Neologijos terminija ir „Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyno“ praktika

doi.org/10.35321/term27-04 Neology Terminology and the Practice of the Lithuanian Neologism Database RITA MILIŪNAITĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language ABSTRACT As research on neologisms has intensified in Lithuania, describing them has required new terms that have not previously been used in Lithuanian linguistics, or have been used only by individual authors, and that are not included in dictionaries but are widespread in foreign-language literature. This article examines how the concept of neologism is defined in major works of Lithuanian linguistics and identifies its essential semantic components. It elucidates the meanings of the linguistic terms neologism, protologism, occasionalism, ephemerism, paleologism, as well as several other terms related to neology. The discussion draws on foreign lexicographic sources and research in this field, as well as on experience in maintaining the online Lithuanian Neologism Database. KEYWORDS: neologism, neologism, neology, linguistic terminology, neologism database ABSTRACT As the research of neologisms is gathering pace in Lithuania, their description requires new terms, which have not until now been used in Lithuanian linguistics or have been used by individual authors only and are not yet included in dictionaries but are widespread in foreign studies. The article investigates how the concept of neologism (Lith. naujažodis) is defined in the major studies of Lithuanian linguistics and what its principal semantic components are. It reveals the content of linguistic terms naujažodis, neologizmas, protologizmas, okazionalizmas, efemerizmas, paleologizmas and several other neology related terms. It builds upon foreign lexicographical sources of this field and the research in neology, as well as the experience of managing the Database of Lithuanian Neologisms. KEYWORDS: neologism, neology, terminology of linguistics, database of neologisms Terminologija | 2020 | 27 81 INTRODUCTION Research on contemporary vocabulary shows that the lexicons of various languages have expanded in recent decades as never before. This intensive phenomenon is often called the neological boom (English neological boom; see Заботкина 1989; Girčienė 2005: 78; Putilina 2013; Behera, Mishra 2013: 25; Кольцова 2017: 604–613; Martseva et al. 2018: 266). It is driven by the emergence of new ideas and values, rapid advances in science and information technology, and the intensified, multifaceted activity of society, as well as the development of social networks and other forms of electronic communication. The electronic environment in which online media, discussion forums, and social networks operate has also become a virtual space for the rapid creation and dissemination of linguistic innovations. Qualitative changes in vocabulary are also apparent: some previously marginal ways of renewing the lexicon have become more prevalent and commonplace (Lehrer 2006: 590). New lexical phenomena are studied and described by neology and neography, while new terms are studied by neonymy. The present study requires the terminology of neology; however, it varies considerably both in Lithuanian and foreign-language works and has not yet formed a clear system. In Lithuanian linguistics, the term neology itself is not yet very widespread and appears mainly in university textbooks (see Jakaitienė 2005: 251) and in a small number of individual studies of neologisms (cf. Mikelionienė 2000: 65; Aleksaitė, Murmulaitytė 2018: 238–239). In foreign linguistics, neology is most commonly understood in two ways: 1) as the totality of processes by which the lexicon is renewed through internal and external means, including the creation of words and meanings; 2) as a branch of lexicology that studies these processes—that is, matters related to neologisms (cf. Drutą 2013: 749). A broader understanding of neology has also existed (primarily in French linguistics), encompassing the full range of innovations at various levels that emerge in a language during a given period, including phonetics, morphology, syntax, etc.; over time, however, the concept came to be confined to the lexical level. Another way of extending the concept of neology is to include various activities related to lexical innovations and their functioning in society (the practical creation of neologisms; the collection, recording, and adoption into usage of linguistic innovations through language technologies; and so on; for more detail, see Drutą 2013: 750 and the literature cited there). Another term related to neology that merits brief description is neonymy. It is used in discussions of the renewal of terminology. At the same time, the distinction between neonymy and innovations in general vocabulary is emphasized. New terms most often arise through the deliberate efforts of specialists in a particular field 82 Rita Miliūnaitė Neologijos terminija ir Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyno praktika owing to the need to name a new object or phenomenon and taking into account the system of existing terms (Drutų 2013: 753–754; Humbley 2018: 437–452). Cf. the lists of terms from various fields regularly approved by the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language, for example, Lithuanian names for mushrooms: veltnuotė, voilnuotė, šeriuotė; šakotgrybis, žaliagrybis, kristalgrybis, ryškiagrybis, etc.1. Such lexical units are more stable than neologisms in the general lexicon, some of which emerge spontaneously as the result of individual creativity and may circulate in various forms of expression, including stylistically marked ones. Cf. the forms recorded in use for the loanword influenceris, -ė 2: įtakdarys, -ė, įtakininkas, -ė, įtakotojas, -a, įtakiukas, -ė, įtakotukas, -ė, įtakonėsis, -ė; nuomonės formuotojas, -a, nuomonės lyderis, -ė. Neology is closely related to neography (also called neolography; see Jakaitienė 2005: 251), or neological lexicography—the study, systematization, and description of changes in the lexicon (see Fjeld, Nygaard 2012: 221). These, too, are still rare terms in Lithuanian neology research, since no Lithuanian-language dictionaries devoted specifically to neologisms have been published. Cf.: the beginning of neography in Europe is considered to be the 1801 publication of a dictionary of French neologisms (see Jakaitienė 2005: 251); English neography began in the 1950s (see Barnhart R., Barnhart C. 1990: 1162–1163; Заботкина 1989); the first dictionary of Russian neologisms was published in 1971 (see Ефремов 2014: 14), and the Norwegian one in 1982 (see Fjeld, Nygaard 2012: 231). At the beginning of the 21st century, digital databases and dictionaries of lexical innovations began to be developed, with data automatically extracted from corpora or various internet sources. Research on the process of forming new words can be regarded in part as a branch of neology. In Lithuanian linguistic scholarship, this process and field of research are sometimes called naujadara3. If it were used more frequently, it would most likely become a term. 1 See: Recommendation “On Lithuanian Names for Mushrooms (Inoperculate Discomycetes).” – Protocol Resolution No. PN-8 of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language, 7 May 2020. Available online: https://e-seimas.lrs.lt/portal/legalAct/lt/TAD/7aac9992937511eaa51db668f0092944?positionInSearchResults=0&searchModelUUID=d26e15e8-65ed-4e77-92ec-5e1aeb2010e2 2 Influenceris, -ė “a person active in marketing who, through their renown, influences buyers’ choices; a well-known person, an opinion-maker, often used to promote someone’s ideas, especially on social media and in the media” (ND). 3 This new word began to be used around 2004, at the Jonas Jablonskis Conference, which was named “Lithuanian Word Formation” at the suggestion of terminologist Jonas Klimavičius, and occasionally appears in works describing research on neologisms (cf. Daiva Murmulaitytė’s article “The Formation of Lithuanian Compound Nouns and the Norms of the Standard Language.” – Baltu filoloģija 28(2), 2019, 107–122). Terminologija | 2020 | 27 83 Since 2011, the Lithuanian Language Institute has been systematically collecting (by hand, to be sure) and immediately publishing online the Database of Lithuanian Neologisms, which reflects the new vocabulary of the 21st century (hereafter ND; for more on the neologisms collected there, their presentation, and search options in the database, see Miliūnaitė 2015: 161–184; Miliūnaitė 2018: 1–21). By the end of 2020, more than 6,000 headwords had been lexicographically described in the ND and accompanied by usage examples. As information about Lithuanian neologisms and their use grows, research on them is also intensifying. Student research projects are also being written, and neologisms are increasingly discussed in general education schools and in the media. Efforts to better understand the process of neology and to investigate how neologisms arise, their selection criteria and possible classifications, semantic changes, and word-formation features also bring to light a shortage of and uncertainty in neological terminology. The fact that the terminological foundations of this relatively young branch of linguistics have not yet stabilized is recognized as one of neology’s own problems (cf. Мельник, Штехман 2015). This article, too, addresses problems in neological terminology. Here, the experience of neological terminology used in other languages, where research on neologisms is more developed, is useful. The aim of this article is to reconsider, from a contemporary perspective, the concept of a new lexical unit and discuss its key characteristics, which are often highlighted not only by the principal neology term neologism but also by other, more specific terms. At the same time, it seeks to identify new terminological needs arising in the practical work of managing Lithuanian neologisms. This should encourage the updating of Lithuanian neological terminology and facilitate communication in the discussion of neography-related issues. The article addresses the following objectives: 1) to examine how neologisms are defined in selected Lithuanian and foreign lexicographic sources; 2) to identify the essential features that shape the concept of a neologism, on the basis of Lithuanian and foreign linguistic literature and empirical data on neologisms; 3) to explain the meanings of the neology terms neologism, protologism, prelogism, occasionalism, ephemerism, paleologism and several others, and to demonstrate their diversity and problems of use in light of the practical needs involved in managing Lithuanian neologisms. 84 Rita Miliūnaitė Neologijos terminija ir Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyno praktika Although the naming of different types of neologisms is closely related to the problem of their structural classification (according to how neologisms arise or are formed), this issue is not examined in greater detail in the article, since it relies on traditional terminology used to describe linguistic phenomena (cf. borrowings, calques, abbreviations, etc.). The methods used in the article are analytical, comparative, and descriptive. The main source of neologism data is the aforementioned ND, compiled by the article’s author and continually supplemented and updated together with Agne Aleksaite. The article could be useful not only to researchers of new vocabulary and word-formation tendencies who use this database, but also to researchers of terminology in various fields and to terminographers, since the evolving terminology of every language or field falls within the domain of neology. The article consists of four parts, which examine the terms used to name neologisms according to various characteristics of neologisms. 1. THE CONCEPT AND DEFINITIONS OF A NEOLOGISM The most general term for new lexical units in Lithuanian is naujažodis, with its international equivalent, an absolute synonym (doublet), neologism. Neologisms are, however, regarded as part of an even higher-level systemic category—lexical innovations—in an attempt to distinguish genuine neologisms, which eventually become established in the lexical system of a language, from individual lexical units created in speech for a specific situation and disappearing after a while, as well as other accidental lexical innovations (see Dzhabrailova, Rybakova 2019: 20). This narrower concept of a neologism makes sense when the process of neology is viewed diachronically, once the entire trajectory of a neologism—from its emergence to its inclusion in dictionaries—is clear. In a synchronic perspective, it is often impossible to predict the subsequent fate of a newly emerged lexical unit; therefore, this article adopts a broader concept of neologism, which also includes individual, situation-specific new words. Furthermore, when the automated extraction of neologisms from large data collections mentioned in the article’s introduction is applied, the initial extraction results, not yet reviewed by researchers, include lexical units generally termed neologism candidates in both foreign and Lithuanian neology. The word neologism entered Lithuanian through intermediary languages from late-eighteenth-century French, where the word néologisme is attested, its Terminologija | 2020 | 27 85 turn in its origin is Greek: neos “new,” logos “word” (see MW; OLD). Thus, etymologically, a neologism, or new word, can be defined as any “word newly appearing in a language.” The main difficulty lies not in the form of the term neologism (new word), but in its content. Foreign linguistic works devoted to neology generally acknowledge that the very concept of a neologism has changed over time—from a newly emerging word naming a new reality to a complex new sociopsycholinguistic phenomenon—and remains vague, imprecise, and subject to differing interpretations (cf. Fjeld, Nygaard 2012: 222; Drutė 2013: 751). It is therefore unsurprising that neologism is defined similarly in many sources (with little deviation from its original etymological meaning), while the concept it denotes is interpreted differently, and sometimes even contradictory positions are encountered. Let us examine how neologisms (new words) are described in the principal Lithuanian lexicographic sources (see Table 1) and several other linguistic works. Table 1. Definitions of the terms neologism and new word in Lithuanian lexicographic sources (listed alphabetically by abbreviation) ŠALTINIAI NEOLOGIZMO APIBRĖŽTYS NAUJAŽODŽIO APIBRĖŽTYS DLKŽ7i (2015) neologizmas (2) lingv. naujažodis naujažodis (1) lingv. naujas žodis (naujadaras ar skolinys), neologizmas KTŽ (1990) neologizmas, naujažodis (неоло-изм, неологизм) Naujas kalbos žodis, atsiradęs morfologinės žodžių darybos būdu (ansamblietis, mėnuleigis, priešoperacinis, -ė, puolūš, -i), darant santrumpas (autokelias, pram-prekyba, telelaida), skolinantis leksemas iš kitų kalbų (kosmonautas, lauvsanas, mazeris, telereportažas) ir pan. <…>4. naujažodis žr. neologizmas. 4 Šią apibrėžtį KTŽ toliau išplėsta išsamesniu paaiškinimu, kaip atsiranda neologizmų, kaip jie funkcionuoja vartosenoje ir kt. 86 Rita Miliūnaitė Neologijos terminija ir Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyno praktika ŠALTINIAI NEOLOGIZMO APIBRĖŽTYS NAUJ AŽODŽIO APIBRĖŽTYS LKE (2008) neologizmas, naujažodis, – kiekvienas naujai atsiradęs žodis. Dažniausiai tai arba ↗naujadaras (pvz., ātmušas ‘atrama sulaikyti vagონams gale kelio’, dūrinys ‘sudurtinis žodis’ <...>, arba naujas ↗skolinys (pvz., bიონika ‘mokslas apie organizmų veiklos principų taikymą mechanikoje’ <...>.5 [Atskiro straipsnio nėra, naujažodis pateikiamas tik neologizmo straipsnyje kaip sinonimas. – Aut. past.] LKŽ6 neologizmas sm. (2) DŽ lingv. naujai atsiradęs, bet neįsigalėjęs kalboje žodis, naujadaras.7 naujažodis sm. (1) K.Būg, NdŽ; EncV309 žr. naujadaras 1. naujadaras sm. (1) 1. Jn lingv. naujai sudarytas, bet neįsigalėjęs kalboje žodis, neologizmas ŠŽe (2015) neologizmas 2 → naujadaras naujažodis 1 → naujadaras naujadaras 1 (naujai sudarytas žodis) – neologizmas, naujažodis knyg. TŽŽ (2013) neologizmas [↗ neo + gr. logos – žodis] 1. naujadaras, kalboje atsiradęs naujas žodis arba žodžių junginys 2. psich. psichikos ligonio sudarytas beprasmiskas naujažodis 3. 3–5 m. vaikų sukurtas naujažodis jiems dar nežinomiems reiškiniams apibūdinti. [Naujažodis vartojamas kaip neologizmo sinonimas 2-a ir 3-ia reikšme. – Aut. past.] 5 Prie šios apibrėžties pateikiamas platesnis paaiškinimas: „Palyginti atsitiktiniai tėra dar kaip kitaip naujai atsiradę žodžiai – arba dėl ryškios semantinės raidos (tada susidaro semantiniai homonimai <...>), arba dėl žodžių kūrybos (tai onomatopėjiniai, garsų mėgdžiojamieji žodžiai; prie jų būtų galima skirti ir dirbtinai sukurtuosius jungiant atskirus kalbos garsus, arba dėl ↗kontaminacijos. Kitiems [neologizmas] gali būti ir naujas pastovus žodžių junginys, frazeologizmas. Kartais [neologizmo] terminas vartojamas dar plačiau – juo vadinama kiekviena kalbos naujovė, ir tada jis tampa termino ↗inovacija (kalbos, lingvistinė) sinonimu.“ (LKE 2008: 369). 6 Knyginiame šio šaltinio leidime neologizmo ir naujažodžio straipsniai pateikti 8-ame tome (1970). 7 Beje, LKŽe (skaitmeninio formato) neologizmo straipsnyje žodis „naujadaras“ atskirtas ne kabliataškiu, o kableliu (greičiausiai dėl teksto skenavimo paklaidos). Tačiau apibrėžtyse tokiais atvejais kablelį ir kabliataškį galima interpretuoti skirtingai: kableliu paprastai atskiriami artimi sinonimai, kabliataškiu – labiau semantiškai nutolę (galintys turėti skirtingų atspalvių) prasminiai apibrėžties dėmenys. Terminologija | 2020 | 27 87 Aiškinantis naujažodžio sampratą, pravartu žvilgterti ir į kelis dažnai cituojamų autoritetingų autorių darbus. Vinco Urbučio monografijoje Žodžių darybos teorija teigiama, kad „[k]iekvienas naujai pasirodęs žodis gali būti vadinamas naujažodžiu, arba neologizmu. Tačiau ne kiekvienas naujažodis kartu yra naujadaras“. Toliau glaustai apibūdinami pagrindiniai naujažodžių atsiradimo būdai – skolinimas, semantinė raida bei naujų žodžių (naujadarų) sudarymas iš jau esamų kitų žodžių (Urbutis 2009: 36). Evalda Jakaitienė studijų knygoje Leksikografija (Jakaitienė 2005: 250–251) naujažodžius apibrėžia taip: Naujažodžiai, arba neologizmai, yra žodžiai, atskiros jų reikšmės ar žodžių junginiai, atsirandantys dėl visuomeninių santykių kitimo, mokslo, technikos, kultūros pažangos ir visuomenės suvokiami kaip nauji, neįprasti, dar neprigiję ir nepaplitę. Tie iš jų, kurie pasirodo esą reikalingi ir geriausiai atitinką kalbos dėsnius, išplinta, patenka į aktyviąją vartoseną ir paliauja būti neologizmais.8 Pirmiausia minėtuose lietuviškuose šaltiniuose į akis krinta nevienodas terminų naujažodis – neologizmas – naujadaras santykis. Daugeliu atvejų naujažodis ir neologizmas pateikiami kaip absoliutieji sinonimai (dubletai), iš kurių pirmenybę linkstama teikti lietuviškajam naujažodžiui, o naujadarų žymima sąvoka laikoma esančia žemesnio lygmens, t. y. įeina į platesnės apimties naujažodžio sąvoką. Tik dviejuose ankstesniuose šaltiniuose – LKŽ ir jo pagrindu sudarytame SŽe (1-as knyginio varianto leidimas 1981 m.), kiek galima spręsti iš straipsnių pateikimo, naujažodis (neologizmas) ir naujadaras laikomi lygiavertės apimties sąvokomis. O tai jau neatitinka tikrovės. Ką rodo minėtų šaltinių duomenys apie naujažodžio sampratą? Apibrėžiant naujažodį, iškeliami tokie svarbiausi šios sąvokos aspektai: 1) naujažodžio, kaip kalbos reiškinio, naujumas, neįprastumas kalbinei bendruomenei; 2) naujažodžio, kaip leksikos vieneto, forma; 3) naujažodžių funkcionavimo ypatumai (atsiradimo priežastys, būdai, funkciniai požymiai). Trumpajai naujažodžio apibrėžčiai sudaryti dažniausiai naudojami trys semantiniai dėmenys: kas? (tam tikras leksikos vienetas) + koks? (naujas) + 8 Toliau šiame šaltinyje pateikiama naujažodžių klasifikacija pagal inovacijų tipus, kilmę, darybą, funkcijas ir vartoseną. 88 Rita Miliūnaitė Neologijos terminija ir Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyno praktika kaip atsiradęs? (skolinimo, vertybos, darybos arba semantinės raidos būdu). Enciklopedinėse apibrėžtyse šios ypatybės aiškinamos išsamiau. Užsienio leksikografijos šaltiniuose ir neologijai skirtoje literatūroje nauja-žodžio (neologizmo) samprata iš esmės nesiskiria nuo lietuviškųjų šaltinių (žr. 2-ą lentelę). 2 lentelė. Termino neologizmas apibrėžtys skaitmeniniuose užsienio leksikografijos šaltiniuose ŠALTINIAI NEOLOGIZMO APIBRĖŽTYS CED neologism 1. a newly coined word, or a phrase or familiar word used in a new sense 2. the practice of using or introducing neologisms (Collins English Dictionary) neologism A neologism is a new word or expression in a language, or a new meaning for an existing word or expression. Synonyms: new word, buzz word [informal], coinage, new phrase (COBUILD Advanced English Dictionary) MD neologism a new word or expression, or an existing word used with a new meaning MW neologism 1. a new word, usage, or expression // technological neologisms 2. psychology: a new word that is coined especially by a person affected with schizophrenia and is meaningless except to the coiner, and is typically a combination of two existing words or a shortening or distortion of an existing word OLD neologism a new word or expression, or a new meaning of a word VPSV neologisms sk. jaunvārds jaunvārds, neologiżms Žodis, paprastai padarytas pavadinti iki tol nežinomai ar svetimos kilmės žodžiu žymimai sąvokai, aktualiai konkrečiu kalbos vartojimo laikotarpiu.9 9 Ačiū Daivai Murmulaitytei už apibrėžties vertimą iš latvių kalbos. Šio žodyno straipsnyje toliau pateikiama skirtingiems laikotarpiams būdingų naujažodžių pavyzdžių, parodoma jų dinamika ir kalbos vartojimo sritys, kuriose naujų žodžių atsiranda dažniausiai. Terminologija | 2020 | 27 89 ŠALTINIAI NEOLOGIZMO APIBRĖŽTYS НCИC НЕОЛОГИ’ЗМ [нео… + гр. logos слово] – вновь появившиеся в языке слово или оборот речи, а также новое значение старого слова, обозначающие новые либо уже существующие понятия, предмет, явления (напр.: разрядка, черный ящик, луноход, зимник, фломастер и др.). СЛТ НЕОЛОГИЗМ (новое слово) англ. neologism, фр. néologisme, нем. Neologismus, Neubildung, исп. neologismo. 1. Слово или оборот, созданные (возникшие) для обозначения нового (прежде неизвестного) предмета или для выражения нового понятия, Русск. лавсан. 2. Новое слово или выражение, не получившее прав гражданства в общенародном языке и потому воспринимающееся как принадлежащее к особому, нередко сниженному стилю речи, Русск. зеленокудрые, акростишействовать, кисляйство, молоткастый.10 ТС НЕОЛОГИ’ЗМ, -а, м. В языкознании: новое слово или выражение, а также новое значение старого слова. Taigi užsienio leksikografijos šaltiniuose neologizmo apibrėžtyse iškeliami tie patys naujažodžių apibūdinimo aspektai: naujumas, formos ir funkcijų bei vartojimo ypatumai. Skiriasi tik detalės (ne visada į naujažodžio sąvoką įtraukiamas naujadaro ar naujos žodžio reikšmės dėmuo ir pan.). Daugiau įvairovės esama kalbotyros literatūroje. Pavyzdžiui, kai kuriuose prancūzų neologijos tyrimuose naujažodis laikomas daugiareikšmiu žodžiu ir apibrėžiamas kaip turintis tris reikšmes (žr. Drutą 2013: 751 ir ten nurodytus prancūzų leksikografijos veikalus): 1) naujas žodis, paskolintas iš kitos kalbos; 2) žodis, kuris jau egzistuoja kalboje, įgavęs naują reikšmę; 3) sukurtas naujas žodis, kuris suprantamas tik jo kūrėjui (atsiradęs paprastai kaip šizofrenijos padarinys). Beje, psichologijoje vartojamą naujažodžio reikšmę, kaip matyti 1-oje lentelėje, nurodo ir lietuviškasis TŽŽ: „psichikos ligonio sudarytas beprasmiškas naujažodis“, taip pat prie naujažodžių šiame šaltinyje priskiriami ir pavieniai vaikų naujadarai. Pastarosios naujažodžio reikšmės yra pakraštinės ir tokie nauji žodžiai paprastai paliekami už neologijos tyrimo ribų. Toliau straipsnyje svarbiausi naujažodžio sąvokos aspektai aptariami išsamiau. Kartu išaiškėja papildomų naujažodžio sąvokos ypatybių, pagal 10 Toliau šiame šaltinyje apibūdinamos įvairios naujažodžių rūšys (pvz.: stilistiniai naujažodžiai, potencialieji žodžiai ir kt.), pateikiama pavyzdžių. 90 Rita Miliūnaitė Neologijos terminija ir Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyno praktika kurias naujažodžius galima skirstyti į smulkesnes rūšis ir jas įvardyti skirtingais terminais. 2. THE PROBLEM OF THE NOVELTY OF NEOLOGISMS The essential feature of a neologism, encoded in the first constituent of the compound term naujažo-dis, is novelty, that is, the emergence of a word (or another lexical unit) that had not previously existed in the language. However, this feature alone is rather indeterminate: new is relative, since it is a phenomenon that changes over time (Fjeld, Nygaard 2012: 223) and requires further specification: 1) What is the reference point for novelty? 2) How long does novelty last, and when does it end? In the textbook Leksikologija, E. Jakaitienė also notes that novelty may be understood too subjectively; therefore, “neologisms are lexical units (words and their meanings) that exist at a certain historical point and were absent in an earlier period of language development” (Jakaitienė 2010: 203, 205–206). Thus, defining neologisms requires researchers to establish a specific, longer or shorter period of language use. This is also indicated in Kalbotyros terminų žodynas (hereafter KTŽ): The concept of a neologism is limited with respect to time and usage. There are no neologisms in a language in general; rather, one speaks of the neologisms of a particular era, century, decade, literary language¹¹, functional variety, or individual language user—for example, neologisms in sixteenth-century Lithuanian writings, neologisms of the “Aušra” period in the Lithuanian language, J. Jablonskis’s neologisms, and so on. The electronic search tool in Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (hereafter LKŽe) finds 3,037 headwords marked “neol.”, meaning “neologism.” A substantial number of these are terms from various fields, recorded in the Lithuanian press of the late nineteenth century and writings of the early twentieth century, which were created in response to efforts to purify the Lithuanian language. They remained neologisms of that period because they did not spread more widely and were outcompeted by other variants. A few examples: eismėmokslis (neol.) noun (1) NdŽ¹² physics kinematics. ėmyba (neol.) feminine noun ability to memorize: Davyba and ėmyba constitute the domain of peripheral (external) mental functions EncVl197. Children’s ėmyba is more intense than that of the elderly Enc. 11 The established term at present is standard language. 12 Abbreviations are as in the source. Terminologija | 2020 | 27 91 nature science (neol.) fem. A1884,199 natural science. steam gauge (neol.) masc. L677 manometer. language researcher (neol.) common gender language researcher, linguist: Nearly all language researchers acknowledge that there have been vowels of twofold origin a K.Būg. About... whether there would be (alongside būtumei) language researchers have so far still not elucidated anything LTII162. spark extinguisher (neol.) fem. (1) VĮ, NdŽ technical spark arrester. breath disease (neol.) fem. (1); rš medical bronchitis. In attempting to define the “newness” component of the concept of a neologism, linguistic literature generally relies on two criteria—the sociopsychological and the lexicographic. First, this concerns the “sense of newness” that language users experience when encountering a word they have not heard before, since neologisms are characterized by relative unfamiliarity (strangeness) (Barnhart R., Barnhart C. 1990: 1159)—until the connotation of newness fades and the word becomes part of the actual language norm. This criterion is rather subjective if we consider individual language users and their differing linguistic experience13. The word’s newness must be perceived by the majority of language users in a particular period, whose linguistic experience constitutes a collective linguistic consciousness (cf. Fjeld, Nygaard 2012: 223), but there are no reliable ways to establish this perception (surveys of individual language users cannot encompass the entire process of neology). It should be added that, at times, narrowly used terms encountered in everyday contexts seem new and unfamiliar to ordinary users, even though they may have existed in specialist language for a long time. The same may happen with archaisms, which people may sometimes mistake for neologisms (for example, visitors to ND have submitted the word nepuotis ‘son; daughter’). Over time, a neologism either undergoes socialization and lexicalization and ceases to be new, or remains uncommon and becomes merely a fact of usage; if it is not recorded anywhere, it disappears altogether. Second, a lexicographic criterion is often applied to identify neologisms. Most lexicographers agree that a word or phrase is new if it is absent from the principal dictionaries of a language (Barnhart R., Barnhart C. 1990: 1160). Once a word ceases to be an individual act of use and recurs in usage, it undergoes a longer or shorter process of becoming established in society- 13 This also depends on such a sociolinguistic factor as the age of language users. For example, if a word, say, hamburger, appeared when a person already had extensive linguistic experience, it may be perceived as new for a long time; but if a child has heard the same word from an early age, they will not regard it as a neologism, even though both language users live in the same synchronic period of the language for some time. 92 Rita Miliūnaitė Neologijos terminija ir Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyno praktika over a certain period (which usually depends on the frequency and spread of a word’s use) and enters general dictionaries, it is no longer considered a neologism (Drutą 2013: 752). Because novelty itself is rather indeterminate, and because of various lexicographic problems, it is not entirely possible to establish the precise set of neologisms for any given period, even with comprehensive corpora. Moreover, it should be borne in mind that neologisms, as the most dynamic stratum of language, may pass through several stages of existence, but the characteristics of each stage’s functioning depend on the needs of society: The fate of neologisms, like that of other words in a language, varies: some spread rapidly through the language and quickly lose their sense of novelty in users’ minds; others remain lexical variants for a long time; and still others fail to become part of the language, remaining forever merely words of a particular text or author. (KTŽ) It is not easy to answer the question of how long a word remains new and when its novelty ends. There is no consensus on this issue in the linguistic literature. Several more complex cases are discussed below. When compiling ND data, unusualness is the first step in identifying a neologism: if a linguistic unit catches the eye of language researchers with linguistic experience or of ND visitors (those proposing neologisms) as something previously unheard of, it may be a neologism, in which case other verification and selection criteria are applied. At this stage, when a neologism is only a likely candidate, researchers of Lithuanian neologisms sometimes jokingly, in a working context, call it a word that has not attained terminological status naujaradas14. The lexicographic criterion is usually associated with language use during a specified period, which can best be represented by dictionaries and, in the digital age, by vast collections of electronic language data such as corpora. Thus, manually or automatically, one checks whether a word (or word meaning) is recorded in the principal dictionaries of the language. When creating ND, it was necessary to determine the period whose neologisms it would cover and the related reference lexicographic sources. The beginning of the 21st century was chosen as an approximate point of reference, along with several principal Lithuanian dictionaries published around that time: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas (the 6th edition (3rd electronic edition), published in 2006, which in fact draws on the 4th printed edition of 2000); the electronic Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (the illustrative examples in its latest volumes extend to 2001); 14 See ND: naujaradas “a newly found (previously unknown) word”. Terminologija | 2020 | 27 93 Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas (Alma littera, 2001) (plačiau žr. Milūnaitė 2015: 168–171). Kaupiant ND duomenis paaiškėjo, kad esama naujažodžių, kurie vartosenoje fiksuoti XX a. pab., tačiau į minėtus žodynus dar nepateko. Tai nėra keista, nes dėl naujažodžio atsiradimo laiko neografijoje dažniausiai esama nežinios – ar žodis negalėjo būti kur nors fiksuotas anksčiau, nei pavyko jį aptikti. Taigi kai kuriais atvejais į ND dedami ir XX a. pab. naujažodžiai, nes buvo netikslinga juos išleisti iš akių kaip iki tol leksikografiškai iš viso neaprašytus. Daugėjant skaitmeninių kalbos duomenų ir tobulėjant kalbos technologijoms, naujažodžių atsiradimo laiką ilgainiui bus galima nustatyti vis tiksliau (plg. Ефремов 2014: 16). Over the nearly decade-long existence of the ND, the lexicographic context of the Lithuanian language has changed (more of the BŽ text has become publicly available; the 7th edition of the DLKŽ was published in 2012, with about 200 neologisms added at the end; its online version appeared in 2015; and a new edition of the TŽŽ was published in 2013). It was therefore important to maintain the ND’s principles for selecting neologisms while adapting flexibly to new circumstances. Nevertheless, as noted in foreign studies of neology and as the ND’s practice shows, the lexicographic criterion is not reliable in every case when recording neologisms. Its reliability depends most on the state of lexicography in a particular language (the period of language use covered by dictionaries and their comprehensiveness). Furthermore, in the pre-digital era, the scope of dictionaries was considerably constrained by their print format, which necessitated saving space; as a result, not all regular derivatives were included (Dzhabrailova, Rybakova 2019: 20). The absence of a word or one of its meanings from dictionaries may also be a lacuna15 (Fjeld, Nygaard 2012: 223)—because the word itself is rare or its meaning is overly specific and used in a narrow field, and sometimes simply because lexicographers have overlooked it. In view of these lexicographic factors, additional features are assigned to a small number of ND neologisms about which there are doubts or insufficient information, making it possible to filter these records. In traditional neology, such words constitute part of the non-neologisms. Perhaps the most common case of a false neologism is a word that is not new, since there is evidence that it was in use before the beginning of the 21st century, but was not included in the reference dictionaries. This may come to light entirely by chance or only 15 Cf. lakūnā (Latin lacuna ‘hollow; gap’) 1. ling. a gap, omission, or missing part of a text (TŽŽ). In Lithuanian lexicography, a lakūna is referred to in various ways—as a dictionary gap, hole, or lacuna. 94 Rita Milūnaitė Neologijos terminija ir Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyno praktika as a result of additional research into various sources of usage, so a neologism need not be assigned the feature “not new (unrecorded)” from the moment it is first included in the ND. In neology, words suspected of being neologisms but eventually identified as having existed for a long time (especially if rarely used) are sometimes called paleologisms (Behera, Mishra 2013: 27). Once it becomes clear that a word included in the ND is a paleologism, it is not hastily removed, so that the living process of neology is reflected and the lexicographic gaps of a particular period remain visible. For example, the word marsaegis (‘a vehicle for travelling over the surface of Mars and exploring the planet’) turned out to be such a case. These vehicles appeared in the world as early as the 1970s, but the word is still absent from Lithuanian reference dictionaries; evidence of its use in the Lithuanian press (e.g. in the journal Mokslas ir technika) can be found dating back at least to 1995 (see DLKT). Digitization of the supplementary card index to the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language has revealed further cases in which a word was not included in the reference dictionaries, although it was recorded in the card index (sometimes more than once). For example, the word daiktadėžė is absent from the reference dictionaries. The ND lists three meanings for it, one of which—‘a small compartment in a car’s cabin or interior, usually at the front, in front of the passenger seat, for storing various small items’—was already known in the second half of the 20th century (recorded in 1967 in the journal Mokslas ir technika) (see Fig. 1). Fig. 1. Card for the word daiktadėžė in the supplementary card index to the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (https://ekalba.lt) Terminologija | 2020 | 27 95 Words with usage evidence dating much earlier than the beginning of the 21st century have also fallen into a similar lexicographic gap: geoglifas (‘an ancient drawing preserved on a hardened ground surface’), pareidolija (‘a psychological phenomenon in which natural phenomena, random images, sounds, or objects are perceived as having the form or sound of some familiar phenomenon’), namotyra (‘the study of the history of dwellings, especially rural ones’), gaiviklis (‘a product that refreshes the air and gives it a fresh scent’), and others. Words marked “revived” in the ND may also be classified as false neologisms. Since the status of a neologism is tied to a word’s use during a defined period, a word used much earlier may at times have retreated into passive use for a long time. Speakers forget it as irrelevant (for example, when a particular aspect of life disappears), but under favourable circumstances it comes back to life or is borrowed anew, sometimes acquiring new nuances, and is then perceived as new. In this respect, revived words differ from paleologisms, whose use has not ceased. Can revived words be considered neologisms? Foreign linguistics generally answers this question in the affirmative (see Barnhart R., Barnhart C. 1990: 1160; Fjeld, Nygaard 2012: 223), noting that synchronically such a word qualifies as a neologism for inclusion in a dictionary describing the current state of a language, particularly if it was absent from the main dictionaries for a time. A good example is the word mokslintojas, -a, known in interwar Lithuania in the sense of ‘disseminator of science’. It was used by Juozas Šalkauskis in 1936, but was not recorded in dictionaries; in recent years it has been deliberately revived by a journalist seeking a one-word term for a science popularizer (science communicator) (for more, see ND). Of course, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a word has truly been revived or has been newly formed according to a typical derivational pattern and adapted to new needs, occasionally with a slight modification of meaning. For example, the recently used verb amžėti, a synonym of the verb senėti (senti) (‘to grow old’), is used euphemistically to avoid direct associations with old age, and the medical term amžėjimas derived from it (cf. English ageing) sounds new to present-day language users. However, the supplementary card index to the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language contains two dictionary cards with examples recorded from spoken language: įamžėti (‘to grow old’) and the similarly meaning suamžėti (‘to become childish with age’) (see Fig. 2). 96 Rita Miliūnaitė Neologijos terminija ir Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyno praktika Fig. 2. The entries for the words įamžėti and suamžėti in the supplementary card index of the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (https://ekalba.lt) There is no consensus in neology on the important question of when a word can be considered a neologism: as soon as it is coined, when it is first used, or only when it begins to spread in usage? E. Jakaitienė states that neologisms belong to those lexical units that are “just emerging and not yet widely used,” while “[w]ords that have entered active usage are no longer considered neologisms” (Jakaitienė 2010: 203, 205–206). Thus, according to this view, a word is considered a neologism from the moment it emerges and retains its status as new until it has become established in usage. According to another view, a newly coined word is not yet considered a neologism until it begins to be used independently of its author; in other words, until society demonstrates a need to use and disseminate the word. For such words, Terminologija | 2020 | 27 97 those that have not yet acquired the status of a genuine neologism or become more widespread, and that have been used only by their authors, a special term is used: protologism16. It was coined in the early 2000s by the British professor of Russian origin Mikhail Epstein (see MD: protologism). To draw a sharper distinction between protologism and neologism, it should be said that a protologism is only a potential neologism (a “hypothetical projection”): a word coined by its author in the hope that it will be used in a real-life situation. As a relatively new word, protologism as a term is itself still a neologism in Lithuanian linguistics—it has virtually no tradition of use; however, with the intensification of neologism research, it has begun to be used more frequently in recent years (cf. Aleksaitė 2018: 5–6). An even rarer term, used in some foreign studies of neology to describe newly emerged words that have passed the protologism phase but are not yet established as neologisms, is prelogism (see Anesa 2018: 41). It has not been found in Lithuanian linguistic works. Readers of the ND often take advantage of the opportunity to suggest adding to the database a neologism they have discovered in some source. Among the suggestions are words invented by the readers themselves, which are not attested anywhere else and are recorded not as evidence of usage, but simply as the aforementioned “hypothetical projection.” Such words remain only on the list of suggestions (which is also publicly available) and are not included among the ND neologisms. For example, išmafonas “smartphone”; brauknys “underscore (usually used in place of a space in programming)”; keleivožis “bus”; lindžius “pop-up ad,” and so on. They are assigned the status “unattested in usage,” without ruling out the possibility that they may become widespread someday. In neology, it is customary not to classify words coined by children as neologisms. Although readers of the ND who are parents sometimes suggest adding their children’s words to it (e.g., glanis “friend, companion”; sausryčiai “dry breakfast cereal,” and so on), this is an entirely separate phenomenon and field of research, bordering on developmental psychology and education. 3. THE FORM OF A NEOLOGISM AS A LEXICAL UNIT Alongside the question of how the newness of a neologism is understood, another, no less important question arises: which linguistic units are considered neologisms in neology? As can be seen from the definitions of a neologism presented in Tables 1 and 2 16 Protologism – from Greek prōtos “first, primary” + logos “word”. 98 Rita Miliūnaitė Neologijos terminija ir Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyno praktika In different sources, neologisms are most often understood to include not only individual words (lexemes), as would be expected from the etymological meaning of naujažodžio, but also more complex lexical units: stable word combinations (both compound terms and phraseological units) and, less often, abbreviations. Thus, a narrower or broader conception of a neologism is a matter of agreement and depends on researchers’ aims. Three types of neologisms are usually distinguished according to their form: 1) a word (e.g., aerogelis, tenesinas, sąžvelnis, irklentė); 2) a phrase, or neofrazema (see Fjeld, Nygaard 2012: 225–226) (e.g., socialinis dempingas, kūno rengyba); 3) an abbreviation (e.g., CEO, STEM, Wi-Fi, BDAR). By types of lexical innovation, new words (lexemes) and new word meanings (sememes) are distinguished (Jakaitienė 2005: 250). The ND also includes not only new lexical units (twiteris, asmenukė), but also new meanings of existing lexical units (e.g., in business, vienaragis “an innovative start-up company that, through rapid growth and attracted investment, grows into a company valued at more than USD 1 billion”; feniksas “a company that acts dishonestly, deliberately declaring bankruptcy to evade financial obligations, and ‘rising from the ashes’ under a new name”). Naujų reikšmių įgiję žodžiai kartais vadinami naujosiomis sememomis (Jakaitienė 2005: 251), semantiniais naujadarais (Jakaitienė 2010: 211), neosemantizmais (Fjeld, Nygaard 2012: 224–226) arba neosemais (Drūtė 2013: 756). 4. FUNCTIONAL FEATURES OF NEOLOGISMS Newly emerging words, like the lexicon as a whole, function as neutral language units (this is also characteristic of the special lexical stratum—the new terminology, i.e. neonimams, English neonym, otherwise neoterminams17, English neoterm) or acquire additional functional and stylistic features. Separate terms are used for some functionally and stylistically marked neologisms (see Aleksaitė 2018: 5), but they are not established in either foreign or Lithuanian linguistic scholarship. In addition, it is important to consider the logical basis on which they are distinguished and which conception of a neologism—narrower or broader—is adopted. 17 These or similar neologisms could not be found in Lithuanian linguistic scholarship; compare the Latvian term jauntermins, based on the English neoterm (see VPSV). Terminologija | 2020 | 27 99 The types of neologisms (usually, newly coined words) or concepts closely related to neologisms most commonly cited are stylistic neologisms, occasionalisms, authorial neologisms, individual neologisms, nonce formations, ephemeralisms, and potentialisms. However, the relationships among them are described rather confusingly, since the same term may be used to refer to different types of neologisms, or the same neologism may be called by several terms according to various features. The entry newly coined word in the KTŽ (whose equivalents in other languages are given in a broader sense than is currently customary, namely Russian неологизм, English neologism18) describes stylistic neologism separately (along with its synonyms individual neologism, authorial neologism) as “a new word coined by an individual author in a particular work, generally not used elsewhere.” Thus, stylistic neologisms are created and used for the sake of expressiveness (incidentally, in contemporary Lithuanian usage, new English borrowings increasingly serve this function too, when inserted into a text as quotations not because Lithuanian equivalents are lacking, but ostensibly for their persuasive effect). In this dictionary, occasionalisms are not classified as stylistic neologisms, but are described separately, although to a considerable extent they too can be regarded as stylistic neologisms. Occasionalisms (or occasional coinages) are defined as “usually unusually formed, one-off formations, created for the purposes of artistic typification, stylisation, or simply entertainment; their emergence is prompted by a desire for the unusual and the strange” (Jakaitienė 2005: 250–251); “they are words belonging only to a particular context, as it were frozen in the text (conversation or work) in which they were used” (Jakaitienė 2010: 207). V. Urbutis notes that occasional formations “depart to a greater or lesser extent from the word-formation system operating in the language: some violate the requirements of a word-formation type <...>, while others are distinguished solely by being formed according to non-productive or low-productivity types” (see Urbutis 2009: 322–327). E. Jakaitienė discusses occasionalisms among neologisms and newly coined words, whereas the KTŽ does not associate occasionalisms with neologisms at all: occasionalism 2, occasional word – оказионализм A word or phrase that is not characteristic of general language usage and occurs only once in a particular context. In terms of word formation, occasionalisms are atypical and individual <...>. 18 Cf. more precise equivalents of the Lithuanian term newly coined word: Russian новообразование, English (new-word coinage. 100 Rita Miliūnaitė | Neologijos terminija ir Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyno praktika The term authorial neologisms designates newly formed words—new coinages—according to their creator (cf. Jakaitienė 2010: 207). It is understandable that it is not always possible to establish who first came up with a given new word, but this applies especially to neologisms found in literary texts, whose author is known. Thus, it would seem that occasionalisms and authorial neologisms essentially designate the same object—a newly created word—while highlighting different features of it. However, there are also partial structural differences: occasionalisms are formed either on the basis of non-productive word-formation types or with marked departures from regular word formation (Martseva et al. 2018: 270). Authorial neologisms can also be created according to regular word-formation patterns. Some authorial neologisms become part of the lexical system of the language, but this is considered more of an exception. For example, the word laikraštiena, meaning “low-value, often tabloid, print media,” was coined in 1990 by the poet Jonas Juškaitis, according to ND data; over time it became so widespread and established in usage that it was included in BŽ. As print newspapers decline, this word may pass into the passive vocabulary, but ND also records neologisms formed according to this pattern and applied to digital media: internetiena, portaliena, etc. Authorial neologisms are also called individual neologisms, emphasising their distinctiveness and originality. They are described as words that are a phenomenon of speech rather than of language, and that are created by authors for specific purposes—to express new ideas and connotations (Martseva et al. 2018: 270)19. In cases where it is clearly known who the author of a neologism is (not necessarily a newly coined word—it may also be a borrowing coined by an author in another language and adopted into Lithuanian), ND assigns the word the label “authorial.” For example, båslikas, -à “lying sprawled helplessly at full length like a log”; čiulbingala “a warbling nightingale (the name of a carved work of art)”; glostinukas “a small work of art modelled through particular hand movements that stroke clay”; sveikoninė “another name for a hospital, when recovery and health are what one wishes to emphasise.” Related to occasionalisms and authorial neologisms are nonce formations (English nonce-formation, nonce-word)—new context-dependent words created for a single specific occasion. In this case, the term- 19Sometimes individual neologisms are also called by the term hapax legomena, used in corpus linguistics, which means that a word occurred only once in a given text or collection of texts. Cf. hapax legomenon, Greek for “said (one) time”:. Terminologija | 2020 | 27 101 nas emphasizes not the aspect of neologism authorship but the circumstances of its creation. Sometimes situational neologisms are not considered genuine neologisms (cf. Štekauer 2002: 97). In the ND, atypical, once-used neologisms are marked “isolated,” and, if the author is known, also “authorial.” Thus, an authorial neologism may also be isolated if it does not spread beyond the author’s texts. Stylistic neologisms include ephemerisms20. These are neologisms characteristic of certain periods of social development, usually associated with the names of well-known figures in politics or other fields and carrying a marked, more often negative, stylistic connotation (for more, see Заботкина 1989; Kostanian 2015: 3–9). They remain in use as long as the person whose surname the neologisms are derived from is active. However, it is important that understanding ephemerisms requires extralinguistic competence—awareness of current affairs in politics or other fields at a particular time (Kostanian 2015: 8). Sometimes ephemerisms are understood more broadly: their content is associated not only with political figures but also with significant events of a particular period (Заботкина 1989: 24). ND fiksuota nemažai tiek skolintų, susijusių su žinomais užsienio veikėjais ar įvykiais, efemerizmų (pvz.: trampokalipsė, putinomika, putirendumas, okupendumas, Lukašesku ir pan.), tiek lietuviškų, padarytų daugiausia iš politikos veikėjų pavardžių (pvz., iš sveikatos ministro Aurelijaus Verygos, garsėjančio nepopuliariais griežtais sprendimais dėl alkoholio kontrolės, koronaviruso pandemijos stabdymo, pavardės: veryganas, –ė; verygininkas, –ė; verygizacija; verygizatorius, –ė; verygmarinas; verygmetis; verygvalda ir kt.). Linguistic scholarship takes differing views of potentialisms (or potential neologisms, potential formations), which may be regarded as the opposite of occasional formations. According to V. Urbutis, “[p]otential formations are words of highly regular and productive word-formation types which do not enter the language as separate lexical units, but are fully predictable instances of those types and can be realized in speech at any moment when they are needed”; moreover, such a formation is “so natural and comprehensible that it is usually not perceived as a neologism even at the instant of its first occurrence in speech” (Urbutis 2009: 316–317). Perhaps for this reason, potentialisms are often not even considered neologisms. However, V. Urbutis also acknowledges that “there is no strict boundary between potential formations and all other typical 20 Cf. Greek ephemeros ‘lasting a day, short-lived’ (TŽŽ). 102 Rita Miliūnaitė Neologijos terminija ir Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyno praktika formations,” just as there are no “objective criteria for determining, in doubtful cases, whether a word belongs only to speech or has already entered the language” (Urbutis 2009: 316, 318). The ND does not aim to record every potentialism, as this would greatly expand the database and there would not be sufficient capacity to process the data. However, an effort is made to select those potential formations that have some additional characteristics. For example, the increase in nouns formed with the suffix -inė, which is used to form place names, indicates business expansion—the growing number of food outlets serving food denoted by various base words: hot-dog shop, falafel shop, yoghurt shop, kebab shop, popcorn shop, etc.; while nouns formed with the suffix -iena, which is used to form names for meats, reflect an offer of meat from exotic animals that had not previously been recorded in dictionaries: buffalo meat, kangaroo meat, crocodile meat, snail meat, bat meat, insect meat. The variety of names for newly emerging lexical units and their usage shows that the boundary between genuine neologisms and non-genuine ones is very indistinct and changes over time. The ND’s concept of a neologism encompasses not only genuine neologisms but also most of what are traditionally understood as non-genuine neologisms. Such a broad concept is appropriate given the specifics of compiling the database. The ND covers a period of a couple of decades in the life of the Lithuanian language synchronically, making it possible to observe some neologism dynamics: some new words are recorded only once, while others gradually spread in usage and, after some time, may be considered to have lost their novelty status (for example, they are included in the planned, gradually published Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian (BŽ); cf. newsletter, e-reader, drifting, etc.; thus, in practice, the ND is also one of the sources for the vocabulary covered by the new BŽ). The phenomenon of neologism formation itself is highly diverse and can be described by revealing different semantic, formal, and functional characteristics of new lexical units. The ND’s search functions make it possible to filter neologisms from the database according to various combinations and aspects of these characteristics; as the data grow, they also allow a more comprehensive picture to emerge of this interesting layer of constantly changing vocabulary, while enabling the search for new grounds for classification and the refinement of Lithuanian neology terminology. CONCLUSIONS As science in various fields rapidly develops, driving advances in information technology, and as diverse forms of social activity, social networks and other forms of electronic communication expand, the lexical strata of modern languages are also renew- Terminologija | 2020 | 27 103 ed frequently. neology and neography, which study and describe new lexical phenomena, are becoming increasingly promising branches of lexicology and lexicography, attracting considerable interest not only from scholars but also from the public, while the emergence of new terms (neonyms) prompts research into neonymy. Such research, in turn, requires the terminology of neology; however, this terminology varies considerably in both Lithuanian and foreign publications and has not yet formed a clear system. 1. An examination of the concept of the most important notion in neology—new word, or neologism—in Lithuanian and foreign linguistic literature and dictionaries shows that the synonymous terms used to define it conceal several internal and external contradictions. The concept itself is not clearly defined and depends on researchers’ choice (or agreement) as to which aspects of lexical form and content it encompasses: 1.1. New words are generally understood to include not only words but also other lexical units, such as phrases and abbreviations; existing words that have acquired new meanings—neosemanticisms—are also most often classified as new words; 1.2. The essential semantic component of the concept of a new word is novelty, but this gives a lexical unit only temporary status, for as long as it has not yet entered either active usage or general-language dictionaries and language users still perceive it as unusual. Both the category of “novelty” itself and the additional components of the concept of a new word can be defined only with reference to a specific, temporally bounded context in which the concept is used; 1.3. Traditional lexicography views new words statically—as the outcome of a particular period in the development of a language—and therefore distinguishes genuine new words, which are eventually accepted by society, become established in usage and turn into ordinary units of the lexical system, from non-genuine new words, which are merely phenomena of speech. 2. The essential features that shape the concept of a new word and its partial manifestations emerge when seeking answers to the questions of which language units are considered new words in neology, what serves as the baseline for determining the novelty of a lexical unit, how long this novelty lasts and when it ends, and what the most important functional features of new words are. 3. The nature of the data in the ND, which has been compiled at the Institute of the Lithuanian Language since 2011 and is continually updated online, and the practices used to curate it show that the traditional concept of a new word is too narrow for contemporary digital neography. Since the ND records, synchronically, the living processes of neology pro- 104 Rita Miliūnaitė │ Neologijos terminija ir Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyno praktika process, it is often unclear what will become of a newly detected lexical unit—whether it will remain a transient, situational phenomenon, or in time become part of everyday vocabulary, activate an entire derivational pattern, be included in general language dictionaries, and so on. Therefore, the broadest possible conception of a neologism, as a newly emerged lexical unit, has been deliberately adopted in the ND. 4. According to the traditional conception of a neologism, those neologisms that function only in speech, distinguished from genuine neologisms, can be described by various features based on different logical criteria (time of emergence, structural and stylistic characteristics, etc.): protologisms, prelogisms, occasionalisms, ephemerisms, paleologisms, stylistic, authorial and situational neologisms, potentialisms, and so forth. They can be regarded as types of neologisms understood in a broad sense. 5. As data accumulate and new language technologies are applied (automatic extraction of neologisms from large data collections), digital neography makes it possible to gain a more comprehensive view of this interesting layer of constantly changing vocabulary, while also exploring new bases for classification and refining the terminology of neology. ŠALTINIAI BŽ – Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, vyr. red. Danutė Liutkevičienė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. 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URL: http://science-education.ru/ru/article/view?id=21100 (žūrėta 2020-09-23). 106 Rita Miliūnaitė Neologijos terminija ir Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyno praktika TERMS OF NEOLOGY AND THE PRACTICE OF THE DATABASE OF LITHUANIAN NEOLOGISMS Summary As the renewal of vocabulary of contemporary languages is gathering pace, neology and neography investigate and describe its new phenomena, meanwhile new terms are the object of neonymy. This job requires the terms of neology, but they are rather varied in Lithuanian and foreign studies, and do not yet constitute a clear system. The article sets out to analyse how the major works of Lithuanian linguistics define the concept of neologism (and its equivalent in Lithuanian naujažodis). It reveals the content of the terms naujažodis, neologizmas, protologizmas, okazionalizmas, efemerizmas, paleologizmas, etc. and shows their diverse usage. It builds upon foreign lexicographical sources and studies on neology, as well as the experience of managing the Database of Lithuanian Neologisms, which has been compiled and continuously updated online since 2011. The definitions of neologism (Greek neos “new”, logos “word”) in Lithuanian and foreign linguistic sources show that this term has several underlying contradictions: 1) neologisms usually include not only new words but also other lexical units – word phrases, abbreviations as well as words which acquired new meanings, i.e., neosemanticisms; 2) the main semantic component of the concept of neologism is novelty, but this is a rather subjective feature; 3) in traditional lexicography the approach towards neologisms is rather static – they are viewed as the outcome of a certain period of language development; therefore, proper neologisms (Lith. tikrieji naujažodžiai), which are eventually accepted by the public and become commonplace units of the lexical system, are distinguished from improper neologisms (Lith. netikrieji naujažodžiai), which are only a speech phenomenon. The type of data collected in the Database of Lithuanian Neologisms and their management practice show that in contemporary digital neography the traditional concept of neologism is too narrow. As a live process of neology is recorded synchronically, it is often not clear how the existence of the new lexical unit is eventually going to evolve. Since the amount of data is growing and new linguistic technologies are applied (automated selection of neologisms from vast collections of data), digital neography enables us to improve the terms of neology. Gauta 2020-10-07 Rita Miliūnaitė Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius E. paštas [email protected] Terminologija | 2020 | 27 107