derivational formants (see Vaskelienė 2000: 75 for more). 154 Robertas Stunžinas Europos Sąjungos kibernetinio saugumo terminai su dėmeniu kibernetinis, (–ė): reikšmės, kilmė, sinonimija ir variantai terms: changes in cybersecurity threats (52017JC0450) – evolving cybersecurity threats (52017PC0477R(01)). Synonyms may have emerged in the search for an equivalent of the more precise English term cybersecurity threat landscape (52017JC0450). On the basis of the related term ENISA Threat Landscape (“a collection of threats identified, visible trends and related threat factors. The collection consists of a list of the most significant priority threats according to their frequency of occurrence”; see enisa.europa.eu for more), the more precise equivalent would be evolving cybersecurity threats. Terms with components that are not identical in meaning can be classified as cases of partial or contextual synonymy, e.g.: cyber hygiene (52017JC0450) – cybersecurity (enisa.europa.eu) – cybercrime prevention (52012IP0457). The term cybersecurity is also used as an equivalent of the English term cybersecurity, e.g.: “Cybersecurity is the totality of legal, information dissemination, organisational and technical measures intended to prevent, detect, analyse and respond to cyber incidents, as well as to restore the normal functioning of electronic communications networks, information systems or industrial process control systems following such incidents” (IATE). The term cybercrime prevention (52012IP0457) is also used as an equivalent of the term cybercrime prevention (52013PC0173). Terms containing the opposite dependent components crime and security are considered contextual synonyms: informed about cybercrime (52017JC0450), informed about cybersecurity (52017JC0450). Longer and shorter terms are used synonymously in EU institutional documents, e.g.: cybercriminal (IATE) – perpetrator of cybercrime (52014IE1488). It can be seen that in some cases components denoting an aspect of security are omitted, e.g.: cyber skills (52013IP0376) – cybersecurity skills (52013IP0376), cybersecurity ecosystem (52017DC0228) – cyber ecosystem (52016DC0410). The term originating from the figurative word ecosystem (“a complex network or interconnected system”, see ODE) does not itself carry a shade of meaning related to security; therefore, cybersecurity ecosystem is considered the clearer term. Lithuanian terms may have arisen on the model of the English terms cyber ecosystem (IATE), cybersecurity ecosystem (IATE). Terminologija | 2017 | 24 155 VARIANTS OF CYBERSECURITY TERMS5 IN ONLINE SPACES A considerable proportion of the cybersecurity terms discussed can be found in texts of various styles published online, e.g.: “What is cyberwar, what threats does it pose to each of us, and who can protect us from it, and how?” (15min.lt). “The recently discovered aggressive cyberweapon ‘Snake’ infected dozens of Ukrainian computer networks, as well as government systems” (delfi.lt). “Lithuania’s cybersecurity is being strengthened through change and cooperation” (ltr.lt). The term cybersecurity has quite a few variants. The term cyber safety is used with the same meaning. For example, this term appears in an article headline: “Cyber safety in Lithuania: disaster is just around the corner” (vz.lt). However, the term cybersecurity is used later in the text, e.g.: “Moreover, Lithuania has not even approved the minimum technical cybersecurity requirements for public-sector institutions and companies that would help harmonise the basic level of cybersecurity. And the guardians of the digital space lack authority” (vz.lt). The term cybersecurity is also conveyed by the term cyber protection, e.g.: “Under a NATO cooperation programme, plans are underway to establish an Alliance cyber protection centre in Estonia” (pasaulis.lrytas.lt). In journalistic and scholarly texts, the term cyber safety is also used as a synonym for cyber hygiene, e.g.: “The aim of the study programme is to train information systems and cyber safety specialists, providing them with fundamental and applied knowledge of information engineering and developing the skills necessary for the secure analysis, design, development and maintenance of information systems” (knf.vu.lt). The term cyber protection is used with the same meaning, e.g.: “The purpose of basic cyber protection training is to familiarise participants with current IT protection issues and prepare them to practically repel cyberattacks” (cybersecurityacademy.lt). In the IATE database, of the synonymous pair cyber assault and cyberattack, the member with the Lithuanian component is given as the preferred term and is also used more frequently in EU institutional documents. However, online 5 This article adopts a broad conception of variants: these are not only different realisations of the same linguistic unit, but also distinct linguistic units linked by the same meaning or function (for more, see Miliūnaitė 2009: 147). The criterion for distinguishing terminological synonyms from variants is the different context of use of the terms—EU institutional texts and journalistic and other types of texts published online. 156 Robertas Stunžinas Europos Sąjungos kibernetinio saugumo terminai su dėmeniu kibernetinis, (-ė): reikšmės, kilmė, sinonimija ir variantai There are more terms with international-origin components. According to data from the “Google” search engine, the term cyberattack is used several times6 more frequently. The term cyber assault is used with the same meaning, e.g.: “According to the expert, cyber assaults pose a serious threat to information security” (anglija.lt). Instances of the term cyber spy can be found in journalistic texts, e.g.: “Incidentally, cyber spies obtained the blueprints for the latest versions of the Patriot missile systems and the Aegis multifunctional combat management system, the F-18 fighter jet, the Black Hawk helicopter, and the most expensive project in Pentagon history—the F-35 strike fighter” (slaptai.lt). The term cyber intelligence agent is also used in the media with the same meaning, e.g.: “It was recently revealed that Chinese cyber intelligence agents managed to secretly steal the personal files of, according to some experts, 4 million people, and according to others, 14 million (current and former civil servants, officials and intelligence officers), containing all their personal data, weaknesses, illnesses, debts, criminal records and, of particular importance to Americans, Social Security numbers” (alfa.lt). In cyberspace, in addition to cyber attacker, the term cyber assailant is also used, e.g.: “According to ESET researchers, cyber attackers exploited the BlackEnergy vulnerability, which allowed the KillDisk virus to infiltrate the computers under attack” (eset.com). “The world’s most dangerous cyber assailants. The FBI has a most-wanted list of 19 online criminals responsible for losses to Internet users ranging from 350,000 to 100 million US dollars” (exclamationmarc.com). The term cyber incident, which has an international-origin main component, is frequently used in texts of various styles, e.g.: “More dangerous than viruses: employee cyber incidents can ruin a business” (lrt.lt). Its variant with a Lithuanian main component has been used only a few times, e.g.: “Last year alone, 25,000 cyber events were identified in Lithuania, and there have been even more this year” (draugas.org). The term cybersecurity problem is widespread (English cyber vulnerability). Its two-word variant, cyber vulnerability, is rarely used, e.g.: “Indeed, this decision was made ‘post factum’, when it became” 6 The figures are based on data as of 6 December 2017. There were more than 2,500 recorded uses of the term cyber attack, and more than 46,000 uses of the term cyberattack. Terminologija | 2017 | 24 157 it is clear that the US electoral system can be manipulated by foreign states because of its cyber vulnerability” (bernardinai.lt). “In addition, in this year’s exercises, in view of current threats, an assessment of the cyber vulnerability of the exercise telecommunications networks will be carried out for the first time by specialists from the Communications and Information Systems Department at the Ministry of National Defence” (mond.gov.lt). The terms cybercrime prevention and cyber incident prevention are considered variants in cyberspace of the term cyber incident prevention (IATE), e.g.: “In any case, as information exchange between different devices advances and its scope expands, it will certainly become more sensitive, so cybercrime prevention will have to change direction” (tv3.lt). “At the end of 2016, the National Cyber Security Centre created and is testing with other organisations a Cyber Security Information Network, intended for organisations—the network members—to exchange relevant information on cyber incident prevention and management” (lb.lt). The term digital assets is used with the same meaning as cyber resource, e.g.: “According to an ISACA study, 24 percent of IT employees who said that cybersecurity was their primary responsibility answered that they did not know whether any company credentials had been stolen in the previous year. 23 percent did not know whether their company had been targeted in an advanced persistent threat (APT) attack, while 20 percent did not know whether their company’s digital assets had been used in botnets” (verslas.lrytas.lt). Some term variants found in cyberspace contain outdated or non-recommended components. Instead of the term recovery after a cyber incident (English cyber recovery), a term containing the component restoration is sometimes used: cyber system restoration, e.g.: “<...> students will be able to assess, design and implement secure information technology and security management systems, solve security problems, and plan and implement business continuity and cyber system restoration” (15min.lt). The equivalent recommended for the English term recovery in the latest computing dictionaries is recovery (EKŽė). Sometimes metaphorical terms are used instead of non-metaphorical ones, e.g.: “Lithuania’s cyber threat map” (kam.lt). The term may have originated as a component-by-component calque of the English cybersecurity threat landscape. As already mentioned, in EU institutions’ documents this term is trans- 158 Robertas Stunžinas Europos Sąjungos kibernetinio saugumo terminai su dėmeniu kibernetinis, (-ė): reikšmės, kilmė, sinonimija ir variantai … expressed using non-metaphorical terms – changes in cybersecurity threats and changing cybersecurity threats. In addition, texts in journalistic and other styles contain variants with compounds containing the element kiber-, or with borrowings whose root contains the element kiber-, for example: “The 2010 document enshrines two important innovations in the concept of collective defence: (1) the new threats (first and foremost, c y b e r t h r e a t s), albeit indirectly, are ‘subsumed’ under the concept of collective defence, thereby indirectly broadening the possible interpretation of the term ‘armed attack’ enshrined in the Washington Treaty” (Lithuanian Annual Strategic Review. 2011–2012). “Nevertheless, experts believe that this was merely a Lithuanian c y b e r s e c u r i t y check” (ekspertai.eu). “Defence Minister Nick Harvey says that c y b e r w e a p o n s and c y b e r o p e r a t i o n s will become a serious part of military operations in the future” (alfa.lt). “The first internet pioneers note that the system must be redesigned from scratch to avoid a c y b e r c r i s i s – that is, not an economic crisis but a digital one, which would bring considerable losses to businesses, states, and indeed all of us” (m.technologijos.lt). “The first c y b e r a t t a c k organizer of attacks against government computer servers during the April events has been convicted in Estonia” (pasaulis.lrytas.lt). Compounds with the element kiber- are not characteristic of Lithuanian – kiber is not used as an independent word or an international element. There are also instances in which the element kiber is used as an independent component, for example: “Risk assessment of c y b e r a t t a c k s” (stdb.mruni.eu). “Advisers to the country’s health ministry say that obesity among women is so prevalent and dangerous that it should be treated like terrorism, natural disasters or c y b e r a t t a c k s, and that the fight against obesity should be raised to the national level, reports independent.co.uk” (ekspresas.co.uk). CONCLUSIONS 1. The microsystem of EU cybersecurity terms containing the component kibernetinis, (-ė) is based on terms denoting harmful acts or activities, as well as actions and measures for protection against them. In terms of the origins of their components, cybersecurity terminology is mixed. An examination of the fields from which terms serving as principal components may be drawn shows that the terminology under study is based primarily on terms from the fields of military science and forensic science. It also comprises terms borrowed from ecology, healthcare, physics, politics, economics, technology, computing, geography, pedagogy, and law. Terminologija | 2017 | 24 159 2. Most Lithuanian cybersecurity terms can be considered calques: the qualitative characteristics of more than half of the terms analysed correspond exactly to those of the English terms. Lithuanian terms that do not correspond to their English counterparts differ in the number of components, grammatical forms, and the scope of the meanings of their components. 3. Lithuanian EU cybersecurity terminology aims to make the concepts being named clear and, unlike English terminology, seeks to use longer equivalents and indicate more of a concept’s features, naming concepts directly rather than through figurative means of expression. 4. Half of the terms in the microsystem under study have synonyms. Synonymy among the terms takes various forms: synonym sets comprise terms that differ in dependent components, terms that differ in their principal components, terms that differ in all components, and longer and shorter variants. The emergence of synonyms was driven by terms used at different times and the search for suitable forms of expression. 5. Cybersecurity terminology is new and is characterized by diversity of expression. Many variants of cybersecurity terms appear in texts published in cyberspace. In cyberspace, there is a tendency to use terms with native components alongside terms with borrowed or mixed-origin components. In texts published in the public domain, compounds with the element kiber-, which are not characteristic of Lithuanian, and terms containing the word kiber, also not characteristic of Lithuanian, are often used instead of terms with the components kibernetinis, (-ė). LITERATURE AND SOURCES7 DŽe – Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian (electronic edition, http://lkiis.lki.lt/). EKŽe – Encyclopedic Dictionary of Informatics (ims.mii.lt/EK%C5%BD/). EUR-lex – European Union legal acts and other public documents database (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/lt/index.htm). IATE – Multilingual European Union terminology database (http://iate.europa.eu). Maskalūnienė N. 2013: Antoniminis vertimas. Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas. Miliūnaitė R. 2009: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos vartosenos variantai, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. ODE 2010: Oxford Dictionary of English. Third edition. Edited by A. Stevenson, Oxford: Oxford university press. Vaskelienė J. 2000: Darybiniai sinonimai, Šiauliai. Zaikauskas E. 2014: Terminų vertimo būdai Europos Sąjungos teisės aktų vertimuose. – Terminologija 21, 71–89. Cyber Europe 2016: After Action Report (enisa.europa.eu/publications/ce2016-after-action-report). Cybersecurity Publications Library (https://ccdcoe.org/publication-library.html). 7Documents of EU institutions are presented chronologically. The two digits preceding the letter indicate the last two digits of the year. For example, in identification number 52009AE1948, the fourth and fifth digits, “09,” indicate that the document was prepared in 2009. 160 Robertas Stunžinas Europos Sąjungos kibernetinio saugumo terminai su dėmeniu kibernetinis, (-ė): reikšmės, kilmė, sinonimija ir variantai Cyber Workforce Development (cert.org/cyber-workforce-development/). Lietuvos metinė strateginė apžvalga. 2011–2012. 10, Vilnius: Generolo Jono Žemaičio Lietuvos karo akademija, 2012. Working Party on Transatlantic Relations (COTRA) (consilium.europa.eu/lt/council-eu/preparatory-bodies/ working-party-transatlantic-relations/). Cybersecurity Academy (cybersecurityacademy.lt). Lithuanian current affairs portal Slaptai (slaptai.lt). Website of the Bank of Lithuania (lb.lt). Lithuanian National Radio and Television (lrt.lt). Website of the Ministry of National Defence of the Republic of Lithuania (kam.lt, mond.gov.lt). Website of Mykolas Romeris University (stdb.mruni.eu). News and entertainment portal TV3 (tv3.lt). News portal 15min (15min.lt). News portal Alfa.lt (alfa.lt). News portal Bernardinai (bernardinai.lt). News portal Delfi (delfi.lt). News portal Draugas (draugas.org). News portal INFO Ekspresas (ekspresas.co.uk). News portal Lietuvos rytas (pasaulis.lrytas.lt, verslas.lrytas.lt). News portal Technologijos.lt (m.technologijos.lt). Oxford dictionaries (blog.oxforddictionaries.com). Portal Anglija.lt (anglija.lt). Portal ESET (eset.com). Portal SEMALT (exclamationmarc.com). Verslo žinios (vz.lt). 52009AE1948 – Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on the Commission Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the protection of critical information infrastructure, “Protecting Europe from large-scale cyberattacks and disruptions: enhancing preparedness, security and resilience”. 52011DC0163 – Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the protection of critical information infrastructure, “Achieving global cyber-security. Progress and next steps”. 52012IP0457 – European Parliament resolution of 22 November 2012 on cyber security and defence. 52013DC0710 – Commission report to the Council and the European Parliament on the implementation of Regulation (EC) No 428/2009 setting up a Community regime for the control of exports, transfer, brokering and transit of dual-use items. 52013IP0376 – European Parliament resolution of 12 September 2013 on the European Union Cybersecurity Strategy: An Open, Safe and Secure Cyberspace. 52013JC0001 – Joint Communication to the European Parliament and the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: “Cybersecurity Strategy of the European Union. An Open, Safe and Secure Cyberspace”. 52013PC0173 – Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the European Union Agency for Law Enforcement Cooperation and Training (Europol) and repealing Decisions 2009/371/JHA and 2005/681/JHA. 52014DC0244 – Commission Communication to the Council and the European Parliament: “Review of the export control policy. Ensuring security and competitiveness in a changing world”. 52014IE1488 – Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on cyberattacks in the European Union (own-initiative opinion). 52015IP0218 – European Parliament resolution of 9 June 2015 on the EU strategy for equality between women and men after 2015. 52016DC0410 – Commission Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: “Strengthening Europe’s Cyber Resilience System and Fostering the Competitiveness and Innovation of the Cybersecurity Industry”. 52017DC0228 – Commission Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: “Mid-term review of the Digital Single Market Strategy: A Connected Digital Single Market for All”. Terminologija | 2017 | 24 161 52017JC0450 – Joint Communication to the European Parliament and the Council ‘Resilience, deterrence and defence: boosting the EU’s cybersecurity’. 52017PC0477R(01) – Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) and on information and communications technology cybersecurity certification, and repealing Regulation (EU) No 526/2013 (Cybersecurity Act). 52017SC0501 – Commission Staff Working Document. Summary of the impact assessment. Accompanying the Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) and on information and communications technology cybersecurity certification, and repealing Regulation (EU) No 526/2013 (Cybersecurity Act). 32017D0689 – Council Decision (CFSP) 2017/689 amending Decision 2011/235/CFSP concerning restrictive measures directed against certain persons and entities in view of the situation in Iran. 32017H1584 – Commission Recommendation (EU) 2017/1584 on coordinated response to large-scale cybersecurity incidents and crises. ST-9593-2015-INIT – Report from the General Secretariat of the Council to the Political and Security Committee. Draft EU annual report on human rights and democracy in the world in 2014 (http://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-9593-2015-INIT/lt/pdf). P8_TA-PROV(2016)0441 – EU strategic communication to counteract propaganda directed against it by third countries (http://infa.lt/wp-content/files/pdf/EP_strategine_komunikacija_kovai_pries_propaganda.pdf). P8_TA-PROV(2017)0211 – European Parliament resolution ‘FinTech: the influence of technology on the future of the financial sector’ (http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sites/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P8-TA-2017-0211+0+DOC+XML+V0//LT). European Commission press release ‘State of the Union 2017. Cybersecurity. Commission strengthens measures to respond to cyberattacks’ (http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-17-3193_lt.htm). Press release ‘European Cybersecurity Month. Joining forces to fight cybersecurity threats’ (https://www.enisa.europa.eu/news/enisa-news/cybersecmonth-2017/2017-10-02%20ENISA%20Press%20Release%20-%20European%20Cyber%20Security%20Month_LT.pdf). EUROPEAN UNION CYBERSECURITY TERMS WITH COMPOUND KIBERNETINIS, (-Ė) (CYBER(-): MEANINGS, ORIGIN, SYNONYMY AND VARIATIONS This article discusses the meanings, origin, synonymy and variations of EU cybersecurity terms with the compound kibernetinis, (-ė) (cyber). The analysis shows that cybersecurity terms most often denote harmful actions and activities or defensive actions and measures: kibernetinė vagystė (cybertheft), kibernetinis terorizmas (cyberterrorism), kibernetinė gynyba (cyber defence), kibernetinių incidentų pratybos (cyber incident exercises), kibernetinis išteklius (cyber assets). Terms denoting people and their characteristics are used relatively rarely: kibernetikos ekspertas (cyber expert), kibernetinis šnipas (cyberspy), kibernetinio saugumo įgūdžiai (cybersecurity skills). In terms of their origin, cybersecurity terms are heterogeneous. It can be concluded that most cybersecurity terms are borrowed from warfare and forensics: kibernetinis karas (cyber war), kibernetinė kriminalistika (cyber forensics). Fewer terms are drawn from ecology, health, physics, politics, economics, technology, computer science, geography, pedagogy and law: kibernetinė ekosistema (cyber ecosystem), kibernetinė higiena (cyber hygiene), kibernetinio saugumo atsparumas (cyber security resilience), kibernetinė diplomatija (cyber diplomacy), kibernetinis išteklius (cyber assets), kibernetinio saugumo subjektas (cybersecurity entity), kibernetiniai gebėjimai (cyber skills). The majority of Lithuanian cybersecurity terms can be considered as calques – qualitative characteristics of more than a half of the Lithuanian terms analyzed completely 162 Robertas Stunžinas Europos Sąjungos kibernetinio saugumo terminai su dėmeniu kibernetinis, (-ė): reikšmės, kilmė, sinonimija ir variantai match the characteristics of the English terms: kibernetinė politika – cyber policy, kibernetinė rizika – cyber risk, kibernetinio saugumo sistema – cybersecurity systems. Terms that do not match differ in the number and meaning of their components: dialogas kibernetikos klausimais – cyber dialogue, atkūrimas po kibernetinio incidento – cyber recovery, kibernetinis išteklius – cyber assets. In Lithuanian cybersecurity terminology, clarity is the primary consideration; therefore, longer, non-metaphorical equivalents are used in comparison with English terms: atkūrimas po kibernetinio incidento – cyber recovery, kibernetinio saugumo priemonės ir technologijos – cybersecurity capabilities, grėsmių kibernetiniam saugumui keitimas – cybersecurity threat landscape. Half of the terms analyzed have synonyms: elektroninė diplomatija – kibernetinė diplomatija – skaitmeninė diplomatija (cyber diplomacy, e-diplomacy, digital diplomacy), kibernetinis nusikaltėlis – kibernetinis užpuolikas (cyber attacker). Synonymy in cybersecurity terminology is characterized by variety, and synonyms may arise from differences in usage over time or from an intention to create an appropriate form of expression. Cybersecurity terminology is new and is characterized by variety of expression. Many other cybersecurity terms are used in online publications. In these publications, Lithuanian terms are used instead of borrowed or mixed terms: kibernetinis puolimas, kibernetinis žvalgas, kibernetinis įvykis. Some cybersecurity terms have an atypical structure and use the component kiber(-): kiberginklas, kiberveiksmas, kiber ataka. Gauta 2017 11 02 Robertas Stunžinas Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, LT–10308 Vilnius E. paštas [email protected] Terminologija | 2017 | 24 163