Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų

ATKURTOS LIETUVOS VALSTYBĖS 100-MEČIUI Medical Terminology 100 Years Ago PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language KEYWORDS: medicine, term, designation, synonyms, variants, spoken language Language is the most distinctive mark that distinguishes one nation from another Kazys Grinius, LA 1918 79 1 INTRODUCTORY NOTES The state of health affairs in Lithuania in 1918. Lithuania’s independence was declared during the difficult years of the First World War. The Council of Lithuania (hereinafter – the Council) gradually began to attend to health affairs as well. At the Council meeting on 25 April 1918, the procedure for establishing special commissions was discussed. At the meeting the following day, the Health Commission (hereinafter – the Commission) was established. Its members were Dr Jonas Basanavičius, Steponas Kairys, and Reverend Justinas Staugaitis. It was difficult to assemble suitable people for this work. During the war, many doctors left Lithuania. All local health affairs were administered by district doctors appointed by the Germans. The first doctors to begin working on the Commission were Dr Andrius Domaševičius and Dr Antanas Vileišis (Petronytė 1995: 118). In 1918, the state of health affairs in Lithuania was difficult – war, a shortage of medical personnel and hospitals, and a lack of food and medical assistance created favorable conditions for the spread of infectious diseases. Epidemics of typhus, dysentery, influenza, smallpox, and other diseases broke out and spread rapidly; people also suffered from chronic illnesses. All this greatly increased the population’s mortality rate (Petronytė 1995: 119; Micelmacheris 1959: 21; Tercijonas 1968: 122). During the first decade of independent Lithuania, the number of doctors grew slowly. Doctors were particularly scarce in rural areas, since most of them worked in cities. There were few doctors in private practice (Tercijonas 1968: 122). Feldshers were not trained in independent Lithuania, so their ranks were augmented by medical non-commissioned officers returning from Russia or from the military medical service (Tercijonas 1968: 123). Terminologija | 2018 | 25 147 To improve the situation at least somewhat, the Commission proposed properly organizing the work of local and returning medical personnel and allowing only the Commission to decide on their qualifications and the granting of practice rights (Petronytė 1995: 119). The German administration often completely obstructed the free practice of Lithuanian doctors. Letters to the Commission were sent not only by Lithuanian doctors wishing to find out about opportunities to work in Lithuania at the time, but also by Lithuanian residents themselves, asking for a Lithuanian doctor to be sent to them, because they simply could not make themselves understood by the Germans (Petronytė 1995: 119–120). At the Council meeting on July 24, 1918, Dr. Jurgis Alekna urged the establishment of a separate Health Department, but this plan was implemented only on November 11, when the first government began its work. The Commission was reorganized as the Health Department of the Ministry of the Interior (hereafter, the Department) (Petronytė 1995: 120–121). The Department’s structure and areas of activity were organized according to the 1905 Medical Statute of the Russian Empire, adapted to local conditions. The Department was not the only government institution handling health matters in Lithuania. The Sanitary Board of the Ministry of National Defence was responsible for the health of soldiers. Schoolchildren’s health matters fell under the Ministry of Education. The Ministries of Transport and Justice had their own health affairs divisions (Petronytė 1995: 121). Sources on medical publications in 1918 and their authors. The First World War (1914–1917), the German occupation (1915–1918), and the difficulties of Lithuania’s early state-building period dispersed the already small group of medical professionals; many members of the medical intelligentsia had withdrawn to Russia and other countries, adversely affecting the health of the country’s people. These factors also brought a halt to the publication of Lithuanian medical periodicals1 (Stakulienė 2001: 232). Nevertheless, despite all the difficulties, even during this difficult time for Lithuania, individual Lithuanian doctors emerged who not only treated and cared for patients but also wrote about medical and health issues; they were joined by representatives of other professions (see Fig. 1 for the distribution of medical publications). 1The social and political situation that had taken shape in the early twentieth century (the restoration of press freedom in Lithuanian characters in 1904) and the growing cultural and public activity of Lithuanian intellectuals (the Lithuanian Scientific Society was founded in 1907) created more favorable conditions for specialized publications to emerge. In July 1909, a supplement to the newspaper Lietuvos ūkininkas, entitled Sveikata and edited by Dr. Kazys Grinius, appeared; in 1911–1912, a supplement to Lietuvos žinios, Farmaceutų reikalai, was published; in 1913, the long-anticipated first Lithuanian medical science journal, Medicina ir gamta, appeared; and in 1914, a supplement to the monthly Aušra, Gydytojas, began publication (Vaišvilienė 2013: 208–209, 211). 148 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų Fig. 1. Distribution of medical publications in 1918 No medical booklets were published in Lithuania in 1918. Only two booklets appeared abroad (in America): Julius Bielskis’s Raktas sveikaton ir laimėn (64 pp.) and A. J. Karalius’s Vyras. Ką kiekvienas vyras turi žinoti apie savo lyties reikalus (24 pp.)2. The year 1918 marked a break in the publication of specialized medical newspapers and journals that had been appearing until then. Only in January was the final issue of the newspaper Farmaceutų reikalų3 published in Moscow. Instead, medical and health issues were written about in other publications of the time—newspapers such as Moterų balsas4, Darbo balsas5, Dabartis6, Vienybė7, Lietuvos aidas8, 2The article excludes from its analysis terms taken from publications published outside Lithuania. 3In 1911, the first issue of Farmaceutų reikalų appeared in the second issue of Lietuvos žinių’s supplement Aušrinė, published in Vilnius for the cultural and educational needs of Lithuanian schoolchildren. Later, after lengthy disputes and deliberations, it was decided to publish Farmaceutų reikalus as a free supplement to Lietuvos žinių. In 1912, Lietuvos žinios published two more issues. Four issues in total appeared in 1911–1912. In 1912, after the fourth issue was published, the newspaper’s publication ceased (Stakulienė 2007: 125, 127). 4Newspaper of the Lithuanian Catholic Women’s Society, published in Kaunas in 1918. Edited by Z. Čalkytė. 5A newspaper published in Vilnius twice a week from 1917 to 1919. Edited and published by S. Kairys (VLE IV 486). 6Newspaper of the German occupation administration for the residents of Lithuania. Published in Tilsit in 1915–1916, in Kaunas in 1916–1918 (with an interruption), and in Białystok in 1917. Initially published twice, then three times a week; in 1918 it was a daily. Editors in 1918: A. Liūdžiuvaitis, K. A. Ozelys (VLE IV 380). 7A Catholic weekly for rural readers, published in Kaunas in 1907–1914 and 1918–1933, and in Vilnius in 1914–1915. A. Alekna edited the weekly from 1907 to 1919 (VLE XXV 110). 8A newspaper published in Vilnius in 1917–1918. Its founder and official editor in 1917–1918 was A. Smetona (1874–1944), a figure in Lithuanian state, public, and cultural life, a signatory of the Act of February 16, and the first president of Lithuania (VLE XIII 195; VLE XXII 140). Terminologija | 2018 | 25 149 Pavasaris9, Tėvynės sargas10. One article on diseases and hygiene was published each in the Kaunas Calendar and the Aušros Vartai Calendar for 1919. Few articles on medicine were published in 1918. They were written by physicians A. Vileišis (the most prolific), Eliziejus Draugelis, Danielius Alseika, and Petras Avižonis. The subject matter is reflected in the article titles: “Hygiene,” “The New Disease,” “Erysipelas,” ““Trachoma,” “How to Live and Stay Healthy,” “What Is Influenza and What Causes It?,” “Scabies,” “On Pulmonary Tuberculosis,” “Let Us Guard Against Diseases,” “On Diseases of War,” “A Few Words About Diseases and Hygiene,” “Typhus,” “Human Bones,” “Spotted Fever,” and others. Another type of publication in this field consisted of short articles—or, more precisely, news items—about diseases and their spread, the establishment of medical institutions, medical personnel (doctors, pharmacists, feldshers, etc.), and the like. Examples include: “Diseases,” “Shortage of Doctors and Midwives,” “Feldsher,” “Spanish Disease,” “The Polyclinic and Hospital of the Lithuanian Sanitary Aid Society in Vilnius,” “On the State of Health in Lithuania,” “Doctors Settling,” “For the Attention of Doctors,” “From the Kaunas City Hospital,” and others. These news items appeared in particular newspaper sections, for example, “Our News” (the Darbo balso section), “Miscellaneous News,” “News from Lithuania” (the Lietuvos aido section), “From the Lithuanian Region” (the Dabarties section), and “News of News” (the Tėvynės sargo section). The tradition, dating from the late nineteenth century during the years of the press ban, of signing publications with pseudonyms or pseudonymous initials11 continued; examples include: Ainis (Juozas Proskus), Ibis (Jonas Basanavičius), Krumplýs (Bronius Stosiūnas), Kuliškis (Stanislovas Durskis); Nr. (Kazys Grinius), L. G. (Liudas Gira), and O. A. (Ona Adomaitytė). Some authors did not conceal their identities, for example: D–ras D. Alseika, Dr. E. Draugelis, Dr. A. Vileišis, D–ras med. P. Avižonis. The subject matter of sources for medical terminology in 1918. What, then, was written about in these publications? Their subject matter was, of course, dictated by the state of health in Lithuania in 1918. The most pressing problem of the time was the spread and prevalence of infectious diseases, so most writing focused on them (see Figs. 2–3)—dysentery, typhus (spotted and typhoid) (see Fig. 4), influenza (see Fig. 5), erysipelas, scabies (see Fig. 6), pulmonary tuberculosis, smallpox (as well as 9 An illustrated journal of the Lithuanian Catholic Youth Union, Pavasaris, published in Kaunas in 1912–1914 and 1920–1940, and in Vilnius in 1918. In 1918 the journal was edited by B. Stosiūnas (VLE XVII 668). 10 A weekly newspaper of the Lithuanian Christian Democrats, published in Vilnius in 1917–1918 and in Kaunas in 1920–1926. In 1917–1918 it was edited and published by A. Stulginskis (1885–1969), a Lithuanian state and public figure, signatory of the Act of 16 February, and the second president of Lithuania (VLE XXIII 715; VLE XXII 140). 11 The pseudonyms and pseudonymous initials were identified using the Dictionary of Lithuanian Pseudonyms (see the bibliography). 150 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų Fig. 2. Dr. D. Alseika writes about infectious diseases; Svk 1 2 Terminologija | 2018 | 25 151 Fig. 3. Dr. A. Vileišis writes about war diseases; TS 14 1 5 2 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų Fig. 4. Dr. E. Draugelis writes about fevers; AVk 1918 Terminologija | 2018 | 25 153 Fig. 5. Dr. E. Draugelis writes about influenza; TS 36 13 154 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų Fig. 6. Dr. A. Vileišis writes about scabies; TS 14 13 Terminologija | 2018 | 25 155 Fig. 7. Dr. P. Avižonis writes about hygiene; DB 56 3 at least to some extent, other diseases as well, for example, eye diseases—trachoma), the symptoms of those diseases, medicines for them and their treatment, care of the sick, and so on. Another important topic was hygiene, so there were also articles on this subject (see Fig. 7). Another problem was the shortage of medical personnel and healthcare facilities, so informational articles dealt mostly with doctors and other specialists (see Fig. 8), hospitals, outpatient clinics, pharmacies and other health-related institutions (see Fig. 9). There was one ongoing publication about human anatomy (bones, muscles, skin). Thus, it can be said that the medical publications in question reflected the most important health problems of the time. 156 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų Fig. 8. O. Žlabytė writes about the shortage of doctors and midwives; DB 16 11 Terminologija | 2018 | 25 157 Fig. 9. P. D. writes about a hospital in Gelvonys; TS 24 4 158 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų The subject of the article is the terminology found in popular and informational publications on medicine, health, and treatment, published in the Lithuanian periodical press (mainly newspapers) in 1918. The aim of the article is to examine the medical terms of that year in terms of meaning and expression. To achieve this aim, the following objectives were set: 1) to distinguish semantic groups of the medical concepts being named, 2) to examine the origins and structure of the terms, 3) to determine the relationship between native (purely Lithuanian), foreign (borrowed), and mixed-origin terms; the relationship of native terms to living language; and the languages from which borrowed terms originate, 4) to discuss how synonymous medical terms are presented in texts, examine the synonymic relationships between medical terms in the same and different texts and methods of identifying them, and 6) to consider terms that vary. Medical terms are examined mainly using the descriptive-analytical method. Terms are written as they appear in the original and are often presented in context, that is, in the sentence in which they are set in spaced type for emphasis; at the end of illustrative sentences, the abbreviation of the source (newspaper or calendar), issue number, and page are given. For illustration, pages from newspapers in which the articles were printed are provided. Quantitative and other data are presented in figures. MEDICAL TERMS OF 1918 More than 700 different terminological units (excluding their variants) were found in the medical texts from 1918 that were studied. Terms are examined from the principal perspectives of meaning and expression. First, according to the medical concepts they name, the terms are divided into semantic groups, and the terms in each group are then discussed in greater detail. Next, the origins of the terms are examined, and the characteristics of native, foreign, and mixed-origin terms are reviewed. Finally, the presentation of synonymous terms in the same text, methods of identifying synonymic relationships among terms in different texts, and term variation are discussed. 1. Medical terms by meaning. The medical terms of 1918 can be divided into the following semantic groups: 1) names of body parts and organs, 2) names of diseases, 3) names of treatment methods and remedies, 4) names of persons who treat and are treated, 5) names of medical institutions and premises, and 6) names of abstract medical concepts (see Fig. 10 for the distribution of medical terms by meaning). 1.1. Names of body parts and organs. It is probably rare for a publication in the medical field to do without anatomical terms. In 1918, Terminologija | 2018 | 25 159 publications in this field include the names of almost all the most important parts of the human body and vital organs. These are old words in this field, known from early Lithuanian religious writings and later secular and specialized subject-related (medical) texts, for example: body parts – elbow Pvs 7 13, Pvs 8 11, TS 14 14, calf TS 14 14, TS 21 11, TS 30 12, head MB 1 12, Vnb 13 194, Pvs 10 13, Pvs 8 11, AVk 51, Kk 70, TS 1 14, TS 36 14, TS 10 14, TS 11 14, TS 14 14, TS 21 11, TS 26 12, TS 30 11, neck Kk 72, TS 14 14, TS 26 12, back TS 5 15, TS 30 12; organs – mouth Vnb 13 194, AVk 51, Kk 69, TS 4 14, TS 5 15, TS 34 5, TS 21 11, TS 7 14, Vnb 4 676, Pvs 9 18, Dbrt 98 3, kidneys AVk 50, TS 14 13, spleen AVk 50, TS 36 14, bone Pvs 7 12, Pvs 8 11, Kk 69, TS 36 14, TS 4 15, Vnb 4 676, lungs AVk 50, lungs Pvs 7 13, AVk 51, TS 36 14, TS 4 14, TS 34 6, Vnb 4 676, heart Pvs 7 13, Kk 71, TS 34 6, TS 30 12, gallbladder AVk 50. Most of the anatomical terms mentioned were established by 1918, and their spelling varied minimally. Some organs had two (or three) names, for example: intestinum – intestines AVk 50, TS 1 15, TS 36 14 and grobai Dbrt 178 3, nervus – sinews Pvs 10 12 and nerves TS 30 12, pharynx – throat TS 36 14 and throat Kk 71, TS 36 14, TS 34 6, TS 26 12, TS 30 11, Dbrt 178 3, articulatio – joints Pvs 7 13 and joints Pvs 10 12, Dbrt 178 3, gaster – stomach Dbrt 178 3, little belly AVk 51, TS 36 14 and stomach TS 4 15. From the perspective of meaning, the more interesting anatomical terms are those used in articles published in the newspaper Pavasaris, “Skin” and “Human Bones.” In the article “Skin,” sweat glands (Latin glandula sudorifera), more precisely the sweat glands, are designated by the following terms: “Besides sinews and veins, there are thousands of other tiny little eyes in the skin” Pvs 10 12; “Water seeps through the tiny holes called sweat pores12” Pvs 10 12; “When we are hot, the water oozing through the skin’s pores cools us, because heat from the body is used to dry that water” Pvs 10 13. 12Italics in the original article. 160 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų In the same article, the terms žývna, žývnelis are used: “Our skin is like a lined glove—it is double-layered. The upper layer is scaly. But the scales are so small that we cannot even see them. Over time, these scales wear away and fall off the skin” Pvs 10 12; “The pores of the skin can quickly become blocked when dust from the air or scales of dead skin get into them” Pvs 10 13. What, then, do these terms mean? They refer to the polygonal cells of the stratum corneum of the epidermis, which resemble small scales (Stropus, Tamašauskas, Paužienė 2005: 395). LKŽe does not record žvyna in this sense, whereas the fourth meaning of the masculine noun žvynas is zoological: “a plate-shaped skin formation in vertebrates”. In the article “Human Bones,” the upper and lower limbs, in addition to the usual terms rankos and kojos, are also called by the term galai: “The parts of the skeleton are as follows: <...>; the bones of the extremities, that is, the bones of the arms and legs” Pvs 7 13. In the same article, the term grandis is used in the sense of “vertebra”: “The backbone consists of a dozen or so (33) small bones, stacked one on top of another and bound together by cartilage and strong, elastic ligaments. But not all are joined in the same way: 24 of them can move, while 9 cannot. These little bones are called the links of the backbone, because they resemble a link” Pvs 7 13; see 1 grandis “a component, member, or joint of some system” LKŽe. In the aforementioned article, the term krimslýs was used for cartilage: “Bones are very strong. They are composed of cartilage and various earthy substances. <...>. When a bone is burned, only the bone’s cartilage burns, and the earthy substance remains” Pvs 7 12–13; see 2 krimslýs “cartilage” LKŽe. In one 1918 publication, a pair of compound terms related by antonymy13 was found, with antonymous classifying constituents. Such constituents are formed by the suffixal adjectives –inis, apatinis ‘lower’ and viršutinis ‘upper’, for example, lower skin Pvs 10 12 – upper skin Pvs 10 12. Structurally, these are root antonyms14, which “differ completely in their phonetic structure; the opposition between their meanings lies in the root itself” (Jakaitienė 2010: 137), 13 A few more pairs of medical terms related by antonymy from the sections “Names of Diseases,” “Names of Treatments,” and “Names of Medical Institutions and Premises”: high fever Kk 72, TS 1 15, Pvs 9 18 – low fever MB 1 11; severe pain TS 30 12 – mild pain TS 36 14; deep wound TS 30 12 – superficial wound TS 30 12; hot water MB 1 11 – cold water Kk 70, cold compresses TS 30 12 – hot compresses TS 30 13; village pharmacy FR 1 3 – city pharmacy FR 1 3. Since there are few terms linked by the relations discussed, it can be said that semantic relations of this kind are not characteristic of the medical terminology of the year under study. 14 Dar plg. nebendrašakniai (leksiniai) antonimai (Mitkevičienė 2006: 136), tikrieji (arba sisteminiai) antonimai (Ermanytė 2008: 74). Terminologija | 2018 | 25 161 they have opposite meanings in any context. These are mostly systematic antonyms—terms whose antonymic relations are stable and clear without a special context. 1.2. Names of diseases. The most acute public health problem in 1918 was contagious, or infectious diseases (for more on their synonymous names, see section 3.2, “Synonymous relations between medical terms in the same and different texts”); consequently, publications on medicine that year were full of the names of these diseases. In one of his articles, Dr A. Vileišis called these diseases war diseases, “which in the past killed far more people than war itself” TS 1 14. He included spotted fever, typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera, plague, and tetanus among these diseases. Articles published in periodicals dealt mostly with the first three. The names of these diseases varied considerably, for example: Latin typhus exanthematicus – beriamoji šiltinė TS 1 14, TS 26 12, Svk 1 1, LA 42 1 / bado šiltinė TS 1 14 / dėmėtoji šiltinė AVk 50, DB 20 4, Dbrt 27 3, TS 18 10, Dbrt 98 3, LA 42 1, LA 47 2, Dbrt 34 3 / dėmėta šiltinė Dbrt 96 3 / išberi… 162 “has nothing to do either with the disease itself or with its cause. This word means ‘influence’ in Italian. It has been known since 1743”; in 1889, an “epidemic of this disease was very widespread throughout the world” (for the full bibliographic description of the cited publication, see the list of primary sources). Why, then, was this disease also called Spanish, Spanish-like, Spanish in publications? In an article in the same newspaper, “The New Disease,” Dr E. Draugelis, writing about this disease, notes that “<...> it came from Spain, so it is also called Spanish, or ‘lady-like’ (for some do not suspect it, while jokers claim that the King of Spain was the first to fall ill with this disease” (for the full bibliographic description of the cited publication, see the list of primary sources). Publications about diseases show that, besides the contagious diseases mentioned above, people also suffered from cholera, tetanus, measles, smallpox, scabies, and fever: Latin cholera – koliera Vnb 13 193 / kolera TS 1 14, TS 4 14, TS 5 15, Dbrt 98 3 / cholera Dbrt 27 3, Dbrt 79 3, DB 56 4; Latin tetanus – pastyrimo liga or tეტanas (Latin Tetamu) TS 1 14 / siutligė Dbrt 27 3 / pasiutimo liga Dbrt 27 3; Latin morbilli – drognės (blusinės, jadros) Kk 71 / tymai Kk 71, TS 5 15, Dbrt 98 3, Dbrt 96 3 / tymai (jedra) TS 7 14 (dėmėtieji tymai Kk 71); Latin variola – rauplės Dbrt 98 3, Dbrt 79 3, Dbrt 96 3 / raupai Kk 71, TS 5 15, DB 20 4, LA 47 2, DB 56 4; Latin scabies – niežai TS 14 13; Latin febris intermittens (?) – drugys Dbrt 27 3, Dbrt 98 3 (atsinainomasis drugys Dbrt 98 3, kaičiojamasis drugys Dbrt 96 3, pasikartojamasis drugys Dbrt 96 3). Another substantial group of diseases mentioned in the articles consists of surgical and traumatic diseases (there were no articles devoted specifically to these diseases); their names are often mentioned in articles about other diseases, i.e. as one consequence or another of the latter. For example, complications that may arise in typhoid fever include: “It is quite difficult to predict the course and outcome of typhoid fever, since dangerous deteriorations sometimes occur even in mild cases (such as intestinal perforation)” AVk 52, or Terminologija | 2018 | 25 163 Patients who have recovered from smallpox are predisposed to developing pulmonary tuberculosis: “<...>, smallpox, <...> and other serious diseases make people prone to tuberculosis. Those who have suffered from these diseases must be especially careful” TS 7 15. However, the names of these diseases, compared with infectious diseases, are more general in nature and imprecise, e.g.: aching hands TS 36 14, hand pain AVk 53, aching legs TS 36 14, leg pain AVk 53, tongue pains TS 36 14, skin swelling TS 10 14, stone disease TS 4 15, bleeding from the nose TS 34 6, bleeding from the intestines TS 34 6. Two further groups are diseases of the ears, nose and throat, and respiratory system. Their names, like those of the diseases discussed earlier, are found mainly in articles about infectious diseases; that is, diseases in these groups occur as consequences of infectious diseases: “In addition, inflammation of the ears also develops with influenza” TS 34 6; “Influenza is most often accompanied by pneumonia. <...>. Moreover, sometimes inflammation of the pleura also develops” TS 34 6; “When one has influenza, other bacteria may also enter the body, for example bacteria that cause pneumonia or suppuration” TS 34 5; “Influenza bacteria act directly on the mucous membranes, and their action, <...>, manifests itself as catarrh of the respiratory tract” TS 34 5; “When spotted fever occurs, <...> [b]ronchitis and nasal catarrh develop” AVk 53; “Inadequate treatment of the patient is often to blame when flu leads to <...> lung, <...>, and ear inflammation” Dbrt 178 3. Medical publications in 1918 also mention eye diseases (trachoma TS 11 14, eye discharge TS 11 14, cataract TS 11 14, eye inflammation AVk 53), genital diseases (syphilis TS 5 15), metabolic and endocrine gland diseases (diabetes TS 4 15, gout TS 4 15, obesity TS 4 15), diseases of the blood-forming organs (anaemia TS 4 15 / anaemia TS 7 14), diseases of the digestive organs (stomach upset TS 34 5, intestinal catarrh TS 26 12, intestinal disorder AVk 51, constipation Vnb 13 194, TS 4 15), joint diseases (joint aches Dbrt 98 3, rheumatism TS 26 12, joint inflammation TS 34 6), urological diseases (kidney inflammation AVk 53, TS 36 14, TS 4 15, TS 14 13, acute kidney inflammation TS 30 13, middle kidney inflammation TS 34 6, TS 26 12), and nervous system diseases (apoplexy TS 4 15, nerve irritation TS 34 6). The term maras was used not only in the sense of plague, but also in the sense of epidemic, cf.: Latin pestis – “Plague or pestilence15, which in a single century, the fourteenth, wiped out a third of Europe’s population, is one of the most terrible diseases” TS 2 15; 15 Terms italicized by Dr. A. Vileišis. 164 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų Lat. epidemia – “The commissioner of the Plague Commission for the northern district of Lithuania, army doctor Dr. Kalie16, spoke about general measures to combat the plague in towns and villages” Dbrt 79 3; see maras 1. “a highly contagious epidemic disease (pestis),” 2. “an epidemic of this disease” LKŽe. The term šalčio laużymas: draws attention: “One can contract that disease [influenza – P. Z.] spontaneously from catching a chill, especially in damp weather. It manifests itself through headache and laużymas” Kk 69; see 1. “aching, soreness” LKŽe. In popular medical publications by Lithuanian doctors in earlier years, the term šalčio krėtimas was used, as was drugio krėtimas, but also kaulų laużymas. A separate small group worth mentioning consists of compound two-word terms—attributive constructions linked by subjective relations between deverbal nouns, whose dependent constituent, the subject (the disease), performs the action expressed nominally by the main constituent (Bunevičiūtė 2000: 10); thus, a disease may manifest itself, recur, have a course, spread, or persist, for example: ligos apsireiškimai Vnb 4 676, ligos atkirtimas AVk 53, ligos bėgis Vnb 13 193, ligos praplitimas AVk 51, ligos užtrukimas TS 34 5. It was observed that in the texts examined, a specific term (hyponym) is often replaced by a general term (hypernym)17, for example: “Pulmonary tuberculosis is one of the most widespread and most terrible diseases. <...>. The cause of tuberculosis is tiny germs, invisible to the naked eye” TS 7 14; “Typhoid fever very often rages where people use unclean water from polluted wells or rivers. A person contracts typhoid when bacteria of the disease enter the body” TS 1 14. 1.3. Names of remedies. In 1918 there was a shortage of doctors in Lithuania, and their help was difficult for ordinary people to access; it is therefore understandable that when people fell ill or felt unwell, they resorted to home remedies. This is evident from reading the medical publications of that year—in them, most of the names of remedies used for treatment are names of home remedies. People treated themselves with medicinal plants and their parts: “In summer one should gather lime blossoms, raspberries, chamomile, centaury18, wormwood, spruce berries, ėsiukliai, rue, mint19 and other herbs, which can be used to ward off diseases until one can obtain a doctor’s advice” MB 1 12. 16 Italicized in the original article. 17 Plačiau apie hiponiminius ir hiperoniminius terminų santykius žr. Mitkevičienė 2015. 18 Centaury bot. “centaury (Centaurium)” LKŽe. 19 Italicized in the original article. Terminologija | 2018 | 25 165 As remedies, use drinks and other liquids: “To reduce fever and induce sweating, it is good to rub the child’s body with vinegar” TS 30 12; “When one feels that one is coming down with influenza, one should immediately stop eating sour foods, drink lime-blossom tea, preferably with sweet raspberry juice, and try to sweat well” Kk 69; “It is also good to wash the patient’s lower back and heels more often <...> with tar” AVk 52. One of the measures to protect against infectious diseases is disinfecting, or bacteria-killing, substances and liquids: “One must simply remember that after the patient has been taken away, everything at home should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected—that is, after cleaning everything, it should also be washed with carbolic acid and sublimate, and fumigated with formalin” Svk 1 2; “His linen should be washed after boiling it in lye; once the patient has recovered, the whole bed must be cleaned; unwashed household items should be fumigated with sulfur smoke, sprinkled with carbolic water, and left to air” Kk 74; “When beginning treatment for scabies, one should first bathe in a warm bath with soft soap” TS 14 13; “The attendant must observe the following rules: whenever he comes into contact with the patient, he must wash his hands each time with soap and warm water” Vnb 13 193. Of course, so-called ordinary medicines: sold in pharmacies for internal and external use were also used “For fevers, medicines that reduce fever are prescribed, most often quinine 3–4 times a day and most often” Kk 71; “For one patient baths are best, for another only wet wraps, for a third antipyrine, etc.” AVk 52; “If a child was constipated before falling ill, it is useful to give him castor oil, and if the constipation continues, to relieve the bowels with an enema” TS 30 12; “The swollen glands should be rubbed with camphor oil” Kk 71. 166 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų External (externally applied) medicines include medicated dressings and other bandaging: “When severe palpitations begin, the patient should be put to bed and, before the doctor arrives, cold compresses placed on the chest over the heart” TS 30 12; “In acute kidney inflammation, one should lie quietly; to relieve the pains that arise on both sides of the lower back, it is useful to place hot compresses on both sides of the lower back” TS 30 13; “The discharge, when it gets into the ears, only produces pus. The best thing to do is this: from time to time, at least twice a day, wipe the ears with dry cotton wool and plug them with cotton wool slightly moistened with camphor oil” Kk 72. Several names for therapeutic procedures and medical equipment (devices and other items used for medical purposes) were found: “Although one may feel somewhat unwell after vaccination, the benefit of vaccination is nevertheless said to be far greater” Dbrt 79 3; “Several operations were performed” LA 130 5; “And only there, after keeping the patients until they recovered and examining their blood under a microscope, did they ascertain that that febris status was in fact typhus recurrens (relapsing fever)” AVk 54; “Such pocket spittoons, available in pharmacies, are very good” TS 7 14; “one should avoid laying the child on the side where there is redness, or place beneath him a rubber ring inflated with air or made of cotton wool, so that the pressure sore forms over the hole” TS 30 12. Interestingly, the term pharmacy was used in the sense of “medicine chest (a box containing essential medicines)”: “4) one should have a home medicine chest at home” MB 1 12. In publications from 1918, the only Lithuanian term used for a remedy (in the broad sense) was medicine AVk 52, TS 36 14, Dbrt 30 3, LA 61 2, LA 71 2; the borrowing liekarstwa was not found. Incidentally, in one publication, the colloquial term healer was also used: “Separate regulations will be issued concerning the supply of medicines, equipment, instruments, other remedies, and the proper storage of glassware and other supplies <...>” Dbrt 101 3, see remedy “medicine” LKŽė. 1.4. Gydančiųjų ir gydomųjų asmenų pavadinimai. Kaip ir ankstesniuose (iki 1918-ųjų) šaltiniuose gydymo specialistui įvardyti vartoti du terminai – skolinys daktaras MB 1 12, Vnb 13 193, Kk 69, TS 10 14, TS 34 4, TS 21 11, TS 26 12, TS 30 11, TS 7 14, DB 33 10, TS 23 9, DB 17 11, DB 16 11, Svk 1 2, LA 93 3, FR 1 7 ir lietuviškas gydytojas AVk 52, Kk 69, TS 1 14, TS 36 14, DB 20 4, DB 33 10, DB 43 13, LA 109 3, DB 57 3, LA 98 3, Dbrt 30 3, DB 44 15, Pvs 5 21, Dbrt 17 3, DB 30 12, DB 16 11, DB 39 12, DB 44 14, Svk 1 1, Dbrt 98 3, Dbrt 79 3, LA 155 2, LA 42 1, LA 47 2, DB 56 4, Dbrt 178 3, LA 103 2, Terminologija | 2018 | 25 167 DB 33 8, LA 120 4, LA 80 3, LA 93 3, Vnb 36 562, TS 24 4, Dbrt 11 3, Dbrt 101 3, LA 154 5, FR 1 2: “When the doctor arrives, one should tell him about the observed manifestations of the illness and its suspected cause, concealing nothing” TS 30 11; “People, frightened, no longer know what to do; the countryside in particular cannot get help from doctors, since there is a great shortage of doctors in our area” DB 20 4. Nevertheless, the native term was more common, as is also shown by the many specific terms, e.g.: district doctor DB 57 3, dentist DB 43 13, LA 109 3, LA 134 2, specialist doctor LA 83 2, hospital doctor LA 130 5, senior doctor DB 43 14, LA 109 3. There were far fewer compound terms with the borrowed element daktaras as the head (or dependent) element, e.g.: specialist doctor LA 130 5, real doctor TS 14 13. The term doctor of medicine was used in the sense of ‘doctor of sciences’: “Elected by secret ballot were the d o c t o r o f m e d i c i n e P. Avižonis and medical doctoral student Jurgis Žilinskas” DB 57 3. Terms referring to pharmacy workers competed with one another: the loanwords aptiekorius Dbrt 101 3, farmaceutas LA 98 3, DB 37 4, LA 155 2, LA 61 2, LA 142 3, LA 77 2, LA 71 2, FR 1 1; the hybrid aptiekininkas TS 24 4; and the Lithuanian vaistininkas DB 33 10, TS 23 9, Dbrt 145 4, LA 120 4, LA 80 3, LA 93 3, LA 10 4, LA 71 2, Dbrt 101 3. As can be seen from the bibliographic records given alongside the terms, it is once again clear that the native term was more popular and more frequent. Compared with the names for people providing treatment found in medical publications from the preceding period, the 1918 publications contained more names for people in various specializations, e.g.: eye disease specialist (female) DB 43 14, LA 109 3, ear, throat, and nose disease specialist DB 43 14, LA 109 3, surgeon DB 43 14, LA 109 3, Dbrt 96 3, women’s disease specialist DB 43 14, LA 109 3, children’s disease specialist DB 43 14, LA 109 3, venereal disease specialist DB 43 14, LA 109 3, internal disease20 specialist DB 43 14, LA 109 3. 20 This is what diseases of the internal organs were called. 168 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų Names for lower-ranking people providing treatment were also used, e.g.: akušeris DB 16 11 / akušerė DB 39 12, disinfectress TS 24 4, feldsher Pvs 5 21, DB 30 11, DB 39 12 and feldsher Dbrt 79 3, feldsher-midwife TS 23 9 and feldsher-midwife TS 24 4, nurse Svk 1 1 / little nurse TS 24 4 / nurse Dbrt 11 3. There were also names for support staff in medical institutions, assistants to medical specialists, and trainees, most of which had not been used in sources from earlier years, e.g.: stable worker TS 24 4, gynecology assistant DB 43 14, LA 109 3, hospital employee TS 24 4, patient attendant (female) TS 24 4, medical doctoral student DB 57 3, medical student (female) TS 24 4, sanitary worker TS 24 4, housekeeper nurse TS 23 9 / housekeeper-nurse TS 24 4, medical student LA 109 3. The names for pharmacy workers and employees associated with pharmacies can be distinguished as a separate group of names for people providing treatment, e.g.: pharmacy assistant Dbrt 101 3, laboratory assistant FR 1 4, provisor DB 43 13, LA 109 3, LA 98 3, LA 10 4, LA 83 2, LA 71 2, Dbrt 101 3, LA 154 5, FR 1 4, prescription writer FR 1 4, persons serving in the pharmacy Dbrt 101 3. A pair of names for people studying medicine and related sciences can be distinguished separately, e.g.: master of pharmacy LA 71 2, medical doctoral student DB 57 3, medical student (female) TS 24 4, medical student LA 109 3. Compared with the names for people providing treatment, few names for people receiving treatment were found, e.g.: patient MB 1 11, Vnb 13 193, AVk 50, Kk 69, TS 1 14, TS 36 13, TS 10 14, TS 34 4, TS 14 13, TS 21 11, TS 26 11, TS 30 12, TS 7 14, DB 33 10, Vnb 4 676, DB 43 14, LA 109 3, LA 46 2, Pvs 9 18, DB 44 14, Svk 1 1, Dbrt 98 3, Dbrt 79 3, LA 42 1, LA 47 2, Terminologija | 2018 | 25 1 6 9 DB 56 4, Dbrt 178 3, Dbrt 23 3, Dbrt 11 3, Dbrt 96 3, LA 83 2, LA 130 5, LA 154 5, FR 1 2 (ambulatory patient LA 130 5), tuberculosis patient TS 7 14, LA 155 2, mute person Vnb 24 367, madman Vnb 24 367. 1.5. Names of treatment institutions and premises. In the texts examined from 1918, the principal name for a treatment institution is hospital: DB 43 13, TS 23 9, LA 109 3, DB 57 3, Dbrt 27 3, Svk 1 1, Dbrt 98 3, DB 33 8, TS 24 4, Dbrt 11 3, Dbrt 96 3, LA 83 2, TS 28 2, LA 130 5, Dbrt 101 3; the term hospital building was found only in Dbrt 11 3. It is possible that the term hospital apartment (“The Society’s polyclinic and hospital have been open since October 15. The hospital apartment, Vilniaus St. No. 28, is fitted with every convenience and has about 30 rooms” DB 43 14) may also be a hospital synonym; see butas 2. “any building” LKŽe. Other names for treatment institutions with specialized purposes were also found, e.g.: shelter Dbrt 79 3, Dbrt 101 3, venereal disease clinic Dbrt 79 3, lunatic asylum Dbrt 23 3, house for the insane Dbrt 79 3. Compared with the sparse names for places of treatment in the preceding period, the 1918 texts include names for types of hospitals and pharmacies, e.g.: county hospital DB 57 3, ear hospital DB 43 14, LA 109 3, psychiatric hospital DB 33 8, regimental hospitals AVk 54, Red Cross hospital DB 43 14, LA 109 3; village pharmacy FR 1 3, city pharmacy FR 1 3, home / domestic pharmacies21 Dbrt 101 3, full pharmacy22 Dbrt 101 3, village pharmacies23 Dbrt 101 3. “Medicines may be supplied by domestic pharmacies to residents of other households only if there is no full pharmacy, branch, or village pharmacy in that village. In general, domestic pharmacies may be maintained only by physicians or by hospitals, shelters, and other similar institutions” Dbrt 101 3. “Anyone wishing to maintain a full pharmacy must have a certificate confirming their qualification to run such a pharmacy and written permission from the head of the authorities” Dbrt 101 3 (the term is italicized in the original). “Village pharmacies (class II pharmacies), in accordance with the regulations in force under Russian rule, are permitted to continue operating if their proprietor can show that he has passed the assistant’s examination and has served as a pharmacy assistant for at least three years” Dbrt 101 3 (the term is italicized in the original). 170 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų Terms not recorded in medical texts of earlier periods also appeared – operating room DB 43 14 and operating theatre LA 130 5. There were articles about hospitals being opened and new ones established24, with their departments, rooms, and so on; thus, new terms for naming those premises also emerged, for example: “The hospital is quite well equipped from a medical standpoint. It has various departments and rooms: operating, dressing, gynaecology and surgery, ear, nose, dental, throat treatment, and internal medicine, paediatric, dermatological and venereal disease rooms” LA 130 5; “A midwife trained during the war also served in the maternity department” Dbrt 11 3; see also maternity department Dbrt 11 3; “Most of the patients had to be treated in the surgery department” Dbrt 96 3; “The hospital has a pharmacy, laboratory, X-ray room, operating room, dressing rooms and several doctors’ consulting rooms, where visiting patients are received” DB 43 14; “Soon they intend to set up a physiology-chemistry department as well25, where they will carry out such medical-chemical investigations as cannot be performed in hospitals because of a lack of equipment, or would take too much time” Dbrt 27 3; “Meanwhile, these two departments have also been established: a bacteriology-serology department and a department for protection against rabies” Dbrt 27 3. 24There were also other institutions, as reported in a publication in the newspaper Dabartis, “designated for health matters,” for example, a health research station Dbrt 27 3. 25 Italicized in the original article. Terminologija | 2018 | 25 171 1.6. Names of abstract medical concepts. This semantic group includes terms naming various, mostly abstract, medical concepts. First and foremost, these are names of actions, processes and states, as well as properties, related to medicine, for example: infection Svk 1 1, treatment AVk 52, TS 10 14, TS 11 14, TS 34 7, DB 33 10, Dbrt 30 3, Dbrt 17 3, LA 130 5, childbirth Dbrt 96 3, life Dbrt 30 3, LA 155 2, LA 42 1, DB 56 3, LA 87 2, breathing TS 30 11, mortality TS 36 14, TS 4 15, TS 34 5, dying Vnb 24 367, death Kk 70, TS 10 14, TS 30 12, DB 16 11, LA 155 2, recovery AVk 52, TS 34 6, illness Vnb 13 193, DB 56 4, aching Pvs 10 12, pain Pvs 10 12, nursing Dbrt 11 3, health MB 1 12, TS 26 12, DB 43 14, LA 109 3, Dbrt 27 3, Dbrt 30 3, Svk 1 1, Dbrt 98 3, LA 155 2, LA 42 1, DB 56 3, LA 87 2, LA 73 3, LA 83 2, LA 154 5, Vnb 24 367, wellness Vnb 24 367. Medical disciplines and the names of sciences related to medicine can be included in this group, for example: anatomy DB 56 3, bacteriology FR 1 4, surgery DB 43 14, LA 109 3, LA 83 2, pharmacy LA 155 2, LA 142 3, pharmacopoeia FR 1 7, physiology DB 56 3, hygiene TS 26 12, Svk 1 1, LA 47 2, FR 1 2 (public health LA 155 2, social hygiene DB 56 3). Fig. 10. Distribution of medical terms by meaning in 1918 172 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų 2. Medical terms according to their expression. The majority of medical terms are native, or purely Lithuanian in origin; a smaller proportion are of foreign origin, or borrowed, and of mixed origin (see Fig. 11 for the distribution of medical terms according to origin). Fig. 11. Distribution of medical terms by origin in 1918 2.1. Native medical terms. More than half of the terms found in the medical texts from 1918 that were studied are native-language, that is, purely Lithuanian in origin (66% of all terms). This reflects the authors’ efforts to use words from their own language or, when no native equivalents could be found, to paraphrase terms of foreign origin, that is, to describe them in Lithuanian. For example, in the article “Hygiene,” Dr. P. Avižonis described anatomy and physiology as follows: “For hygiene advice to be better understood and followed more accurately, it is necessary to know the structure of the human body (anatomy) and the functioning of its individual parts or organs (physiology26)” DB 56 4. When writing accessibly about various topics in medicine, health and treatment, the authors of the publications naturally had Lithuanian readers in mind, and thus tried to write in an understandable way and use more Lithuanian terms that would be familiar and clear to them. 26Terms are in spaced type in the original article. Terminologija | 2018 | 25 173 In their writings, they named body parts and organs exclusively with simple Lithuanian words (that is, words that cannot be further divided morphologically), for example: forehead TS 10 14, TS 34 6, knee Pvs 7 13, TS 14 14, chest TS 4 14, TS 26 11, lips AVk 51, TS 5 15, TS 34 6, TS 26 12, TS 7 14, skin Pvs 7 12, Pvs 10 12, Pvs 8 11, AVk 51, Kk 71, TS 10 14, TS 4 15, TS 14 13, TS 30 12, Svk 1 2, sole TS 21 11, shoulder Pvs 7 13, Pvs 8 11, face Kk 71, TS 10 14, TS 14 14, TS 21 11, TS 7 14, Dbrt 79 3, eyelids TS 11 14; even alongside some loanwords, for example, nerves TS 30 12, muscles Pvs 8 11, organism TS 26 11, their Lithuanian equivalents were used: tendons Pvs 10 12, muscles Pvs 8 11, body TS 26 12. Thus, anatomical terms had more or less become established (apart from spelling variants of some of them) and were used in the same forms as in popular medical texts of earlier years. Clinical terms, especially disease names, were another matter. They varied considerably. Some diseases were called by more than three names. It is important to note that the authors tried to name diseases with Lithuanian words, except where no equivalents could be found and loanwords were used (apopleksija, bronchitas, cholera, difteritas, reumatizmas, sifilis, skarlatina). Alongside the term of foreign origin tymai, its Lithuanian equivalents drognės Kk 71 and blusinės Kk 71 were used. Dysentery was called by the Lithuanian terms kruvinoji MB 1 11, raudonoji DB 44 14, kra /? Kk 72, Dbrt 98 3, and kruvinoji liga Dbrt 79 3, LA 42 1. A considerable number of diseases had presumably not yet been identified, so their names in publications (mostly compound terms) are imprecise, for example: inflammation of the mouth AVk 52, tongue pains TS 36 14, severe headache Kk 70, pains in the middle of the chest TS 36 14, strong heartbeat TS 30 12, heart function Kk 70, TS 34 6. The tradition of medical publications from earlier years continued: characteristic genitive constructions with the headword disease, for example: eye disease TS 11 14, stone disease TS 4 15, skin disease TS 14 13, lung disease TS 7 14, heart disease AVk 51, TS 30 12. In some terms, the dependent element appears redundant, for example: stiffening disease TS 1 14, madness disease Dbrt 27 3. Attributive elements in compound terms are rarely expressed by pronominal adjectives (right side TS 5 15, Sister of Mercy TS 24 4, bloody disease Dbrt 79 3, LA 42 1, senior physician DB 43 14, LA 109 3); the most characteristic forms are pronominal passive participles, for example: contagious disease Svk 1 2, relapsing fever Dbrt 98 3, maternity ward 174 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų Dbrt 11 3, Dbrt 96 3, relapsing fever AVk 50, intermittent fever Dbrt 96 3, febrile illness Dbrt 27 3, nursing infants TS 34 4. Among native-derived simplex terms, derivatives predominate, most of which are suffixal derivatives. Of the latter, derivatives with the suffix -imas are particularly numerous, e.g.: ailment TS 36 14, abrasion TS 10 14, nu-attack AVk 52, nursing Dbrt 11 3, catarrh Kk 70, annihilation TS 4 15, inflammation Kk 72, TS 10 14, Vnb 4 676. Derivatives with diminutive suffixes -elis, -ėlis and others are favored. Such “derivatives usually name things that are smaller than things of the same kind denoted by the base nouns” (Keinys 2005 [1975]: 65). Thus, some of the diminutive terms in the publications studied have a diminutive meaning, e.g.: 27 spots TS 1 4, skin TS 14 13, little sores, ry-tendons28 Pvs 7 13 “tendons,” little spittoon TS 7 14, pimples TS 11 14, TS 14 13, little scabs Kk 71, little wounds TS 1 14, TS 11 14. However, some diminutive derivatives do not have a diminutive meaning—they “name things different from those named by their base words”; these are so-called diminutives with a specialized meaning (Keinys 2005 [1975]: 65), e.g.: pores Pvs 10 12 / aku-glands Pvs 10 13 “sweat glands,” pupil Kk 72 “pupil of the eye (pupilla),” stomach AVk 51, TS 36 14 “stomach.” In addition to those mentioned, nearly thirty more medical terms formed with suffixes were found, e.g.: remedy Dbrt 101 3 “medicine,” throat illness Dbrt 27 3 “a kind of throat disease,” mortality TS 36 14, TS 4 15, TS 34 5, cracked skin29 TS 10 14 “a chapped area of skin,” midwife Dbrt 11 3 “a woman who assists a woman in labor and receives the newborn,” vaccinations30 Dbrt 98 3 “vaccines,” rhinitis TS 34 8 “inflammation of the nasal mucosa, a cold,” urine AVk 52, TS 30 11, Svk 1 2, Dbrt 98 3 “urine.” A couple of dozen derivatives formed with endings were found, e.g.: swelling TS 10 14, excrement MB 1 11 “feces,” tuberculosis AVk 51, TS 34 7, TS 26 12, Dbrt 98 3, LA 155 2, disability AVk 53, shelter Dbrt 79 3, Dbrt 101 3, cold TS 34 5 “a cold,” diarrhea Dbrt 98 3 “diarrhea.” Only a few prefixed derivatives occurred, e.g.: back of the head TS 21 11, cheeks AVk 52, heels AVk 52. 27 Plačiau apie diminutyvus terminologijoje žr. Keinys 2005 [1975]: 65–66. 28 Attention should be drawn to the fact that in LKŽe ryšelis is recorded only with the single anatomical meaning ‘wrist’. 29 This derivative has no medical meaning in LKŽe. 30 This derivative is not recorded in LKŽe. Terminologija | 2018 | 25 1 7 5 Compound words are rare, e.g.: karštligė Vnb 13 193, AVk 54, Kk 71, Dbrt 27 3, kra, kraujligė Kk 72, Dbrt 98 3 “dysentery,” mažakraujystė TS 7 14, nugarkau-lis Pvs 7 13, sausgyslė Pvs 8 11, siutligė Dbrt 27 3, šonkaulis Pvs 7 13. If we compare quantitatively simple and compound native terms, we would see that the latter predominate. Among the vast majority of two-word compound terms, genitive constructions are the most common, e.g.: bepročių butas Dbrt 79 3, ėglio uogos MB 1 12, galvos sukimasis Kk 71, kaknų putmenos TS 4 15, kaklo suputimas Kk 71, kaulo kerimslis Pvs 7 13, kaulų laużymas Pvs 9 18, kraujo gy sla Pvs 10 12, Pvs 8 11, kraujo vaikščiojimas TS 30 12, ligos bėgis Vnb 13 193, narių sopėjimas Dbrt 98 3, niežų krūmas TS 14 13, nugarkaulio grandys Pvs 7 13, paleistuvijų gydykla Dbrt 79 3, plaučių pūvimas TS 34 5, plaučių užkaitimas Dbrt 178 3, skilvio sugedimas TS 34 5, sodžių vaistinės (second-category pharmacies) Dbrt 101 3, tautos sveikata LA 155 2, vaistų sankrovos FR 1 3, vidurių sloga TS 26 12, žarnų prakiūrimas AVk 52. Also characteristic are combinations of a qualitative simple adjective or participle (usually definite) with a noun, e.g.: aštri liga FR 1 3, atsimainomasis drugys Dbrt 98 3, gilus apmirimas TS 30 12, išutinėjamoji įstaiga31 Dbrt 11 3, limpančioji liga Kk 69, paprastas viduriavimas Dbrt 98 3, pasikartojamasis drugys Dbrt 96 3, perraišiojamieji kambariai DB 43 14, pilka valktis TS 11 14, sausas kosulys TS 36 14, TS 34 6, skiepijamasis vaistas Dbrt 27 3. A few compounds with the suffix -inis are used, e.g.: glitinė plėvė TS 34 5, kišeninė spiautuvėlė TS 7 14, lytinės ligos LA 155 2 (cf. lyties ligos DB 56 4), paviršutinė žaizda TS 30 12, pilvinės šiltinės MB 1 11 (cf. pilvo šiltinės MB 1 11, Dbrt 96 3), raginė plėvė TS 11 14. Components expressed by definite adjectives are rare, e.g.: grįžtamoji šiltinė AVk 50, vyresnysis gydytojas DB 43 14, LA 109 3 (for the distribution of two-word compound medical terms according to the expression of the dependent component, see Fig. 12).32 More than forty compound terms consisting of three or more components were found, e.g.: galvos smegenų plėvių uždegimas TS 34 6, glitinė kvėpavimo takų plėvė TS 34 5, kариų rauplių skiepai Dbrt 98 3, kraujo plūdimas iš žarnų TS 34 6, kvėpavimo takų uždegimas TS 26 12, progression of the disease- 31 An establishment where lice are destroyed by various means and methods. 32 Fig. 12 presents data on native, foreign-origin, and mixed-origin two-word compound terms. 176 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų Fig. 12. Distribution of two-word compound medical terms according to the expression of the dependent constituent period of incubation AVk 53, dead skin flakes Pvs 10 13, bundles of dry veins Pvs 7 13, the most severe period of disease exacerbation AVk 51, proper care of the patient Dbrt 178 3, typhoid fever pathogens AVk 50, the middle membrane of the eyelids Dbrt 178 3. 2.1.1. Medical terms and the spoken language in 1918. When reading medical and health publications from 1918, it is clear that their authors had not yet become detached from colloquial language. Figuratively speaking, its spirit and sound can also be sensed in the medical terms used. First of all, it should be noted that the texts of that year contain many terms used among the people (as evidenced by data from LKŽe), for example: kruvinoji “dysentery,” raudonoji “dysentery,” kra ligė “dysentery,” negalė, mažakraujė “anemia,” slankstas, slogas, gydykla “hospital,” gyduolė “healing herb, medicine,” pribuvėja, dirgsnis “nerve,” grobas “intestine,” krimslys “cartilage,” kosere “throat (pharynx),” kiaušas “skull,” kamaraitė “opening, cavity” (a lexicalized term), lėlelė “pupil of the eye (pupilla),” letena “the human foot with toes,” mėsa “muscles,” ryšėlis “tendon,” sausgyslė, skilvis “stomach,” žvyna, atmatai, suputimas “swelling, puffiness,” laužymas “stinging pain, aching,” kra ujo vaikščiojimas “blood circulation,” gyvis “parasite, bacterium, pathogen,” die gas “germ, origin (of a disease),” plaišena (a lexicalized term), užkaitimas “inflammation,” apsireiškimas (of a disease), bėgis (of a disease), liginimas “nursing,” skylutė (of the skin). These publications were intended for ordinary people, so their Terminologija | 2018 | 25 177 authors endeavored to use terms that would be understandable to readers without medical training. A characteristic feature of medical terms in 1918 was their vividness, which was also undoubtedly connected with the influence of colloquial language. Most of the vivid terms concerned anatomy and clinical medicine (diseases, pathological conditions, etc.), for example: kraujo vaikščiojimas, krūtinės kamaraitė, niežų krūmas, prakaito skylutė, sausų gyslų ryšelis. The texts examined still contain quite a number of imprecise medical terms, which mainly designate specific concepts that are insufficiently clear, for example: ear inflammation, membrane inflammation, rib inflammation, intestinal catarrh, intestinal disorder, respiratory catarrh, stomach disorder. The authors who wrote on matters of medicine, health, and treatment in the Lithuanian periodical press of 1918 were not estranged from their language; they mostly used Lithuanian medical terms, often drawn from colloquial speech. Some words, such as the aforementioned plaišena, žvyna33, were lexicalized as terms, and there were also coinages, for example the aforementioned skiepalas. Thus, it can be said that the spirit of the living Lithuanian word is felt in the medical publications of that year. What has been said may be underscored with the words of Dr. Kazys Grinius in his 1918 article “Nation and Language”: “Every member of the nation does not resort to a foreign language where it is needed or not needed, but everywhere and always takes care to use and does use their own, not being ashamed of it and thereby clearly expressing their identity to everyone. A conscious member of the nation, a true compatriot, <...> – everywhere and always will strive to speak their own language. <...>. This is the duty of every citizen of the country who is knowledgeable and conscious of their own worth” (Grinius 1918: 1). 2.2. Terms of foreign origin. In 1918, medical publications used medical terms of foreign origin34, or loanwords (17% of all terms). Some of them were recorded as early as the 16th–17th centuries in old writings, for example, aptieka, aptiekorius, tymai, and in writings from the mid-18th–19th centuries, for example, felčeris, daktaras. Numerous loanwords denoting various medical concepts were used in medical booklets and articles written by Lithuanian physicians in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Thus, it can be said that some loanwords in the 1918 publications were not new, but had already been used by the predecessors of those publications’ authors. Most are international words, 33 See the illustrative sentence (Pvs 10 12) in section 1.1. Names of body parts and organs. 34 The source languages of medical terms were determined on the basis of ALEW, Alm, Čep, DVLKŽ, LEW, LKPŽ, LLKŽ, PrW I, Skar, TŽŽ, ЭСРЯ I, II (see the list of auxiliary sources). 178 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų which have survived to this day and become established in contemporary Lithuanian medical terminology. In a 1918 article in Tėvynės sargas entitled “Purification of Language,” Liudas Gira wrote of such words: “such words <...> are today the common property of the languages of all enlightened nations. [...] most nations do not even think of finding native words of equivalent meaning for most of them, and they neither offend the ears of their compatriots nor defile the language. <...>. Therefore, we Lithuanians must not shun them either” (Gira 1918: 2). The source languages of most medical loanwords are Classical Greek and Latin. Terms of Greek origin most often denote diseases and the microorganisms that cause them, e.g.: bakterija TS 10 14, TS 4 14, Svk 1 2, TS 34 4, Vnb 13 193, bronchitas AVk 52, TS 36 14, tifas LA 33 3. It was observed that, unlike in medical and health writings published earlier (before 1918) by physicians, in 1918 publications Latin equivalents were rarely provided alongside borrowed terms35. Only in one serial article by A. Vileišis, “On War Diseases,” was such an equivalent added: tétanas (Latin Tetamu) TS 1 14. Among loanwords of Latin origin, names of treatments predominate, e.g.: centurijos MB 1 12, kamparas AVk 52, kompresai MB 1 12, Kk 72. Several more interesting terms are worth noting: “The Board of the Lithuanian Pharmacists’ Union, wishing to assist all colleagues in this matter, appeals to all existing Lithuanian pharmacy organizations, members of the Union, and those who have not yet managed to join, asking them to reply without delay to the following questions: <...>, 4) The specialty practiced at the pharmacy⁶ (<...>, r e c e p t a r a s36 FR 1 4; “Besides, from the point of view of medical and s a n i t a r e s37 assistance, the villages of Lithuania were in a deplorable state: the doctor was far away, and it was exceedingly difficult for a patient to summon or reach him, especially when stricken with an acute illness or when an uninvited guest—the epidemic—arrived” FR 1 3. A dozen or so loanwords are names of Slavic origin. Some of them are old inherited borrowings, e.g.: muilas Vnb 13 193, Kk 74, TS 21 11. However, there are 35 In general, Latin equivalents are rarely provided for medical terms of other origins as well, apart from a few cases, e.g.: arkė (Latin acarus scabici vel sarcoptes hominis) TS 14 13, šiltinės, karštinės – typhus MB 1 11, žarnų bakterijos (bacterium coli comune) AVk 50. There was also a case in which a Latin term is used in the sentence, while its Lithuanian equivalent is given alongside in parentheses: typhus recurrens (relapsing fever) AVk 54. Alongside the name of one remedy, a German equivalent was added as well as the Latin one: provansiška alyva (oleum provinciale, German “Provence-oel”) Kk 72. 36 “A pharmacy employee who dispenses medicines according to physicians’ prescriptions” LKŽe. 37 This term is used in the sense of “sanitation (practical hygiene).” Terminologija | 2018 | 25 179 and such Slavicisms which, to paraphrase the words of the aforementioned article by L. Gira, even when Lithuanianized, are truly repulsive: “to replace each of those unsuitable foreign words, we have our own most beautiful little words <...>, and the pure words of our language are quite sufficient <...> to express all the things of ordinary daily life” (Gira 1918: 2), e.g.: dūžma TS 5 15 “plague”; levatyva TS 30 12 “enema”; uksusas Kk 70 “vinegar”; vopna Vnb 13 193 “lime.” According to L. Gira, “it is the duty of every conscientious Lithuanian above all to avoid in speech and writing those unsuitable foreign words—barbarisms—but to strive to speak pure38 Lithuanian” (Gira 1918: 2). A few borrowings of (a) French, (b) German, and (c) Italian origin occurred in the publications studied, e.g.: (a) kokliušas DB 16 11, TS 5 15, TS 7 14, akušerė DB 16 11; (b) kalkiai Kk 74, feldčeris DB 30 11–12; (c) influenza TS 7 14, TS 34 4, TS 36 14, skarlatina Dbrt 98 3, Kk 71. The term šarbukas TS 4 15 is classified among names of uncertain origin. Thus, as already mentioned, most of the borrowings used by the authors of medical publications in 1918 are also attested in publications on the same subject published in earlier years; some terms of Slavic origin, such as liekorius, liekarstva, rona, which had previously been used interchangeably with their Lithuanian equivalents, were displaced by the latter; only the group of names for persons and medical institutions expanded somewhat—new names appeared, e.g.: provizorius, receptaras, poliklinika. 2.3. Medical terms of mixed origin. Two types of such terms were found in medical publications from 1918—simple hybrids and complex terms with components of different origins (17% of all terms). Simple hybrids are uncommon—only a few were found. These are derivatives with the suffixes -ėlė, -inė, -ininkas, -tojas, whose base words are borrowings of Slavic origin, aptieka and rėdyti, and one borrowing of Latin origin, operacija: aptiekėlė39 LA 71 2, operacinė DB 43 14, aptiekininkas TS 24 4, rėdytojas40 FR 1 4; and compounds whose first constituents are the borrowings kryžius and kalkiai, while the second constituents are Lithuanian-origin nouns kaulas and pienas: kryžkaulis AVk 53, kalki apienis Dbrt 98 3 / kalkiopienis Dbrt 98 3. 38 Italicized in the original article. 39 “During this war, with most qualified pharmacists having fled, hardly any pharmacies remained in Lithuania. In their place, even more little pharmacy shops appeared, which people call ‘aptiekėlės.’ The owners of ‘aptiekėlės’ almost all have no specialized education whatsoever” LA 71 2. 40 “4) ‘Pharmacy’ is supplemented with a specialty (rėdytojas, <...> etc.) FR 1 4, see LKŽe xrėdytojas 4. ‘one who manages, organizes.’ 180 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų There are somewhat more complex terms with primary or secondary components of different origins, e.g.: antiseptinis muilas Dbrt 17 3, aptiekos krautuvėlė LA 71 2, centralinis vaistų sandėlis LA 71 2, chroniškos ligos AVk 51, cukrinė liga TS 4 15, dėmėtieji tymai Kk 71, divizijos ligoninės AVk 54, fiziologinė kūno pusiausvyra DB 56 3, galvos rožė TS 10 14, gomeopatinė vaistinė LA 103 2, kaklo gručola41 Kk 71, kamforinė alyva Kk 71, kruopiniai tymai Kk 71, krūtinės kamaraitė Pvs 7 13 „krūtinės ląsta (thorax)“; ligadarės bakterijos TS 34 4, operacijų salė LA 130 5, štabo gydytojas Dbrt 17 3, valgio virinamieji organai TS 26 11, venerinių ligų specialistas DB 43 14, LA 109 3, vyriausias sanitaras TS 24 4, visuomeninė sanitarija DB 56 3. To designate complex concepts, authors of medical publications from the year under discussion made use of compound (complex) terms, which outnumbered simple terms. The same trend in the distribution of terms of mixed origin by type is characteristic of earlier medical texts as well. See Fig. 13 for the distribution of complex medical terms. Fig. 13. Distribution of complex medical terms used in 1918 3. Synonymous relations link two or more terms designating the same concept, which may replace and clarify one another (Даниленко 1977: 73, 78–79, see also Татаринов 2006: 172; Mitkevičienė 2015: 42–47). 3.1. Synonymous medical terms and their presentation in texts. In the more extensive medical publications of 1918, several terms are often used to designate the same concept. Synonyms occur not only in the same text (where they are usually presented either next to each other or 41 x Gručolas (l. gruczoł) “lump, swelling” LKŽ. Terminologija | 2018 | 25 181 (used interchangeably); terms related by synonymy are also found in different texts. Four types of adjacent (consecutive) synonymous terms can be distinguished, that is, according to how they are presented in the text. They are grouped in descending order according to how frequently each way of presenting synonyms was found: 3.1.1. Synonyms presented in parentheses42. This is the most common type of presentation of synonyms in the text. Four subtypes are distinguished: 3.1.1.1. Lithuanian (borrowed). It was observed that the Lithuanian term is more often preferred, with its borrowed synonym written alongside it in parentheses: “Dysentery (desinterija) is a contagious disease” MB 1 11; “In Germany, pharmacists (farmaceutai) have long since established a certain professional organization of their own, with extensive rights and a board authorized by law” Dbrt 101 3. 3.1.1.2. Lithuanian (Lithuanian). Pairs of synonyms of the second subtype are also fairly common—the Lithuanian term is preferred, while another native term is also given alongside it in parentheses: “Cleanliness, sunlight and pure air are nature’s strongest opponents of various infections (disease germs)” TS 4 14; “For several weeks now, a new disease has been raging in Biržai and its environs. It begins with a headache, a runny nose (slogo) and general weakness throughout the body” DB 44 15.43 3.1.1.3. Borrowed (Lithuanian). The Lithuanian equivalent of the borrowed term is given alongside it in parentheses: “In my opinion, in order to organize pharmacies in Lithuania in the future as required by our science and technology, it is first of all necessary that: <...> 3) All pharmacies (vaistinės) should be state-owned (in the future)” LA 71 2; “In the town of Traupis, people began falling ill with typhus (šiltinės) in the autumn” LA 33 3. 3.1.1.4. Borrowed (borrowed). There were instances in which another borrowed term was given in parentheses alongside a borrowed term. These instances apparently arose because the article authors did not know the Lithuanian names for the things being referred to: “keep a certain vessel by the patient for excrement and, after carrying it out, do not empty it just anywhere, but immediately pour it into a certain deep pit, sprinkle it with lime (vopna) or at least cover it with earth” Vnb 13 193. 42Separately, mention should be made of cases in which terms presented in this way (side by side in parentheses) are not synonymous, for example: “The aim of health (hygiene) science is for a person to live as healthily as possible and to reach the greatest possible age” Dbrt 30 3. 43The word ending is illegible. 182 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų 3.1.2. Synonyms linked by the conjunction or. This is the second most frequent type of presentation of synonymous terms in the text. Six subtypes of this type can be distinguished. 3.1.2.1. Lithuanian or Lithuanian. In this case, two native terms most often compete: “In the limbs, the bones are connected to one another by bundles of dry sinews or tendons” Pvs 7 13; “Having entered the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract, influenza bacilli find a suitable environment here in which to live. The consequence of their activity is inflammation of the mucous membranes, or a cold; that is, first more blood flows to the mucous membrane, and then it begins to produce more mucus, which in more severe cases turns into pus” TS 34 5. 3.1.2.2. Lithuanian or loanword. The primary member of the Lithuanian-and-loanword synonym series is the native term: “It has been known since ancient times that after every war, or while it is raging, so-called war diseases follow, which in the past killed far more people than the war itself. The following are among the most common of these diseases: <...>, 5) plague or pestilence and 6) the disease of stiffness or tetanus (Latin Tetamu)” TS 1 14. 3.1.2.3. Loanword or Lithuanian. Preference is given to the loanword, but the Lithuanian equivalent is also provided alongside it: “Along with the return of the sunshine, an unwelcome but already well-known visitor has returned to our region—dysentery, or the bloody flux” DB 33 10. 3.1.2.4. Loanword or loanword. There are cases in which both synonyms linked in this way are loanwords: “A person contracts an infectious disease because peculiar, very small creatures, called microbes or bacteria, enter their body” Svk 1 2. 3.1.2.5. Hybrid or loanword. The primary member of the synonym series is a term of mixed origin, and its synonym is a loanword: “On observing the manifestations of this disease, we get the impression that it is not new at all: it is ordinary influenza, or grippe” TS 36 13. 3.1.2.6. Loanword or hybrid. The sixth subtype comprises a synonym series whose dominant term is a loanword and whose synonym is a hybrid term: “grippe or Spanish disease”44 Dbrt 178 3. 44 This is the title of the publication; the following terms are used individually in the text: Spanish disease, grippe, influenza, grippe disease. Terminologija | 2018 | 25 183 3.1.3. Synonyms are separated by a comma. This is a singular case of presenting synonyms—the native term is given preference: “The creatures of kruvinoji⁴⁵, bacteria, are most active during hot weather” MB 1 11. 3.2. Synonymous relationships between medical terms in the same and different texts. In 1918, larger medical publications often used several terms to name the same concept. Sometimes synonyms are used interchangeably within the same text. Such synonymous terms are not difficult to identify within the same text. For instance, in the sentences presented below, the same disease is called by several different terms in the same text, and their synonymy is beyond doubt: (1) “Having established a pharmacy. This is announced to Lithuanian pharmacists. Skapiškis is not the worst place for an aptieka [pharmacy]” LA 93(141) 3; (2) “Meanwhile, two more departments were established: <...> and a department to protect against rabies. <...>. The department working to protect against hydrophobia will vaccinate those who have been bitten or even slightly scratched by a rabid dog, if the disease of rabies cannot otherwise be prevented” Dbrt 27 3. However, as mentioned, synonymic relations between related terms can also be found in different texts. They may be somewhat more difficult to identify, but this is possible. In this case, the relation between medical terms naming the same concept in different texts can be established by considering the texts’ subject matter, the context in which the terms are used, synonyms presented alongside one another in the same text, the characteristics of the concept being named (if these are specified in the text), and by consulting an additional source, such as LKŽe or subject-specific literature. First, let us compare specific examples of several synonymous anatomical terms in publications from different periodicals. Žarna (intestine) – grobas (intestine) (Latin intestinum); skilvis (stomach) – vėdarėlis (stomach) (Latin ventriculus). In publications in Dabartis, Tėvynės sargas and the Aušros Vartai Calendar, the anatomical terms grobai and žarnos are used with the same meaning, “a tube-shaped part of the digestive tract beginning at the stomach,” while skilvys and vėdarelis mean “stomach”: (1) “Catarrh occurs in the throat, as well as in the stomach and intestines” Dbrt 178 3; (2) “The disease varies greatly: in one patient it affects the lungs, throat and nose more, in another—the stomach and intestines” TS 36 14; (3) “It has now been shown that the typhus bacilli enter the body through the stomach and intestines, particularly when water contaminated with microbes is consumed” AVk 51. LKŽe 1 gyvis 4. “parasites”.45 184 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų What allows us to regard the terms žarna and grobas, and skilvis and vėdarėlis, as synonyms? First, three texts discuss the same infectious diseases—influenza and dysentery—and the names of the same organs affected by those diseases are given alongside one another: (1) skilvys and grobai, (2) vėdarėlis and žarnos, (3) vėdarėlis and žarnos. Second, LKŽe grobas 3. ‘intestine’, 1 vėdarėlis see vėdaras 4. ‘stomach’, skilvis 3. ‘stomach’. Joint – narys (Latin articulatio). In Pavasaris publications “Human Bones” and “Skin,” the terms naming the skeletal-system organ—the articulation between bones—are used synonymously: (1) “Those places where the bones are freely joined to one another are called nariai” Pvs 7 13; (2) “The skin is elastic. It stretches when we bend the joints and contracts when we straighten them” Pvs 10 12. How can we determine that the terms narys and sąnarys are synonyms? The simplest way to check whether these terms are synonyms is simply to consult LKŽe, where the first meaning of the word narys is ‘joint.’ Another approach is to consider the subject matter of the texts in which the terms are used (in this case, both sentences are taken from articles on human anatomy). The context in which the terms are used is also helpful here. The first sentence refers to places where bones join46; compare the sentence from the textbook Human Anatomy: “all bone joints are divided into continuous connections and joints. <...>. A characteristic feature of joints is the gap between the bones that articulate” (Stropus, Tamašauskas, Paužienė 2005: 98). The second sentence mentions one of the properties of joints—movement, that is, bending and straightening. Compare another sentence in the aforementioned textbook: “The most significant property of bone connections is movement” (Stropus, Tamašauskas, Paužienė 2005: 98). Thus, on the basis of what has been said, it can be argued that in different texts the terms nariai and sąnariai refer to the same anatomical concept, ‘bone joint.’ Throat – koserė (Latin pharynx, larynx). In articles published by physicians E. Draugelis and A. Vileišis in Tėvynės sargas, terms naming the respiratory system organ—the larynx—are used synonymously: (1) “The throat became a little red, and pain was felt when swallowing or coughing”; “The koserė becomes red and swells a little” TS 36 14; (2) “the mouth becomes dry and the throat hurts when swallowing” TS 34 6. The terms gerklė and koserė are taken from two different texts discussing the same disease—influenza—one of whose symptoms is a sore throat 46 Here and in the illustrative sentences, underlining is mine – P. Z. Terminologija | 2018 | 25 185 pain – is mentioned in the sentences of both texts. In addition, the meanings of these terms were checked in LKŽe: throat 1. “the front part of the neck (pharynx, larynx)” and koserė 1. “throat”. This makes it possible to state that the terms mentioned are synonyms. In 1918, the main topic of medical publications was infectious diseases; they were written about most often, and thus many terms were used to name them. It should be noted that an infectious disease was called by different names not only in different publications, but also within the same text, where the specific modifier of the disease varied: contagious / contagious / transmissible / transmissible / infectious / infectious / contagious disease: “From time to time contagious diseases break out among us, infecting not only families but whole villages” Kk 69; “Good intentions are not enough to protect against contagious diseases” Kk 69; “Therefore, if one wishes contagious diseases not to spread, the house and yard, bedding and linen must be kept clean” Kk 74; “How to protect oneself from contagious diseases?” MB 1 11; “A fumigation facility was set up next to the hospital; therefore, it is now possible to destroy infectious diseases in this way as well” Dbrt 11 3; “Patients suffering from infectious diseases” Dbrt 96 3; “Erysipelas is an infectious disease” TS 10 14; “Try to separate patients suffering from infectious diseases” TS 5 15; “Scarlet fever is a dangerous infectious disease” TS 1 14; “Vaccination against infectious diseases also belongs here” Dbrt 27 3. Kruvinoji – kruvinoji liga – krauligė – raudonoji (Latin dysenteria). A common infectious disease of the time—now referred to by the Greek-derived term dizenterija—also had several names. In the sentences from five different texts given below, the terms mentioned denote the same disease; compare: (1) Kruvinoji (desinterija) is a contagious disease. It begins in the bowels: at first, infrequently, then very often it loosens the bowels MB 1 11, (2) “On the 18th of this month, a meeting was held in the assembly hall of the military authorities’ building in Vilnius, where they discussed measures to combat kruvinoji. <...>. Flies spread kruvinoji” Dbrt 79 3; (3) “Last year kruvinoji had spread widely, especially, as is well known, when the weather warmed, during summer” DB 20 4; (4) “Dysentery or kruvinoji. <...>. It manifests itself in that a person begins to pass bloody stools” TS 2 16; (5) “It has been established that krauligė occurs in midsummer and early autumn: in July, August and September. <...>. The disease is not difficult to recognize. It begins with chills, vomiting and diarrhoea. At first the stools look like those of ordinary diarrhoea. But soon abdominal pain sets in, and after a bowel movement a little mucus with blood is passed. One of the most important measures for combating kruvinoji is to provide a proper toilet47” Dbrt 98 3; 47 Italics in the original. 186 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų (6) “Last year at this time, scarlet fever was very widespread in our area and struck several dozen people” DB 44 14. In the sentences of the first, second, fourth and fifth texts, there is no doubt that the terms kruvinoji and disenterija, kruvinoji liga and kruvinoji, dizenterija ir kruvinoji, as well as krauligė and kruvinoji are synonymous: they are used either side by side or interchangeably in the text. The term raudonoji in the sixth text seems more problematic, as this is the sole instance of the term’s use. So does raudonoji also mean “dysentery”? Articles about diseases published in 1918 usually indicate their characteristic symptoms, then called the manifestations of the disease. Thus, the sentence in the first text says that, when someone contracts kruvinoji, “the bowels are loosened very severely and frequently”; the sentence in the second text notes that flies spread the disease; the sentence in the fourth text states that the patient develops bloody diarrhoea; and the sentences in the fifth text say that the patient begins to have diarrhoea, has abdominal pain, and blood-streaked mucus appears in the stool. Thus, the symptoms of the disease described in the aforementioned texts are the same. According to Medicinos enciklopedijos, dysentery “is more often contracted in summer and autumn; at that time flies also spread dysentery”; the patient has abdominal cramps and develops diarrhoea, and mucus, sometimes blood, appears in the stool” ME I 201. That flies spread the disease is noted in a sentence in the second text—“flies spread kruvinoji”—and that this disease is most common in the warm season is noted in a sentence in the third text—“as is known, when the weather warms, during the summer”. In LKŽE, the word kruvinoji is recorded as a medical term with the label med., whose first meaning is “dysentery”. Of the three meanings given in that dictionary for the word krauligė (1. “a cattle disease characterized by bloody urination”; 2. “a blood disease”48; 3. “kruvinoji (?)”), and the two meanings of the word raudonoji (raudonoji 1. “dysentery, kruvinoji”; 2. see raudonligė 1. “a contagious disease of pigs (erysipelas suis)”), in this instance we are concerned only with the meaning of these words as “kruvinoji”. It can therefore be stated that the terms kruvinoji, kruvinoji liga, krauligė and raudonoji, used in six different texts, name the same disease—dysentery—and are therefore synonyms. Starvation / rash / spotted / spotted fever (Latin typhus exanthematicus). The disease that raged most widely during the war was spotted fever. The authors of medical articles in 1918 called it by several different terms: 48 Disease of the blood-forming organs. Terminologija | 2018 | 25 187 (1) “The spotted fever, which during the war spread widely, is transmitted by lice from the sick to the healthy” Dbrt 98 3; (2) “The eruptive fever is a dangerous infectious disease. <...> After a few days, the body is usually covered with small, red spots. <...> Eruptive fever spreads very rapidly in the poor and dirty parts of cities, where people live crowded together, such as in prisons, hostels and the army, for example, during the war. And when years of famine come, it spreads widely among people who have to endure famine and hunger. That is why it is also called famine fever. <...> Clothing lice, having sucked the blood of a patient infected with eruptive fever microbes, travel to healthy people” TS 1 14; (3) “Spotted fever also begins with a fever, but at the same time many red spots appear on the body. People become infected with the disease through lice and bedbugs” MB 1 11; (4) “Indeed, in our country too, besides the fact that the war raged for so long, last year the bloody disease had taken hold, and this year an even more dreadful, even more contagious disease is beginning to spread—the spotted or eruptive fever” LA 42 1. The first text uses the term spotted fever, the second uses eruptive fever and famine fever, and the third uses spotted fever. The question of whether these terms are synonymous is resolved by the fourth text, whose sentence uses the terms spotted fever and eruptive fever synonymously. That all four different texts discuss the same disease is also shown by the symptoms of the disease described in them: the disease is spread by lice; when infected, the body breaks out in red spots; and it spreads in times of war and famine. According to the Medical Encyclopedia, spotted fever “spread during wars and famines, i.e. when living conditions deteriorated greatly; the disease is spread by lice, mainly body lice” ME I 169. Thus, this information is sufficient to conclude that in different texts the terms famine / eruptive / spotted fever designate the same disease and are synonyms. Influenza—gripė / gripė (influenza) / influenca / Spanish / Spanish-like / Spanish disease—influenca—Spanish flu—“fashion disease”—irmedė (Latin influenca). One of the most common infectious diseases raging in Lithuania in 1918 was influenza. In the press, this disease was called by a great variety of names; for example, in the article “Influenza or Spanish Disease” it is designated by as many as five terms: (1) “At that time it was called ‘fashion disease’; ‘It is not known when the Spanish disease first appeared’; ‘Influenza bacilli are often found in the stools’; ‘influenza is usually not severe; the temperature rises (38–40oC); the joints and lower back ache, the middle membrane of the eye becomes inflamed, catarrh develops in the throat, and so it does in the stomach and intestines. That is how influenza begins’” Dbrt 178 3. 188 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų Some other names for influenza from this text are also used in other texts, for example: (2) “Influenza is the same as the so-called Spanish disease; influenza itself is not a terrible illness; body temperature quickly rises to 39 or even 40 degrees Celsius. In addition, there is weakness, appetite disappears, some are overcome by drowsiness, others by nervous irritability. Moreover, the patient complains that the bridge of his nose, forehead, lower back, arms and legs hurt, often and severely; a runny nose and dry cough constantly torment him; his eyes redden, his mouth dries out and his throat hurts when swallowing, his tongue is white” TS 34 4–5; (3) “This autumn an unexpected guest also came to us: ‘Spanish disease, which laid almost the whole parish low. <...>. The symptoms of the illness are more or less as follows: first a fever rises, the bones ache, there is a headache; later it settles in the lungs, as an inflammation’” Vnb 43 675; (4) “Quite recently some new, extraordinary illness began to rage in Lithuania. <...>. Looking at the symptoms of this illness, we get the impression that it is not new at all: it is ordinary influenza or flu. <...>. The illness appears quite suddenly. After a day or two of feeling unwell, a fever suddenly rises, the head and lower back hurt, and weakness sets in” TS 36 13; (5) “What we call ‘ir medė’ in our language and ‘influenza’ in doctors’ language has today been given the name Spanish, because it appeared there in a more severe form. One can get the illness on one’s own from catching cold, especially in damp weather. It manifests itself in a headache and chills. <...>. body temperature rises (fever), and the patient takes to bed. He also has some pain in his bones” Kk 69; (6) “that even in Lithuania such a relatively mild illness as Spanish flu kills a great many people” DB 56 4. Since many terms were used in the press to name the illness under discussion, some of them recur, as can be seen in the sentences from other texts. In this case, the first text, in which influenza is named by five terms, could serve as a starting point for determining the synonymous relationship among the terms. However, perhaps the most reliable proof that these terms are synonymous is the characteristics of the illness they name, described and repeated in all the texts: fever, pain in the joints and lower back (see text 1); increased body temperature, weakness, and pain in the bridge of the nose, forehead, lower back, arms and legs (see text 2); rising fever, aching bones, headache (see text 3); rising fever, headache and lower-back pain, weakness (see text 4); headache and bone pain, increased body temperature (see text 5). According to the Medical Encyclopedia, influenza begins suddenly: “the temperature rises, chills set in, the head hurts, especially the forehead and eyeballs, muscles and joints ache, the whole body is racked with pain” ME I 309. Terminologija | 2018 | 25 189 Thus, it can be argued that all six different texts discuss the same infectious disease— influenza—and that the terms used to name it are synonyms. (Disease) antkryčiai – (disease) diegai – bacteria – (disease) microbes. In medical articles from 1918, organisms that cause diseases are referred to by several terms. Physician A. Vileišis called them by Lithuanian terms: (1) “The cause of tuberculosis is tiny germs, invisible to the naked eye—antkričiai (disease diegai)” TS 7 14; (2) “One must protect oneself from it in the same way as from typhoid, from cholera, that is, by not allowing the diegai of that disease into one’s bowels” TS 2 16. These Lithuanian terms are also found in articles by other authors: (3) “Knowing where contagious diseases come from, you will not be able to avoid them if the conditions around you are favorable for the antkričiai of those diseases to multiply” DB 56 4; (4) “All these contagious diseases have living infectious matter, which passes from one person to another and infects them with the same disease. After much effort, scientists managed to discover that those disease diegai belong to the smallest known forms of plant life” Dbrt 98 3. The synonymy of the terms in the sentences of the first and second texts is beyond doubt—both texts were written by the same author; in the first text, the terms antkričiai and ligos diegai are presented together, while in the second text the author uses one of the aforementioned synonymous terms. In this case, the data in LKŽe are only partly helpful: diegas 3. “a germ, a beginning,” but ankrytis “a disease attack, infection, epidemic.” Besides the Lithuanian terms mentioned above, A. Vileišis, being a physician, could not avoid using terms of Greek origin, bakterija, mikrobas, which he also used to refer to disease-causing agents: “Like other infectious diseases, spotted typhus also has its own particular diegai—microbes. Those microbes live in the blood of a patient who has contracted spotted typhus”; “A person contracts typhus when the bacteria of that disease enter their body. Those bacteria are tiny animals that one ordinarily cannot see with the naked eye” TS 1 14. These loanwords are also used in physician D. Alseika’s article “Health Matters in Lithuania”: “A person contracts an infectious disease because peculiar, very small animals, known as microbes or bacteria, enter their body” Svk 1 2. As can be seen from the last two illustrative sentences, the terms bakterija and mikrobas are used synonymously by physicians; they are linked by a relationship of equivalence (identity) (cf. Gaivenis 2002: 40), which can be represented as follows: 190 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų bacterium = microbe From the perspective of current medical terminology, the terms under discussion are not synonyms. Microbes are a broader concept, while a bacterium is only a certain type of microbe. They are related by a hyponymy relationship (cf. Gaivenis 2002: 41), which can be represented graphically as follows: The terms bakterija and mikrobas are linked by hyponym–hyperonym relations: the hyperonym is mikrobas, and its hyponym is bakterija. Thus, in 1918, the concepts bacterium and microbium were still treated as identical. 4. Variability of medical terms. One of the characteristic features of medical terminology in 1918 was variation. Most instances of terms varying were found in different medical publications written by different people, which also contributed to the emergence of variants. Two types of variants occurred: (1) phonetic and orthographic, or spelling, variants (see Mitkevičienė 2004: 125) and (2) morphological variants (see Župerka 1983: 28; Miliūnaitė 2009: 143, 172, cf. Ахманова 2005: 71): (1) “Tuberculosis is a lung disease which one gets not from catching cold, but through infection from other patients” TS 7 14; “There are many ways of becoming infected” TS 34 5; “The ribs are curved bones that enclose the chest and are attached at the front by cartilage to the breastbone” Pvs 7 13; “Reddish spots appear on the chest, spreading to cover the whole body” Kk 71; “It has also been noted that influenza is very dangerous for those predisposed to tuberculosis or already suffering from it” TS 34 7; “Try to isolate those suffering from contagious diseases (smallpox, diphtheria, typhoid, cholera, plague, whooping cough, measles, scarlet fever, dysentery, tuberculosis, syphilis), and after they recover or die, disinfect their dwelling and belongings” TS 5 15; “What is called in our language ‘irmedė49’, and in doctors’ language ‘influenza’, today has been given the name ‘Spanish’ because it appeared there in a more severe form. One can catch this disease naturally from a chill, especially in damp weather” Kk 69; “Irmedė is contagious, but only through perspiration; it does not seem to spread through the air” Kk 70; 49 Italicized in the original article. Terminologija | 2018 | 25 191 (2) “In some <...> parts of the palm the skin is hard and thick” Pvs 10 12; “If the muscles were attached all along to the fingers they move, the palm would be extraordinarily thick, the fingers would be awkward, and they would be unable to perform certain movements” Pvs 8 11; “The muscles, especially those in the legs, hurt when pressed” AVk 54; “The muscles of the human body are like bundles of rubber; like rubber, they can stretch and contract” Pvs 8 11. Variants of terms may have arisen in medical publications of 1918 for various linguistic as well as non-linguistic reasons—unsettled spelling, the author's command of language, editorial and publishing errors, and the like. 5. By way of conclusion. The medical terminology of 1918 provides useful information for the history of medicine in Lithuania (what the most important health problems of the time were, what diseases people suffered from and how they treated them, what disease-prevention measures and methods were used, who treated the patients and where, etc.), as well as for the Lithuanian language and terminology. On the one hand, even 100 years ago, authors writing about medicine and health used many terms that, unchanged in meaning and structure, have entered the language and terminology of contemporary medical science. On the other hand, in its Lithuanian character, vividness, and diversity of meaning and expression, this terminology differs from contemporary Lithuanian medical terminology; these differences make the terminology of 1918 distinctive and therefore interesting in both content and form. CONCLUSIONS 1. After the publication of the specialized medical press that had appeared until then ceased in 1918, medical and health issues were discussed in other (non-specialized) periodicals of the time. Publications on these subjects, appearing mostly in newspapers, reflect the difficult state of health affairs in that year and describe the most pressing health problems—infections, their symptoms and treatment, patient care, hygiene, and the need for healthcare specialists (doctors, feldshers, midwives, etc.) and healthcare institutions (hospitals, outpatient clinics, pharmacies, etc.). 2. The medical terminology of 1918 is of interest from a subject-matter perspective. It provides useful and unique information for the history of medicine in Lithuania. 3. Linguistic, semantic, and structural analysis of medical terms shows that in 1918 a considerable number of key terms, in terms of both meaning and expression, were inherited from sources of an earlier period; these terms had been used by 192 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų authors who wrote about medicine, health, and treatment before 1918. Some new terms also emerged as a result of the realities of that year, such as the war. 4. The terminology found in the medical texts studied comprises over 700 distinct terminological units. The majority (66%) are of native origin (purely Lithuanian). Terms of foreign origin (17%) and mixed origin (17%) are represented in equal proportions. 5. Authors writing about medicine, health, and treatment had to envision their audience—a Lithuanian reader with no specialist knowledge—and therefore present subject-related information in an accessible and comprehensible way, using more Lithuanian terms that would be familiar and clear to readers. Lithuanian anatomical terms were already more or less established. Clinical terminology varied the most, especially disease names, which were characterized by an abundance of synonyms and variants, although many disease names still lacked precision. There are relatively few simple (or single-concept) terms—that is, basic words not further divisible by word formation—and these are mostly anatomical terms. Most basic terms are derivatives: nearly thirty suffix-derived words, with few ending-derived and prefix-derived words or compounds. The texts studied name considerably more specific, or compound, concepts than generic concepts; accordingly, compound terms predominate, particularly two-word genitive constructions (there are few three-word and longer terms). Many medical terms of foreign origin were not new, but had already been used by the predecessors of the authors who published in the year under discussion. Most of these borrowings derive from Classical Greek and Latin. In addition to words borrowed from these languages, words of Slavic, French, German, and Italian origin were also used. Most terms of foreign origin are international words that continue to be used in contemporary Lithuanian medical terminology. Compound terms of mixed origin outnumber simple hybrids. 6. Most writing concerned infectious diseases. This accounts for the abundance of disease names in the medical publications studied. Diseases, their treatment, and prevention are inseparable from anatomy and pharmacy; accordingly, the next two sizeable semantic groups comprise names of body parts and organs, and of medical treatments and remedies. Another important issue was who treated patients and where. Thus, terms were used for people and institutions associated with medicine and treatment, as well as for premises. There are half as many terms in these semantic groups. Various other terms, mostly abstract in meaning, were also needed. Terminologija | 2018 | 25 193 7. In 1918 medical texts, synonymy was a frequent type of semantic relationship between terms. Terms linked by a synonymic relationship are often found in the same text. They are used alongside one another or interchangeably. Adjacent synonyms are presented in two main ways: in parentheses or linked by the conjunction or. 8. It is easy to identify synonymous terms within the same text: here their use in the aforementioned adjacent or mixed manner is helpful. By contrast, it is more difficult to discern the synonymic relationship between terms found in different texts. This relationship can be established on the basis of the subject matter of the texts, the context in which the terms are used, synonyms used in the same text, features of the concept being named, and additional sources (e.g., LKŽe, textbooks). 9. The synonymy and variation of terms point to the instability of medical terminology in that year, and, I would venture, also to the fact that the writers’ main aim was to convey information about diseases, their symptoms, and treatment in a popular manner that ordinary readers could understand, with less attention paid to expression; moreover, some variants may be editorial or publishing errors. Each author used the terms familiar to them to name one concept or another, which also contributed to the emergence of synonyms. 10. The terminology under study was undoubtedly influenced by living language—in the 1918 texts there are many terms drawn from everyday usage, e.g.: kruvinoji, raudonoji, krauligė, slankstas, slogas, gyduolė, pribuvėja, grobas, krimslys, koserė, lėlelė “pupil of the eye (pupilla)”; ryšelis, skilvis, žvyna, atmatai, supūtimas “swelling, puffiness”; laužymas “aching, pain”; kraujo vaikščiojimas “blood circulation”; diegas “origin, beginning (of a disease)”; plaišena (a termologized word), užkaitimas “inflammation,” liginimas “nursing.” In addition, there are figurative terms, e.g.: kraujo vaikščiojimas, krūtinės kamaraitė, niežų krūmas, prakaito skylutė, sausų gysly ryšelis. 11. The texts studied also contain quite a number of imprecise medical terms, which name concepts that are mostly insufficiently clear, e.g.: ausų užkaitimas, pleivės užkaitimas, šonkaulių užkaitimas, vidurių sloga, vidurių sugedimas, kvėpavimo takų slogas, skilvio sugedimas. 12. Even 100 years ago, authors writing about medicine, health, and treatment used many terms that have entered the present-day language and terminology of medical science unchanged; however, this terminology differs from contemporary Lithuanian medical terminology in its Lithuanian character, figurativeness, and variety of meanings and expression. 194 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų ABBREVIATIONS OF THE MAIN SOURCES AVk – Aušros Vartų kalendorius Dbrt – Present DB – Voice of Labour FR – Pharmaceutical Affairs Kk – Kauno kalendorius LA – Lietuvos aidas MB – Moterų balsas Pvs – Pavasaris Svk – Sveikata TS – Tėvynės sargas Vnb – Vienybė PRIMARY SOURCES Ankietos reikalų. – Valdyba – Farmaceutų reikalai, 1918, sausis (Nr. 1), 3–4. Protection against dysentery and its treatment in the area of the Eastern Army Commander. – (From the Lithuanian countryside). – Dabartis, 1918, June 13 (No. 71), 3. Protection against contagious diseases, especially dysentery. – Written by Dr. Minkevičia, physician at Savičas Hospital in Vilnius. – (From the Lithuanian countryside). – Dabartis, 1918, July 31 (No. 98), 3. Appeal to Lithuanian pharmacists / Steponas Nasvytis, chair of the Vilnius Lithuanian Pharmacists’ Council, Stasys Bytautas, secretary. – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, December 6 (No. 150), 3. Avižonis Petras. Higijena. – D-ras med. P. Avižonis. – Darbo balsas, 1918, gruodžio 24 (Nr. 56), 3–4. A pharmacy has opened here, run by pharmacist J. Stukas..., Kupiškis. – A correspondent. – (News from Lithuania. Miscellaneous news). – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, December 11 (No. 154), 5. Here the Spanish disease has spread throughout all the parishes..., Kaišiadorys district. – Krumplys50. – Pavasaris, 1918, November 1 (No. 9), 18. Shortage of doctors and midwives. – O. Žl.51 – (Our News. Žagarė). – Darbo balsas, 1918, April 11 (No. 16), 11. Daktarų organizavimasis. – A. Trainaitis. – Farmaceutų reikalai, 1918, sausis (Nr. 1), 7. Thank God, we now have several doctors..., Utena. – (From the Lithuanian countryside). – Vienybė, 1918, September 24 (No. 36), 562. Del gomeopatinių vaistinių. – J. Pundinas. – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, spalio 11 (Nr. 103), 2. Dėl kovos su dėmėtaja šiltine, Švenčionys. – (Iš Lietuvos krašto). – Dabartis, 1918, kovo 19 (Nr. 34), 3. Regarding the establishment of a hospital in Gelvonys. – P. D.52 – (From the Lithuanian Central Committee). – Tėvynės sargas, 1918, June 21 (No. 24), 4. On the state of health in Lithuania. – (News from Lithuania. Lithuanian Council news), – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, October 5 (No. 98), 3. Spotted fever. – Priest Š.53 – Dabartis, 1918, April 17 (No. 13), 193–194. Didelė lietuvių ligoninė Vilniuje. – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, rugsėjo 5 (Nr. 83), 2. Dr. D. Alseika54. How to protect oneself from contagious diseases? – Sveikata, 1918, December 25 (No. 1), 2. D-ras D. Alseika. Sveikatos reikalai Lietuvoje. – Sveikata, 1918, gruodžio 25 (Nr. 1), 1–2. Draugelis Eliziejus. Naujoji liga. – Dr. E. Draugelis. – Tėvynės sargas, 1918, spalio 30 (Nr. 36), 13–14. Draugelis Eliziejus. Šiltinės. – D-ras E. Draugelis. – Aušros Vartų kalendorius 1919: Sodžiaus ir miesto lietuvių katalikų šeimynoms dovanėlė. III metai. Redagavo Liūdas Gira, Vilnius: Žinynas, 1918, 50–54. To pharmacists! – Members of the Lithuanian Pharmacists’ Union J. Tartila, J. Putna, K. Markūnas. – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, May 25 (No. 61), 2. To pharmacists. – Kast. Stašys55 – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, June 25 (No. 71), 2. On pharmacists’ affairs. – Ainis56. – Darbo balsas, 1918, September 27 (No. 37), 4–5. 50 Bronius Stosiūnas? 51 Ona Žlabytė. 52 Povilas Dogelis. 53 Juozas Šnapštys? 54 Danielius Alseika. 55 Konstantinas Stašys. 56 Juozas Pronskus. Terminologija | 2018 | 25 195 Farmaceutų reikalų. – Ainis. – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, lapkričio 27 (Nr. 142), 3. Medical orderly. – Žiedelis57. – (Our news. Naujamiestis). – Darbo balsas, 1918, August 7 (No. 30), 11–12. Gydytojų apsigyvenimas. – (Mūsų žinios. Vilnius). – Darbo balsas, 1918, rugpjūčio 30 (Nr. 33), 8. Gydytojų domei. – Ten buvęs. – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, spalio 31 (Nr. 120), 4. For the information of doctors and pharmacists. – A man from Seinai. – (News from Lithuania. Across the country. Various news). – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, July 18 (No. 80), 3. Influenza or Spanish disease. – Alfred S. Radtke. – (From the Lithuanian region). – Dabartis, 1918, November 1 (No. 178), 3. The spread of dysentery in the sphere of the supreme military command. – (From the Lithuanian region). – Dabartis, 1918, July 2 (No. 79), 3. The science of hygiene and our schools. – Ibis58. – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, April 20 (No. 47), 2. Ispanų liga. – Eglaitė. – (Mūsų žinios. Biržai). – Darbo balsas, 1918, lapkričio 13 (Nr. 44), 15. The Lithuanian hospital headed by Dr. J. Buzelis was brought from Aglona (in Russia) to Vilnius... – (News of news. Vilnius chronicle). – Tėvynės sargas, 1918, June 14 (No. 23), 9. Iš Kauno miesto ligoninės. – (Iš Lietuvos krašto). – Dabartis, 1918, liepos 28 (Nr. 96), 3. To our fellow pharmacists! – Proviz. Z. Kuzavas59. – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, July 11 (No. 77), 2–3. Įsteigė vaistininkų draugiją, Vilnius. – (Iš Lietuvos krašto). – Dabartis, 1918, rugsėjo 24 (Nr. 145), 4. How to protect oneself from contagious diseases? – O. A.60 – Moterų balsas, 1918, July (No. 1), 11–12. Kalbos gryninimas. – L. G. – Tėvynės sargas, 1918, kovo 5 d. (Nr. 9), 1–2. Kauno miesto ligoninė. – (Iš Lietuvos krašto). – Dabartis, 1918, sausio 24 (Nr. 11), 3. Lietuviai-daktarai. – (Lietuviai svetur). – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, sausio 24 (Nr. 11), 4. Hospital of the Lithuanian Society for Sanitary Aid. – (News from Lithuania. In Vilnius). – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, October 18 (No. 109), 3. The Polyclinic and Hospital of the Lithuanian Society for Sanitary Aid began operating officially on November 3... – (News from Lithuania. In Vilnius). – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, November 13 (No. 130), 5. Polyclinic and hospital of the Lithuanian Sanitary Aid Society in Vilnius. – (Our news. Vilnius). – Darbo balsas, 1918, November 6 (No. 43), 13–14. The consecration of the Polyclinic and Hospital of the Lithuanian Sanitary Aid Society... took place this Sunday... – In the text: Vaižgantas’s speech. – (News from Lithuania. In Vilnius). – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, November 5 (No. 123), 4. Lietuvos vaistinės. – Lent. – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, sausio 22 (Nr. 10), 4. Ligos. – Kazys Kairys. – (Mūsų žinios. Ilguva). – Darbo balsas, 1918, lapkričio 13 (Nr. 44), 14. Ligos. – Sietynas. – (Mūsų žinios. Žemaitkiemis). – Darbo balsas, 1918, balandžio 18 (Nr. 17), 11. Our returnees. – S.61 – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, November 17 (No. 134), 2. The small town of Skapiškis lies on the shore of the Mituva... – P. Gužas. – (News from Lithuania. Throughout the country. Miscellaneous news). – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, September 28 (No. 93), 3. Skin. – J. T. – Pavasaris, 1918, November 23 (No. 10), 12–13. Pamišėlių namas. – (Iš Lietuvos krašto). – Dabartis, 1918, vasario 21 (Nr. 23), 3. Muscles. – J. T. – Pavasaris, 1918, October 16 (No. 8), 11–12. Let us protect our health and life. – L. N.62 – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, April 9 (No. 42), 1–2. Let us beware of diseases. – A. Žansparnis63 – Darbo balsas, 1918, May 9 (No. 20), 4–5. The holes returned to our area with the sun’s return... dysentery, or bloody flux... – Known to all. – (Our news. Gruzdžiai). – Darbo balsas, 1918, August 30 (No. 33), 10–11. Susilaukėme dar vieno veiklaus vyro inteligento,.... – P. B. – Pavasaris, 1918, rugsėjo 1 d. (Nr. 5), 21. 57 Jonas Kvietkauskas. 58 Jonas Basanavičius. 59 Zenonas Kuzavas. 60 Ona Adomaitytė. 61 Kazys Strazdas? / Stanislovas Sarapas? / Antanas Kvedaras? 62 Liudas Noreika. 63 Juozas Gendrenas. 196 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų Health Commission at the Council of Lithuania. – (News from Lithuania. Vilnius). – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, June 29 (No. 73), 3. At the initiative of the Health Commission... a meeting of the city’s doctors was convened on 5.XII... – Z. – (Our News. Šiauliai). – Darbo balsas, 1918, December 31 (No. 57), 3. Sveikatos reikalai vyr. rytų vado srityje. – (Iš Lietuvos krašto). – Dabartis, 1918, kovo 2 (Nr. 27), 3. Sveikatos reikalu. – Kar. Dy-n-a. – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, rugsėjo 14 (Nr. 87), 2. A little about diseases and hygiene. – M-lis. – Kauno kalendorius 1919 metams. Thirteenth year. Kaunas, 1918, 69–74. This autumn it came to us too... “Spanish disease”... – Kuliškis64. – (From Lithuania). – Vienybė, 1918, November 13 (No. 43), 675–676. Taip pat svarbus reikalas. – Tėvynės sargas, 1918, rugpjūčio 4 (Nr. 28), 2. Nation and language. – Nr. – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, July 16 (No. 79 (127)), 1–2. The nation’s health and war. – Z.65 – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, March 23 (No. 36), 1–2. In the town of Traupis, people began falling ill with typhus (typhoid fever) in autumn... – A young teacher. – (News from Lithuania. Throughout the country. Various news). – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, March 16 (No. 33), 3. Procedure for the return of deportees and quarantines. – A. R.66 – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, April 18 (No. 46), 2. Spotted fever is rampant in Ukmergė County... – A. Ž. – (Around Lithuania. Various news). – Tėvynės sargas, 1918, May 8 (No. 18), 10. Vaistinės mokinių klausimu. – J. P. – Lietuvos aidas, 1918, gruodžio 12 (Nr. 155), 2–3. Vaistinių reikalai. – (Iš Lietuvos krašto). – Dabartis, 1918, rugpjūčio 3 (Nr. 101), 3. Vaistų reikalai Vyr. Rytų vado srityje. – (Iš Lietuvos krašto). – Dabartis, 1918, birželio 13 (Nr. 71), 3. Vileišis Antanas. Apie karo ligas. – Dr. A. Vileišis. – Tėvynės sargas, 1918, gruodžio 29 (Nr. 1), 14–15, sausio 17 (Nr. 2), 15–16. Vileišis Antanas. Apie plaučių džiovą. – D-ras A. Vileišis. – Tėvynės sargas, 1918, vasario 19 (Nr. 7), 14–15. Vileišis, Antanas. How to live in order to be healthy. – Dr. A. Vileišis. – Tėvynės sargas, 1918, January 29 (No. 4), 14–15; February 5 (No. 5), 15. Vileišis, Antanas. What is influenza and what causes it? – Dr. A. Vileišis. – Tėvynės sargas, 1918, October 16 (No. 34), 4–8. Vileišis, Antanas. What should the care of sick children be like? – Dr. A. Vileišis. – Tėvynės sargas, 1918, April 11 (No. 14), 13–14; May 29 (No. 21), 11; July 10 (No. 26), 11–12; September 18 (No. 30), 11–13. Vileišis Antanas. Niežai. – D-ras A. Vileišis. – Tėvynės sargas, 1918, balandžio 11 (Nr. 14), 13. Vileišis Antanas. Rožė. – D-ras A. Vileišis. – Tėvynės sargas, 1918, kovo 16 (Nr. 10), 14. Vileišis Antanas. Trachoma. – D-ras A. Vileišis. – Tėvynės sargas, 1918, kovo 23 (Nr. 11), 14. Three doctors, one feldsher and a midwife settled in Žagarė; Kazlauskas’s pharmacy opened in Žagarė... – Lietuvos Ainė. – (Our News. Žagarė). – Darbo balsas, 1918, October 10 (No. 39), 12. Human bones. – J. T.67 – Pavasaris, 1918, October 4 (No. 7), 12–13. Žmonių sveikata Lietuvoje. – Vienybė, 1918, liepos 4 (Nr. 24), 367–368. Žodis apie sveikatą. – Rumšišk. mokytojas. – Dabartis, 1918, kovo 9 (Nr. 30), 3. Žvilgsnis į ateitį. – St. N-is. – Farmaceutų reikalai, 1918, sausis (Nr. 1), 2–3. AUXILIARY SOURCES ALEW – Alt litauisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Band 1 A–M, Band 2. N–Ž, Band 3. Verzeichnisse und Indices. Unter der Leitung von Wolfgang Hock, Hamburg: Baar, 2018. Alm – Alminauskis K. Die Germanismen des Litauischen I. Die deutschen Lehnwörter im Litauischen, Kaunas: St. Casimir Society Bookshop, 1931. Čep – Čepienė N. Germanisms in the Lithuanian Language and Their Phonetic Features, Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 2006. 64 Stanislovas Durskis. 65 Vincentas Zajančkauskas. 66 Andrius Rondomanskis? 67 Jurgis Talmantas? Terminologija | 2018 | 25 197 DVLKŽ – Križinauskas J., Smagurauskas St. Great German–Lithuanian Dictionary 1–2, Vilnius: Institute of Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing, 2006. LEW I – Lithuanian Etymological Dictionary by Ernst Fraenkel. Vol. 1, Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1955. LEW II – Lithuanian Etymological Dictionary by Ernst Fraenkel. Vol. 2, Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1955. Lithuanian Pseudonyms: A Compilation of Pseudonyms in the Lithuanian Press up to 1990 1. Authors. Compiled and prepared by Dr. Jonas Mačiulis, Vilnius: LNB, 2004. Lithuanian Pseudonyms: A Compilation of Pseudonyms in the Lithuanian Press up to 1990 2. Dictionary of Pseudonyms. Compiled and prepared by Associate Professor Dr. Jonas Mačiulis, Vilnius: LNB, 2004. Bibliography of Lithuania = The bibliography of Lithuania = Lithuanian Bibliography / Publications in Lithuanian Periodicals = Publications of Lithuanian periodicals = Publications of Lithuanian Periodicals: 1918. Vol. 1. Prepared by Osvaldas Janonis, Kaunas: Kaunas County Public Library, 2001. LLKŽ – Vaitkevičiūtė V. Lenkų–lietuvių kalbų žodynas, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1979. LKPŽ – Kregždys R. Dictionary of Polonisms in the Lithuanian Language = Słownik polonizmów w języku litewskim (Studia Etymologica Baltica II). Scholarly dictionary, Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 2016. LKŽe – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (I–XX, 1941–2002), elektroninis variantas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2005. – www.lkz.lt ME I, II – Medical Encyclopedia 1–2, Vilnius: State Publishing House of Encyclopaedias, 1991, 1993. PrW I – Prussian Dictionary: East and West Prussian Provincialisms in Alphabetical Order by H. Frischbier. First volume. A–K, Berlin: Verlag von Th. Chr. Fr. Enslin, 1882. Skar – Skardžius Pr. Slavic Loanwords in Old Lithuanian. – Nation and Word 7, 1931. Šlt – [Dr. A. Vileišis.] Health Matters. On Human Consumption. – The Source 29, 1914, 435–437. TŽŽ – Dictionary of International Words. Editorial board: Angelė Kaulakienė et al., Vilnius: Alma littera, 2013. VLE IV, XIII, XVII, XXII, XXIII, XXV – Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia, Vilnius: Institute of Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing, 2003, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014. Zemlevičiūtė P. 2009: Lietuvių medicinos terminologijos raida XIX amžiaus pabaigoje – XX amžiaus pradžioje. Daktaro disertacija, Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto leidykla. ESRYA I, II – Vasmer M. Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language 1–2, Moscow: Progress, 1964, 1967. LITERATŪRA Andriušis A. 2006: Lietuvos medicinos istorijos apybraiža. Mokomoji knyga, Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto l-kla. Bunevičiūtė L. 2000: Atributiniai veiksmažodinių daiktavardžių junginiai. – Žmogus ir žodis 2, 10–15. Ermanytė I. 2008: Antonimai ir antonimija, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Gaivenis K. 2002: Lietuvių terminologija: teorijos ir tvarkybos metmenys, Vilnius: LKI leidykla. Gira L. 1918: Kalbos gryninimas. – L. G. – Tėvynės sargas 9, 1–2. Grinius K. 1918: Tauta ir kalba. – Nr. – Lietuvos aidas 79(127), 1–2. Jakaitienė E. 2010: Leksikologija, Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. Keinys St. 2005 [1975]: Priesaginė lietuviškų terminų daryba. – Keinys St. Dabartinė lietuvių terminologija, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 21–76. Micelmaheris V. 1959: Sveikatos apsauga Lietuvoje 1918–1919 m., Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla. Miliūnaitė R. 2009: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos vartosenos variantai, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Mitkevičienė A. 2004: V. Dubo visuotinės literatūros vadovėlio terminų variantai. – Terminologija 11, 119–144. Mitkevičienė A. 2006: Literatūros mokslo terminų antonimija 1922–1942 m. – Terminologija 13, 134–148. Mitkevičienė A. 2015: 1918–1940 metų lietuvių literatūros mokslo terminai. Daktaro disertacija, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Petronytė A. 1995: Lietuvos Sveikatos departamento sukūrimas 1918–1920 m. – Acta musei historiae medicinae et pharmaciae Lithuaniae II, Kaunas, 118–124. Stakulienė S. 2001: Lietuviškoji medicinos periodika: ištakos ir raida Lietuvoje iki XX a. trečiojo dešimtmečio. – Knygotyra 37, 220–233. Prieiga per internetą: http://etalpykla.lituanistikadb.lt/afedora/get/LT-LDB-0001:J.04~2001~1367156338542/DS.002.0.01.ARTIC. Stakulienė S. 2007: Lietuviškos farmacijos periodikos ištakos ir raida Lietuvoje iki XX a. penktojo dešimtmečio. – Knygotyra 49, 122–137. Prieiga per internetą: www.zurnalai.vu.lt/knygotyra/article/download/8017/5887. 198 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų Stropus R., Tamašauskas K. A., Paužienė N. 2005: Žmogaus anatomija. Antrasis pataisytas ir papildytas leidimas, Kaunas: Vitae Litera. Tercijonas V. 1968: Sveikatos apsauga. – Lietuvių enciklopedija XV. Lietuva, South Boston: Lietuvių enciklopedijos leidykla, 122–126. Vaišvilienė R. 2013: Lietuviškai medicinos mokslo periodikai – 100 metų. – Medicinos teorija ir praktika 19(2), 208–213. Prieiga per internetą: http://www.mtp.lt/files/MTP2-18str-208-213psl.pdf. Župerka K. 1983: Lietuvių kalbos stilistika, Vilnius: Mokslas. Ахманова О. С. 2005: Словарь лингвистических терминов, Москва: КомКнига. Даниленко В. П. 1977: Русская терминология: опыт лингвистического описания, Москва: Наука. Татаринов В. А. 2006: Общее терминоведение: энциклопедический словарь, Москва: Московский Лицей. MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY 100 YEARS AGO The paper deals with terms collected from over eighty popular science and informational articles on medicine and health published in Lithuanian periodicals (mainly newspapers) in 1918. Terms are analysed in respect of the meaning and expression. Some specialized medical periodicals ceased in 1918, therefore general publications – Moterų balsas, Darbo balsas, Dabartis, Vienybė, Lietuvos aidas, Pavasaris and Tėvynės sargas – started publishing information on the most important health issues, mainly infectious diseases (dysentery, typhus, influenza, etc.), their treatment and patient care. Over 700 different terminological units were collected from the texts researched. 66% of terms are purely Lithuanian words, 17% are foreign words (mainly borrowings of Greek (apopleksija (apoplexy), bakterijos (bacteria)) and Latin origin (kamparas (camphor), daktaras (doctor)) and another 17% are words of mixed origin (hybrids (aptiekininkas „vaistininkas“ (pharmacist), operacinė (operating-room) and complex terms having elements of different origin (valgio virinamieji organai „virškinimo organai“ (digestive tract), ispanų liga „influenza“ (influenza)). The terms researched name body parts and organs, diseases, medical devices, persons, medical institutions and abstract concepts of medicine. One-word terms which are simple words of Lithuanian origin are quite rare (akis (eye), galva (head), plaučiai (lungs)). The majority of terms researched are derivates (nugarkaulis (backbone), kosulys (cough), niežai (scabies), gydytojas (doctor), ligoninė (hospital)). Two-word terms are most frequent (tulžies pūslė (gall bladder), dėmėtoji šiltinė (spotted fever), ricinos aliejus (castor oil), vaistinės padėjėjas (pharmacy assistant), rentgeno kabinetas (X-ray room), three-word terms (vidurių šiltinės mikrobas (typhoid fever microbe), raudonojo kryžiaus ligoninė (Red Cross hospital)) are not very common. There are quite a few synonymous terms in the researched texts (kruvinoji and dizenterija (dysentery), aptieka and vaistinė (pharmacy)). Synonymous terms can be easily identified in the same text because they are used either together or interchangeably. It is more difficult to identify the synonymy between terms from different texts, in such cases the subject of a text, synonymy within the same text, features of the concept or an external source (for instance, LKŽe (Lithuanian Language Dictionary)) may help. In 1918 quite a few medical terms had alternative versions. Phonetic and orthographic variants are common (krūtinė and krutinė (chest), skarlatina and škarletina (scarlet fever), džiova and dziova (tuberculosis) irmedė and irmedė (influenza)), morphologic variants are rare (variants of a gender – karantina and karantinas (quarantine) and of endings – raumenys and raumens (muscles)). Terminologija | 2018 | 25 199 Synonyms and variants were used because terminology was not settled; inconsistent usage was also caused by the author’s language knowledge and terminology known to him, editorial or publishing mistakes and the focus on easy and understandable presentation of medical information without paying much attention to expression. Medical terminology of 1918 was influenced by the spoken language. Quite a lot of words – some of them are quite figurative – were borrowed from the colloquial usage (kruvinoji „dizenterija“ (dysentery), mažakrau je „anemija“ (anaemia), gyduolė „vaistas“ (drug), pribu vėja „akušerė“ (obstetrician), krimslys „kremzlie“ (cartilage), kraujo vaikščiojimas „kraujo cirkuliacija“ (blood circulation)). In that year some concepts of medicine still were vague, therefore there are some medical terms which are not precise (ausų užkaitimas, vidurių sluoga, skilbio sugedimas). Medical terminology of 1918 provides an interesting, useful and unique information for the history of medicine in Lithuania (what health issues were topical, what diseases were common and how they were treated, what were the means of prevention, who treated patients and where it was done, etc.) as well as for the research of Lithuanian language and terminology. Some terms which are currently used in the language of medical science were used 100 years ago, but in general medical terminology of that year differs from the modern terminology in figurativeness, Lithuanian origin and variety of meanings and expression. Gauta 2018-07-19 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius E. paštas [email protected] 200 Palmira Zemlevičiūtė | Medicinos terminija prieš 100 metų