Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais

VAIDA BUTVYDIENĖ Vilnius Gediminas Technical University LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE TEACHING PROGRAMS IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS, 1915–1939 KEYWORDS: Lithuanian language teaching; Lithuanian language teaching programs; draft Lithuanian language teaching programs; program structure. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS In the first decades of the 20th century, when the ideas of structural linguistics advanced by Ferdinand de Saussure and his students—that language should be studied as a system (Pupkis 2005: 49)—prevailed in Western Europe, Petro Kriaušaitis (Jonas Jablonskis) established in Lithuania in 1901 A Grammar of the Lithuanian Language, thereby establishing the chosen written norm variant and carrying out the principal work of codifying the norm (Jablonskis [Petras Kriaušaitis] 1901). J. Jablonskis had begun this work while still living in Mintauja (for more on the Mintauja period, see Piročkinas 1977: 65–90; Čepaitienė 2010: 30–43). The lifting of the ban on Lithuanian-language publications created conditions for the further development of the functions of standard Lithuanian: the first Lithuanian-language programs for teaching Lithuanian were developed (hereafter, teaching programs), school textbooks and reviews of them were written, debates took place in the press, and the term written language was coined. During the 1930s and 1940s, several schools developed F. de Saussure’s ideas of structural linguistics in Western Europe, one of the most prominent being the Prague School. Consistently drawing on F. de Saussure’s principles, Prague linguists created a modern theory of language and established a distinctive methodology for describing language, in which the concept of standard language occupies an important place (Pupkis 2005: 49). The ideas of the Prague Linguistic School were disseminated by contributors to the Gimtoji kalba journal, who had returned from studies abroad and become acquainted with the latest approaches to language research and standardization of the period. Consequently, Lithuanian was standardized and the functions of the standard language developed on the basis of more clearly formulated standardization criteria (cf. “Influenced by modern linguistics, especially the Prague Linguistic School, linguists increasingly began to take account of the structural and functional nature of language.” Zinkevičius 1992: 267). Thus, in the first decades of the 20th century, Lithuanian linguists were most strongly influenced by F. de Saussure’s and his students’ ideas of structural linguistics and their structural approach to linguistic phenomena—as evidenced by J. Jablonskis’s early works. After Lithuania regained independence, links between contributors to Gimtoji kalba and the Prague Linguistic School became apparent, and theoretical insights into standard language were particularly influential. The criteria of purity and correctness that J. Jablonskis had followed remained important, but standardization became differentiated, new evaluation criteria emerged, and not everything was subjected to strict correction (for more, see Zinkevičius 1992: 267). BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 2 During the First World War, and especially after Lithuania declared independence, questions concerning the teaching of the Lithuanian language became particularly important in developing and disseminating the concept of national identity, as efforts were made to establish the status of Lithuanian as the state language and its use in society. The aim of this article is to examine the features of Lithuanian-language curricula for primary schools from 1915 to 1939. Objectives: 1) to discuss the situation of Lithuanian-language teaching during the period under study; 2) to describe the structure of the curricula; 3) to reveal the similarities and differences between the curricula. The subject of the study is the content of curricula written between 1915 and 1939 (four officially approved curricula are examined and compared in greater detail), together with a comparative analysis of the curricula. Reviews of these curricula published in the press are also discussed. 1. THE SITUATION OF LITHUANIAN-LANGUAGE TEACHING, 1914–1939 The development of Lithuanian-language teaching, like that of education as a whole, was interrupted during the First World War (1914–1918). During the war, about 60 schools, along with their teachers, withdrew deep into Russia, mostly to larger cities: Moscow, Petrograd, Tambov, Voronezh, and others. The Lithuanian Societies for the Relief of War Victims cared for the refugees through their branches (Karčiauskienė 2002: 21; Pukienė 2008: 17–27; Buivydienė 2013: 68–69). During the German occupation, before the occupation authorities had been established and consolidated, Lithuanians took the initiative to set up schools where all subjects were taught in Lithuanian. According to Zigmas Zinkevičius, “[i]t was not easy to expand education. There was a shortage of teachers, textbooks, curricula, and Lithuanian terminology for the subjects taught” (Zinkevičius 1993: 153). From 1917 onward, and especially after independence was declared, educational societies began to be established in Lithuania; the Lithuanian press revived and began to circulate again, and the Lithuanian journal Lietuvos mokykla (1918–1940) began publication. The Lithuanian Scientific Society took responsibility for school textbooks. For the first time in history, in 1922 Lithuanian became the state language1 (Zinkevičius 1992: 213). This greatly expanded the domains and functions of Lithuanian (in schools and in the administrative, political, social, cultural, and scientific spheres). Establishing the language’s state status primarily signified the state’s commitment to the language and to the community of people who primarily used it (Mikulėnienė 1998: 7–8; Pupkis 2005: 20; Vainiu­tė 2010: 25). According to Magdalenė Karčiauskienė, in interwar Lithuania the Ministry of Education did not strictly regulate school textbooks, but required that they be approved by the book-publishing commissions operating under the ministry. Textbooks prepared at the same time by different authors for the same subject and the same school year could be used (Karčiauskienė 2000: 41). After independence was restored, more Lithuanian primers of better quality began to be published in Lithuania. Their improvement was widely debated in the press (Jablonskis 1920; 1 The status of the state language was established in the Constitution of Lithuania on August 1, 1922 (Zinkevičius 1992: 213). BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 3 1920a; 1922, etc.; Murka 1920; 1923, and so on). In general, according to Eglė Paškevičiūtė-Kundrotienė (2009: 126), 1918 was the most productive year for textbook publishing2. In preparation for reform of the secondary school, the evaluation and reviewing of textbooks intensified considerably in 1925–1936. In 1929, directives issued by the Ministry of Education proposed publishing the Commission’s reviews of teaching materials in the press, organizing textbook competitions, and making a concerted effort to ensure that, in the future, textbooks for Lithuanian children would not be lacking in the Lithuanian spirit (Lomanas 1930: 6–7). Reviews of textbooks already published or still being prepared for publication, as well as topical articles on pedagogy, the Lithuanian language, education, and culture, were published extensively in the contemporary periodical press for Lithuanian educators: Švietimo darbas (1919–1930), Lietuvos mokykla (1918–1940), Tautos mokykla (1927–1940), Mokykla ir gyvenimas (1921–1941), Mokykla ir visuomenė (1933–1936), and others. Schools clearly felt the results of this work already in the mid-1930s. “Professional teachers had been trained, the content of curricula had stabilized, and original textbooks had been prepared, whose quality had changed considerably compared with the beginning of the period: the entire education system was united by educational aims and objectives that fostered the nation’s spirit, morality, social responsibility, and creativity,” states Jūratė Jagminienė (2013). Rygiškių Jonas (Jonas Jablonskis)’s Lietuvių kalbos gramatika (1922)3 had a major influence on Lithuanian primers and grammars in interwar Lithuania. It became the principal scholarly book for university students, gymnasium teachers, and authors of school textbooks. Other works by J. Jablonskis also influenced the standardization of the language: Lietuvių kalbos sintaksė, written and published as early as 1911 (Jablonskis [Rygiškių Jonas] 1911), and another book devoted to the study of syntax, published in 1928—Linksniai ir prielinksniai (Jablonskis [Rygiškių Jonas] 1928). Since, according to Z. Zinkevičius (1992: 153), syntax had been perhaps the weakest area of Lithuanian-language teaching before J. Jablonskis, these works were very valuable and necessary for authors of school textbooks. The need for textbooks in independent Lithuania was felt not only by J. Jablonskis: many educators and Lithuanian-language specialists set about writing primers, grammars for schools, and reading books. Some textbooks were reprinted and updated, but many new ones were also written. Extensive discussions took place in the press, and textbooks were reviewed. To the extent that he was able, J. Jablonskis reviewed textbooks for general education subjects, but undoubtedly devoted most attention to primers and native-language textbooks. 2 One reason for the extensive publishing was the establishment of specific payments for work completed: royalties for translators, including editing, were 75 Rub per sheet; for original authors, 112 Rub 50 kap.; and for proofreaders, 8 Rub respectively (Paškevičiūtė-Kundrotienė 2009: 126). 3 After the 1901 Lietuviškos kalbos gramatikos, in the summer of 1919 there appeared the Lietuvių kalbos gramatika. Etimologija. Pirmosioms mūsų aukštesniosioms mokslo įstaigoms., signed by Kriaušaitis and Rygiškių Jonas. Vilnius: Žaibo spaustuvė, 1918 (1919). According to Arnoldas Piročkinas, this book, signed under two pseudonyms indicating its connection with the 1901 grammar, did not become popular for the following reasons: Vilnius was occupied at the time of its publication, and three years later, in 1922, an improved version of the grammar appeared—Rygiškių Jonas’s 1922 Lietuvių kalbos gramatika. Etimologija. Viduriniems mokslo įstaigoms. Second edition. Kaunas–Vilnius: Švyturio bendrovės leidinys. BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 4 2. OVERVIEW OF LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE TEACHING PROGRAMMES, 1915–1939 During the war years, educators and linguists were concerned with the teaching of Lithuanian. There is evidence that two draft teaching programmes were drawn up in 19154. J. Jablonskis provides information about both programmes5 in Lietuvos balsas in an article published in 1915 (No. 4), “On the Lithuanian Language Programme for Our Schools” (Jablonskis 1915 [1933: 57]). The article criticizes the Lithuanian language programme for secondary educational institutions, approved by the Ministry6 in March 1915 (Программа литовскаго языка для среднихъ учебныхъ заведений). J. Jablonskis emphasizes in his article that this programme, approved by the Ministry of Education, “has nothing in common with the draft programme that a group of our teachers had worked out during the summer holidays” (Jablonskis 1915 [1933: 57]). Thus, another draft Lithuanian language programme had been drawn up, but unfortunately it was not approved. J. Jablonskis does not discuss this draft in greater detail or provide more precise information; in the article, he points only to the shortcomings of the approved 1915 programme: unsuitable textbooks (the following textbooks were criticized for incorrect language and content inappropriate for schools: Mūsų Dirva, Skaitymo knyga, Juozas Damijonaitis’s Trumpa lietuvių kalbos gramatika, Maironis’s Trumpa lietuvių rašliavos apžvalga, etc.); he regrets that the programme nowhere states that “the teacher should be concerned first and foremost with bringing to light in school the language of the people—the laws and rules of the people’s language—and that in school one should read and analyse with pupils especially those works and shorter pieces whose language is beautiful, simple, and entirely in keeping with the laws of the people’s language” (1915 [1933: 58]). It is criticized that the teaching programme lists too many Lithuanian writers (as many as 40), from the nineteenth century to the early twentieth century, not all of whom merit being read at school, especially for language development. The programme does not specify how many hours should be devoted to Lithuanian, nor does it discuss the requirements for Lithuanian language teachers (Jablonskis 1915 [1933: 58]). Thus, this review of the programme is interesting and valuable because it provides information not only about the two Lithuanian language teaching programmes of 1915, but also about J. Jablonskis’s conception of Lithuanian language teaching: the language of recommended textbooks should be beautiful and correct, their content should meet pedagogical requirements, and the programme should help teachers “bring to light the laws and rules of the people’s language” (Jablonskis 1915 [1933: 58]); reading passages in textbooks should be written in natural, beautiful language (according to J. Jablonskis, “those who write in artificial language <...> should have no place in a serious school,” 1933: 58); and the programme should specify the number of teaching hours. Some information about the unapproved 1915 draft Lithuanian language programme is provided in issue 19 of the journal Vairas (LD 1915: 310). A brief anonymous report states that a Lithuanian delegation, whose representatives were Yčas7, Antanas Smetona, and Stasys Šilingas, submitted to the Minister of Education “a Lithuanian language programme for secondary schools drawn up by a group of Lithuanian educators” (LD 1915: 310). The article discusses the situation of Lithuanian language teaching in schools to some extent, but does not examine the teaching programme itself in greater detail. In 1919–1920, steps were also taken to reorganize the school system, “which led to the creation of new programmes” (Salienė 2009: 31). In 1919, the first issue of Švietimo darbo published 4 Before these programmes, two Lithuanian language teaching programmes from the early twentieth century are known, written in 1906 and 1909 (PLK 1906; LKP 1909). See Buivydienė 2011; Buivydienė 2013 for further details. 5 The article was signed with the pseudonym Mokytojas. 6 The Ministry’s remit is not specified in the source. 7 Vardas nenurodytas. Tikėtina, kad tai buvo Martynas Yčas (1885–1941). BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 5 A temporary curriculum for elementary schools was published, and it also included a four-year Lithuanian-language program for the primary grades (PMLP 1919: 10–11); see Table 1. A year later, Švietimo darbe (RP 1920) published the Ministry of Education’s draft reform of general education schools. The reform proposal also presented a Lithuanian Language (and World Literature) program, which provided for the teaching of grammar, a brief overview of literary theory and written literature (grades 1–48), an overview of the history of Lithuanian literature, and the literary heritage of the early twentieth century (RP 1920: 25–26). According to Vilija Salienė, the program also had shortcomings, since it “did not sufficiently emphasize the relationship between Lithuanian and world literature, and the allocation of grammar and literature across the stages was uneven” (Salienė 2009: 31). A new Lithuanian Language and Universal Literature program was approved in 1923, but it was used only briefly (see Table 1). In 1929, a new Lithuanian Language and World Literature program was drawn up, in which, according to V. Salienė (2009), comparatively more attention was already given to general questions of teaching and education, and to scholarly and practical recommendations for teaching Lithuanian. The draft curriculum for the post-reform school was published in 1937 (VMP 1937). This curriculum devotes considerable attention to the standard language, its development, and its relationship to the pupils’ local dialect. Some subjects (dialectology and comparative Indo-European grammar) that were not closely related to the standard language were reduced9. The grammar material was presented coherently and systematically. Thus, a large number of varied and different curricula were written in a relatively short time (see Table 1). TABLE 1. Lithuanian-language curricula, 1915–1940 No. Title Features / description 1. Lithuanian Language Program for Secondary Educational Institutions, 1915. In March 1915, a Lithuanian-language program for secondary educational institutions was approved. J. Jablonskis’s review (Jablonskis 1915: 57). 2. Mokytojų būrelio sukurtas lietuvių kalbos programos projektas (Vairas, 1915, Nr. 19). In 1915, Vairas issue 19 (p. 310) reported that a Lithuanian delegation, whose representatives were Yčas, Antanas Smetona, and Stasys Šilingas, had submitted to the Minister of Education “a Lithuanian-language program for secondary schools drawn up by a group of Lithuanian educators.” 8 Under this new educational plan, “three levels of general education schools were established” (RP 1920: 17): four years of primary education were introduced, replacing two- and three-class primary schools, which were called small (elementary) schools; the second level was the intermediate school (equivalent, according to the authors, to a progymnasium), and the third was the large school (equivalent, according to the authors, to the upper grades of a gymnasium) (RP 1920: 17). The new educational plan was prepared in accordance with the Primary School Act adopted by the Constituent Assembly in 1920, which established four years of compulsory primary education. Under this law, rural areas mostly had three-department schools, while towns had four- or five-department primary schools with two parallel classes. As four-year primary schools were established, attendance became compulsory in stages, owing to the insufficient school network. Teachers’ work was supervised by a county school inspector appointed by the Ministry of Education. The Primary School Act was amended in 1925. The Ministry of Education’s centralized authority was strengthened. Municipalities were left responsible only for the material needs of schools. The new law established that primary schools could also have higher grades. Six-department primary schools began to be established in 1933. A new Primary School Act was issued in 1936 (for more detail, see Bukauskienė 1995). 9 Plačiau žr. (Salienė 2009). BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 6 No. Title Features / description 3. Pradedamųjų mokyklų laikinoji programa (Švietimo darbas, 1919, Nr. 1). The program was prepared by employees of the Ministry of Education (not named) and educators Murka and Vokietaitis, musician Tallat-Kelpša, and artist Sklerius10. The program covers four years of Lithuanian-language instruction. It specifies topics in reading, storytelling, writing, and grammar, and recommends textbooks and other teaching aids. 4. Lietuvių kalbos (ir pasaulio literatūros) programa (Švietimo darbas, 1920, Nr. 6–7). The Lithuanian-language program (for the second and third levels of schooling) is presented concisely; the entire language course is called grammar. Language instruction (Grade I) begins with phonetics (vowels, consonants, diphthongs). During the first school year, pupils are to study all parts of speech, the main parts of the sentence, secondary parts of the sentence (briefly), and main and subordinate clauses. In the second and third years, all parts of speech, sentence parts, and sentence types are to be studied. The fourth year is devoted to the history of the language (The More Significant Historical Moments in Our Writing (a brief historical overview of those moments), p. 24). In Grade Five, the program proposes reviewing and deepening language knowledge and briefly introducing dialects. No language topics are assigned to Grades Six and Seven. 5. Lithuanian Language and General Literature Program, Kaunas, 1923. New: literary theory is illustrated with examples from literary texts, and world literature is paired with Lithuanian literature by genre. 6. Lithuanian Language and World Literature Program, Kaunas, 1929. The grammar material is elaborated in greater detail, with specific aspects distinguished: for example, in Grade Eight, the fundamentals of comparative Indo-European historical grammar are to be taught. A more extensive Lithuanian literature program is provided. 7. Lithuanian Language and Literature Program (draft) (Secondary School Programs (drafts), Kaunas, 1937. Attention is given to the language, its history, and its relationship to pupils’ native dialect. Grammar material is presented sequentially and systematically. The program devotes considerable attention to stylistics; spelling is explained separately from morphology topics, together with punctuation. Stylistics includes a number of topics that today would be considered part of the vocabulary course (for example, loanwords and foreignisms in Grade Three); language topics are linked to the history of the language. 8. Lithuanian Language Program for Primary School (Primary School Programs. Draft Approved by the Ministry of Education), Kaunas, 193911. Programs for Grades I–VI12. The topics in the programs for Grades I and II are organized around three activities (speaking, reading, writing) and environmental studies topics; those for Grades II–VI are organized around speaking, reading, and writing. The number of hours per week is specified (from 8 to 5 hours per week). The notes explain that “the program indicates only the material itself. Its grouping and planning are the teacher’s responsibility” (p. 10). 10 The names are not given in the source. 11 In 1940, the approved Primary School Program (PMP 1940) was published on the basis of this draft; its Note to the Teacher states that the draft program had been narrowed somewhat (p. 7). 12 In 1920, the Constituent Seimas passed the Primary Schools Act, which established four years of compulsory primary schooling. The Primary Schools Act was amended in 1925. It stipulated that there could be primary BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 7 Thus, in 1915–1939, curricula for primary and secondary schools were developed intensively. The data in Table 1 show that a certain structure of the language course was taking shape in the curricula: phonetics, morphology, syntax, spelling, stylistics, and language development. The curricula differed, of course, in scope, the arrangement of material, and the distribution of topics. The 1937 curriculum reduced the number of subjects not closely related to the standard language and its teaching: there was less dialectology and, compared with the 1929 curriculum, less comparative Indo-European grammar. The 1937 curriculum devotes considerable attention to stylistics, and language subjects are linked to the history and development of language. Written assignments in the curricula are called compositions. 3. ANALYSIS OF LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE CURRICULA FOR PRIMARY SCHOOLS, 1919–1939 The Temporary Curriculum for Elementary Schools, published in 1919 (see Table 2), was important for language teaching, primary-school teachers, and textbook authors. It was the first Lithuanian-language curriculum for primary grades, designed for four years of instruction. The curriculum presents conversational topics in considerable detail (for example, topics for conversations in the first year: the classroom, pupils, the teacher, the school, the home, and other such objects, or pictures of them seen by children; the four quarters of the world and their perception at school, at home, and elsewhere, etc., p. 10), as well as reading, writing, and storytelling assignments (for example, readings and analyses of short stories, narratives, and fairy tales with simple content. Amusing retelling of what is read, and recitation from memory of short verses and fairy tales – in the second year, p. 10). Language-study topics are set out across all four years, with language knowledge deepened each year—thus, instruction is organized in concentric cycles (see Table 2). TABLE 2. Lithuanian-language teaching topics in the 1919 Temporary Curriculum for Elementary Schools13 Section Phonetics (pronunciation) Morphology (spelling) Syntax (punctuation) Parts of speech I (10 lessons per week14) Vowels, diphthongs, and consonants; understanding their hardness and softness. Pronounced “i”; softening “i”; long and short vowels and maintaining their length when pronouncing them. Sounds (p. 10) Words, syllables, marking sounds, uppercase and lowercase letters (p. 10). Sentences (p. 10). schools and those with upper grades. Primary schools with six grades began to be established in 1933. The Primary Schools Act was adopted in 1936, retaining six years of primary education (Bukauskienė 1989: 10). 13The wording of topics and spelling here and below are retained in the original. 14 Number of lessons per week in a four-year, four-grade primary school (PMLP 1919: 21). BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 8 Section Phonetics (pronunciation) Morphology (spelling) Syntax (punctuation) Parts of speech II (9 lessons per week) Sound. Vowels and diphthongs; hard and soft, continuant and non-continuant consonants (p. 10). Word, syllable, letter (p. 10). Sentence; analysis of sentence elements by means of questions, without terminology. Period, question mark, exclamation mark, comma (p. 10). Nouns and adjectives, their gender (genders) and numbers. Verbs, their numbers, persons, tenses, and imperative and subjunctive moods (p. 10). III (6 lessons per week) Nasal vowels and y, e, ė, o, a in the endings of inflected parts of speech. Spelling of the little words ne, nė, nie, nei (p. 10). The sentence and its elements; naming sentence elements; direction and parenthetical words. Compound sentences and their punctuation marks (p. 10). Inflected parts of speech. Cases. Declensions. The verb. Conjugation and conjugation classes, excluding participles. In verb stems and endings: a—o—i, e—ė, i—y, u—ū. Participles, their tenses, spelling of endings, pronunciation of participles in the native and written dialects. Adverb; its spelling. Prepositions and conjunctions. Prepositions and prefixes. Suffixes el, ėl, yn, in, ūn, ing (p. 10). IV (4 lessons per week) Word structure: stem, prefix, suffix, ending. Simple and compound words. Word families (p. 11). Adverbs of time, place, manner, cause, and purpose. Sentence parts expressed in several words. Understanding complex and compound sentences, main and subordinate clauses, and the use of punctuation marks (p. 11). All parts of speech and their forms. Participles, gerunds, and half-participles. The infinitive (and the supine) (p. 11). The topics presented in the curriculum show that, in the first grade of primary school, the authors recommend focusing mainly on teaching writing and reading, and on recognizing and distinguishing vowels, consonants, and diphthongs. Teaching the spelling of uppercase and lowercase letters is also proposed. From the second year onward, the curriculum already includes topics on teaching parts of speech and parts of the sentence, while continuing topics begun in the first year: vowels, consonants, and diphthongs are taught. In the third year, spelling and punctuation rules are covered, and teaching parts of speech and parts of the sentence is still recommended. In the fourth year, teaching word parts and more complex cases involving parts of the sentence is recommended; all parts of speech are reviewed BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 9 as well as topics on teaching participles, gerunds, half-participles, and the infinitive. The proposed instruction appears to proceed in cycles: for example, in the second year, parts of the sentence are studied without terminology, whereas in the third and fourth years the terminology is also taught; introduction to parts of speech is likewise proposed as a gradual process. It is possible that the curriculum authors were also familiar with the Lithuanian language curriculum developed by J. Jablonskis in 1909, since there are similarities (see Table 3). TABLE 3. Topics in the 1909 and 1919 Lithuanian language curricula for primary schools Year of study Lessons per week Jono Jablonskio’s curriculum (1909) Lessons per week 1919 curriculum I 3 Vowels and consonants. Softening of consonants before ą, o, ų (and ą, ų, ū). Use of į and y, as well as ū, e, ė. Diphthongs (ai, ei, au, ui), ie, uo. Pronunciation of ą, ę, į (in the pupils’ dialect and in the language of books). Dividing words into syllables and carrying them from one line to the next. Lowercase and uppercase letters. Stress marks (p. 1). 10 Language, sentences, words, syllables, sounds, notation of sounds, uppercase and lowercase letters. Vowels, diphthongs, and consonants; understanding their hardness and softness. The pronounced “i” and the softening “i”: long and short vowels and maintaining their length in pronunciation (p. 10). II 3 The sentence and its parts. Words denoting an object, its quality, and an action. Noun, numbers, genders, and case endings according to the questions. Pronouns replacing nouns. Adjective, its agreement with the noun in gender and number, and case endings according to the questions (adjectives are declined together with nouns). Verb, persons and tenses (simple), moods of expression. Prefix, its spelling together with the word and separately. Use of ą, ę, į, ų in the most important cases (in the middle and at the end of a word). Use of the period, question mark, and exclamation mark in the most important cases; colon (before a series of similar words and before foreign speech), commas (when introducing foreign words), semicolon. 9 Sentence, word, syllable, sound, letter. Vowels and diphthongs; hard, soft, continuant, and non-continuant consonants. Nouns and adjectives, their genders and numbers. Verbs, their numbers, persons, tenses, and imperative and subjunctive moods. Sentence; analysis of sentence parts by means of questions, without terminology. Period, question mark, comma (p. 10). BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 10 Academic year Lessons per week Jonas Jablonskis’s program (1909) Lessons per week 1919 program III 2 Proper and common nouns, nouns used only in the plural or only in the singular. Common-gender nouns. Adjectives, comparison of adjectives, simple and reduplicated adjectives15. Pronouns, their classes and declension. Numerals and their declension. Verbs16, all moods and tenses. Other parts of speech. The sentence and its parts: subject, predicate, object, and adverbial modifiers. Simple and compound sentences. 6 Inflected parts of speech. Cases. Declensions. Nasal ą, ę, į, ų in the endings of inflected parts of speech. The verb. Conjugation and conjugation classes, excluding participles. The vowels a-o-i, e-ė, į-y, u-ū in verb stems and endings. Participles, their tenses, spelling of endings, pronunciation of participles in the native and written dialects. The adverb; its spelling. Prepositions and conjunctions. Prepositions and prefixes: su, są, į, ant, pri, pry, prie, api, apy, at, par, per, nu, nuo; spelling of the particles ne, nė, nie, nei; the suffixes el, ėl, yn, in, ūn, ing. The sentence and its parts: naming the parts of a sentence; direction and parenthetical words. Coordinate sentences and their punctuation marks (p. 10). IV 4 Adverbials of time, place, manner, cause, and purpose. Sentence parts expressed by several words. All parts of speech and their forms. Participles, gerunds, and half-participles. The infinitive (and verbal adverb). Word structure: stem, prefix, suffix, ending. Simple and compound words. Word families. Understanding complex, compound, main, and subordinate clauses and the use of punctuation marks (p. 11). In both curricula, the first year includes teaching vowels, consonants, and diphthongs, and introducing cases of palatalization—important for teaching writing and reading; attention is also paid to correct pronunciation, and topics on writing uppercase and lowercase letters are included. Stress is not mentioned in the 1919 curriculum, either in the first year or in the four-year program as a whole. The second-year course differs most in scope: the 1919 curriculum proposes teaching vowels, consonants, and diphthongs, nouns, adjectives, and verbs, and introduces sentence parts, whereas J. Jablonskis’s curriculum covers nouns, adjectives, verbs, and pronouns— 15 Corrected. In the original: nouns. 16 Typographical error corrected: versksmažodžiai (= verbs). BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 11 …dž, spelling of prefixes. In both curricula, teaching punctuation is recommended in the second year. The 1919 curriculum devotes considerably more attention in the third and fourth years to practical spelling topics and word formation (for example, nasal vowels in the endings of inflected parts of speech. In verb stems and endings: a–o-i, e-ė, i-y, u-ū. Participles, their tenses, spelling of endings, pronunciation of participles in the native and written dialect. Adverb; its spelling, etc., p. 10). Thus, the 1919 curriculum is more oriented toward practical grammar17. VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 12 TABLE 4. Topics in the 1939 Lithuanian Language Curriculum for Primary Schools Section, number of hours Speaking Reading Writing Section I, 8 hours per week Children’s free-form storytelling and conversations between the teacher and pupils about interesting experiences, impressions, adventures, and everyday objects. Conversations while looking at pictures and drawings. Practice in listening attentively to the teacher’s reading (prose or poetry) and to stories being told. Attempts to retell short articles that have been read. Introduction to reading. Reading simple expressions and short articles from a primer. Reading longer short articles and easy poems (with and without preparation). Learning to recite one or two poems and tell one or two short fairy tales. Observing the period when reading. Distinguishing long and short vowels by ear. Preparatory writing exercises to develop hand and eye coordination. Writing letters and words. Writing words and simple sentences from dictation and copying them. Forming and writing simple sentences. Capital letters after a period and in names; writing y, i, ū, u in words. Nasal vowels in case endings. The syllable o. Dividing a word between lines. Section II, 10 hours per week Children’s free-form storytelling about their experiences and impressions. Conversations while looking at drawings and pictures. Introductory conversations about the material read in class. Retelling based on questions provided and without them. Learning poems by heart, dramatization, and staging. Discussion of the content of short articles read. Telling folk narratives. Developing clear and loud speech. Correcting children’s speech defects. Reading aloud and silently short articles, poems, and folklore familiar to children. Observing commas, exclamation marks, and question marks when reading. Correct pronunciation of long and short vowels and diphthongs. Independent reading at home. Forming and writing short sentences. Collaborative (with the whole class) written description of a visible object and narration of a simple event. Answering questions in writing, both with and without prompts. Practice in correctly spelling words from dictation containing long and short vowels (i, y; u, ū, ų; e, ė; ę; a, ą), genuine diphthongs (ai, au, ei, ie, uo, ui), affricates (dz, dž, c, č), softening i before a, ą, o, ū, u, and j. Review of writing nasal vowels in response to the questions ką and ko. Practice writing e at the end of a word in response to the question kame. Practice checking where b or p, d or t, g or k should be written. Memorizing a few words with a nasal vowel in the root (for example, žąsis, ąžuolas, grįžo, drįso). Rules for writing capital letters. The difference between a sound and a letter. Vowels, consonants, diphthongs. Memorizing the alphabet. BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 13 Section, number of hours Speaking Reading Writing Word and syllable. Practice in identifying the stressed syllable of a word by listening. Grouping words according to the questions they answer: who? What kind? What does it do? (At the same time, note what words in each group mean and express—the name of a thing, a quality, an action.) The terms for noun, adjective, and verb. How words change when answering the questions: who, whose, to whom, whom, with whom, where? What kind, of what kind? and so on; what kind (feminine), of what kind? and so on; what does it do, what did it do, and so on. Copying and dictation exercises while learning spelling. Section III, 7 hours per week Children’s free narration of their impressions and experiences. Retelling the content of pictures. Recounting more interesting moments from books and newspapers read by the children. Discussion and retelling of material read in class. Dramatization and staging. Reciting poems. Solving riddles, explaining proverbs and sayings. Correct pronunciation of speech sounds. Reading stories, poems, and folklore aloud and silently, as well as excerpts from longer literary works. Exercises in expressive and graceful reading of verse and prose (punctuation marks, word and logical stress, adjusting the voice to the content). Independent reading. Forming and writing sentences. Written retelling of a simple event. Written retelling of a short article read. Spelling of voiced and voiceless consonants: b, p; d, t; g, k; z, s; ž, š. Spelling of the more important prefixes: į-, są-, san-, at-, ap-, už-, iš-, etc. Spelling of the more important suffixes: -elė, -elis, -ybė, -ynas, -imas, -umas, -ūnas, etc. Formation of words with prefixes. Spelling of words with consonant clusters: st-, sč-, št-šč, zd-zdž. Spelling of compound words. Spelling of nasal vowels (ą, ę, į, ų), except in participles. Inflected and uninflected words. Parts of a word: root, suffix, prefix, stem. Declined parts of speech. Noun, adjective, pronoun, numeral. Their types, genders, numbers, and cases. Declension (excluding pronominal forms). BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 14 Section, number of hours Speaking Reading Writing The verb, its persons, numbers, and tenses. The indicative mood of conjugation (excluding compound forms). Speech and the sentence. The period. Interrogative, exclamatory, and imperative sentences—a question mark or exclamation mark at the end of the sentence. Subject and predicate. Copying and dictations while learning spelling. Writing poems learned by heart from memory. Section IV, 6 hours per week Free narration of children’s experiences and impressions. Conversations about the content of books and poems read independently. Introductory conversations about texts read in class. Deeper examination of the texts read; description of the characters’ traits and the motives for their behavior. Concise narration of the content of a text read; reporting an event witnessed. Recitation from memory of poems and short excerpts of belles-lettres prose. Staging and dramatization. Expressive reading of various works of poetry and prose (works by well-known authors and folklore). Introduction to our prominent writers: Donelaitis, Daukantas, Valančius, Baranauskas, Basanavičius, Maironis, Vaičaitis, Kudirka, Žemaitė, Šatrijos Ragana, Lazdynų Pelėda, Vaižgantas, V. Krėvė, Biliūnas, Vienuolis, A. Smetona, Simonaitytė, Mykolaitis-Putinas, and others, by reading selected excerpts from their writings and presenting one or two characteristic details from their biographies. Improvement of expressive reading techniques. Independent reading. Written accounts of events experienced and lived through. Description of an object seen. Practice in writing a free composition. Practical writing: letters, requests, bills, postal money orders, etc. Review and further study of the grammar course covered: vowels, consonants, diphthongs and their types; stress and pitch accent; parts of the word; inflected parts of speech (declinable forms, including pronominal forms; the conjugated part of speech—the verb, with all moods, compound tenses, and reflexive forms). Participles and their spelling. Half-participles. Adverbial participles. Indeclinable parts of speech. The simple sentence. Subject and predicate. Secondary parts of the sentence. The comma in a simple sentence. Understanding compound sentences. The simplest cases of comma use in a compound sentence. Direct speech. Practice in distinguishing it. Writing poems and prose texts learned by heart from memory. BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 15 Section, number of hours Speaking Reading Writing Section V, 5 hours per week Discussion of works read in class: understanding the work’s ideas, character descriptions. Dramatization and staging. A concise retelling of the content of a longer work. A class presentation, following a prepared plan, about a completed outing, excursion, or the independent completion of another task. Silent and aloud reading of examples of our poetry and prose. Selected passages from Donelaitis’s “The Seasons”; Daukantas’s “The Character of the Lithuanians”; Valančius’s “Children’s Booklet”; “Palanga Juzė”; “Tales of Antanas Tretininkas,” Baranauskas’s songs and “The Forest of Anykščiai”; Maironis and others. Brief biographies of the authors read. Short stories and poems about the struggles for Lithuania’s Independence. Improvement of expressive reading technique. Memorization of selected examples of poetry and prose. Independent reading. Written retelling of an experienced event (without an outline). Short, independent essays on a topic studied. Essays based on a given outline. Collective (whole-class) planning and writing of an essay according to an outline. Free-form essays. Practical correspondence (repetition and supplementation of the material specified in the Section IV curriculum). Systematic review of the study of sounds and word forms (phonetics and morphology). Further study of spelling topics covered. Writing material learned by heart. Speech and writing. Dialect and standard language. Section VI, 5 hours per week Conversations on topics from works read and current events. A concise retelling of the content of a text read. Recitation of memorized poems and prose passages. Dramatization and staging. Class presentations, following a prepared plan, about a completed excursion, outing, or the independent completion of another task. Discussions on topics from works read. Introduction to the song, fairy tale, legend, riddle, proverb, saying, and folklore. Introduction to epic, lyric poetry, and drama. Understanding of rhythm and rhyme. Aloud and silent reading of examples of our folklore and excerpts from writers’ works: from Basanavičius’s “Aušra,” the Preface and others; Kudirka’s “Bells of the Fatherland,” “Memories of the Bridge” and others; Vaižgantas’s “Pragiedruliai” (“The Bell of Alaušas,” “The Word of Lithuania,” “The Tale of Vilnius”); Smetona’s writings (“As I Pursued Learning,” “Remembering Žalgiris”); Žemaitė’s “The Daughter-in-Law”; Šatrijos Ragana’s “Vincas Stonis”; Lazdynų Pelėda’s “Mother Cuckooed”; Biliūnas, Vienuolis, Vincas Krėvė, Simonaitytė, Mykolaitis-Putinas, and others. Brief biographies of the authors read. Short stories and poems about the struggles for Lithuania’s Independence. The most recent examples of poetry and prose. Improvement of expressive reading technique. Memorization of selected examples of poetry and prose. Independent reading. Written retelling of a text read and an experienced event. Independent essays on a given topic. Planning and writing essays according to an outline. Practical correspondence. A short course in syntax: the simple sentence and its parts; the compound sentence and its types; direct and indirect speech; punctuation. Further study of spelling topics covered. BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 16 Thus, grammar topics are included among writing and reading topics. Both morphology and punctuation are explained among the writing topics; even the second-year phonetics topics are presented as writing topics: The distinction between sound and letter. Practice identifying the stressed syllable of a word by listening (PMPP 1939: 6). When teaching reading topics, pupils are also urged to pay attention to punctuation marks while reading. The language topics presented in the columns of Table 4 show that the fundamentals of almost the entire language course are to be taught during the first three years of instruction; in the fourth year, language knowledge is to be deepened and broadened. In the first year, the main focus is on developing correct pronunciation and on the basics of spelling and punctuation. In the second year, in the program authors’ view, correct pronunciation should continue to be developed, the fundamentals of correct spelling should be taught, and instruction in phonetics and identifying the stressed syllable should begin. In the third year, developing correct standard-language pronunciation is important; the program further proposes teaching more complex spelling cases, introducing the parts of a word, teaching the parts of speech, and beginning instruction in punctuation marks and sentence parts. In the fourth year there are no longer any topics on developing pronunciation, but previously learned phonetics topics are reviewed, and stress and intonation are introduced. The program includes topics for reviewing the parts of speech already learned (deepening knowledge of them and teaching other parts of speech). Next come topics in punctuation and syntax. In the fifth year, relatively few language-instruction topics are presented: mostly review (of phonetics, parts of speech, and spelling). New topics include language and writing, dialect and standard language. In the sixth year, teachers should devote most attention to syntax and punctuation (punctuation in complex and simple sentences, direct and indirect speech; review of spelling rules). In the fifth and sixth years, the program designers devote more topics to literary theory and history. TABLE 5. Distribution of topics in the primary-school Lithuanian language program Section Topics Section I Pronunciation: 1. Correcting major deficiencies in children’s speech. 2. Distinguishing long and short vowels by listening. Spelling, punctuation: 1. Capital letters after a period and in names. 2. Writing y, į, ū, u in a word. 3. Nasal letters in case endings. 4. Dividing words between lines. Section II Pronunciation: 1. Developing clear and fluent speech. 2. Correct pronunciation of long and short vowels and diphthongs. Spelling: 1. Long vowels. 2. Diphthongs. 3. Clusters of consonants. 4. The softening sign i before vowels. 5. Distinguishing pairs of voiced consonants. 6. Nasal letters in the word root. 7. Capital letters. BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 17 Section Topics Phonetics, stress: 1. The distinction between sound and letter. 2. Vowels, consonants, diphthongs. 3. The alphabet. 4. Identifying the stressed syllable. Parts of speech: 1. Grouping words according to questions. 2. Noun, adjective, and verb. 3. Declension according to questions. Chapter III Pronunciation: Correct pronunciation of the sounds of the standard language. Orthography: 1. Spelling of consonants. 2. Spelling of prefixes. 3. Spelling of suffixes. 4. Spelling of words with sound combinations. 5. Spelling of compound words. Spelling of nasal vowels. Word formation: 1. Inflected and uninflected words. 2. Parts of a word. Parts of speech: 1. Noun, adjective, pronoun, numeral. 2. Their types, genders, numbers, cases. 3. Declension. 4. Verb, its persons, numbers, tenses. 5. Conjugation of the indicative mood. Punctuation, syntax: 1. Period. 2. Question mark, exclamation mark at the end of a sentence. 3. Subject and predicate. Chapter IV Phonetics, stress. Review: 1. Vowels, consonants, diphthongs and their types. 2. Stress and intonation. Word formation: review of word parts. Parts of speech. Review: 1. Inflected parts of speech (declinable forms, including pronominal forms; conjugable—the verb with all moods, compound tenses and reflexive forms). 2. Participles. 3. Half-participles. 4. Participial adverbs. 5. Uninflected parts of speech. Spelling: participles and their spelling. BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 18 Chapter Topics Syntax (sentence parts), punctuation: 1. Simple sentence. 2. Subject and predicate. 3. Secondary parts of the sentence. 4. The comma in a simple sentence. 5. Compound sentences. 6. The simplest cases of comma use in a compound sentence. 7. Direct speech; practice in distinguishing it. Chapter V Phonetics: Review. Parts of speech: Review. Orthography: Further study of the topics covered. Other: 1. Language and writing. 2. Dialect and standard language. Chapter VI Syntax and punctuation: 1. The simple sentence and its parts. 2. The compound sentence and its types. 3. Direct and indirect speech. 4. Punctuation. Spelling: Further study of the spelling topics covered. Calculating the topics for all six years as percentages shows that, in primary-school Lithuanian-language teaching, the greatest attention was devoted to spelling and parts of speech (see Fig. 2), as well as punctuation and syntax. Fewer curriculum topics were devoted to other subjects (pronunciation, phonetics, and word formation). FIG. 2. Proportions of topics in the 1939 Lithuanian-language curriculum for primary schools, expressed as percentages BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 19 Comparing the data presented in the diagram in Figure 2 with the diagram of topics in the 1919 program (see Figure 3), the following differences are apparent: the new program devotes much more attention to spelling, punctuation, and pronunciation. It includes stress-related topics that were not in the 1919 program. FIG. 3. Comparison of topics in the 1919 and 1939 Lithuanian language teaching programs Thus, the 1939 program, prepared when six years of primary education had been approved, already differed from earlier programs, making it clear that new textbooks aligned with the program were also needed. The structure of this program indicates that the following structure of Lithuanian language teaching in primary schools had taken shape: spelling, parts of speech, syntax and punctuation, word formation, pronunciation, phonetics, and stress. CONCLUSIONS From 1915 to 1939, educational societies began to be established in Lithuania, Lithuanian-language publishing expanded rapidly, and the Lithuanian Scientific Society began to take responsibility for school textbooks. In 1922, the status of Lithuanian as the state language expanded the domains and functions in which it was used. The writing of textbooks, programs, and reviews was interrupted by the First World War; nevertheless, as early as 1915–1917, two draft Lithuanian language teaching programs were produced, in which guidelines for teaching Lithuanian began to emerge. Textbooks were written on the basis of officially approved primary school programs (1919 and 1939): the 1919 Primary School Lithuanian Language Teaching Program was prepared for four years of instruction and focused primarily on teaching parts of speech, but also covered many other topics (word formation, syntax, spelling, pronunciation, phonetics, and punctuation); the 1939 program covered six years, introduced new topics such as stress, and proposed teaching other topics (for example, spelling, punctuation, and pronunciation) in greater depth. BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 VAIDA BUIVYDIENĖ. Pradinių mokyklų lietuvių kalbos mokymo programos 1915–1939 metais | 20 The topics in the 1939 Lithuanian language program reveal an already established structure for teaching Lithuanian in primary school (spelling, parts of speech, syntax and punctuation, word formation, pronunciation, phonetics, and stress); this was also reflected in Lithuanian language textbooks of the period. From 1915 to 1939, Lithuanian language teaching programs and their reviews played a role in disseminating the functions of the standard language and established criteria for its development. An examination of the programs and their reviews revealed the understanding formed during that period that primary school Lithuanian language textbooks a) must be written in correct language (the criterion of linguistic purity), b) must be understandable to children (the criterion of clarity), and c) must teach correct spelling and pronunciation (the criterion of correctness)—and thus foster the standard language. ŠALTINIAI Jablonskis J. [Petras Kriaušaitis] 1901: Lietuviškos kalbos gramatika, Tilžė: spausdinta pas Otto v. Mauderode. Jablonskis J. [Rygiškių Jonas] 1911: Lietuvių kalbos sintaksė, Seinai: „Šaltinio“ knygynas. Jablonskis J. [Mokytojas] 1915 [1933]: Dėl lietuvių kalbos programos. – Lietuvos balsas 4. Jablonskio raštai 2. Švietimo reikalai. Red. J. Balčikonis, Kaunas: Švietimo ministerijos leidinys, 57–58. Jablonskis J. [R. J.] 1920: A. Jakučionis. Kelias į šviesą, skaitymo ir rašymo mokslas. Aštuntas pataisytas leidimas. Kaina 3 auks. 50 sk. Tilžė, 1920. – Švietimo darbas 10, 45–57. Jablonskis J. 1920a: J. Damijonaičio „Lietuvių kalbos gramatika“. – Lietuva 164, 2–3; 165, 2. Jablonskis J. [Rygiškių Jonas] 1922: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika: vid. mokslo įstaigoms. 2-asis leid. Kaunas; Vilnius: „Švyturio“ b-vė. Jablonskis J. [Rygiškių Jonas] 1928: Linksniai ir prielinksniai ir jų vartojimas mūsų kalboje: jų vartojimas mūsų kalboje, Kaunas: „Sakalo“ b-vė. LD 1915: Lietuvių delegacija in žm. šviet. ministeri. – Vairas 19, 310. LKP 1909 Lietuvių kalba žemesniosiose mokyklose ir lietuvių kalbos mokytojai. – Mokykla 2, 1–2. Lomanas P. 1930: Pradžios mokyklų įstatymai. Taisyklės, instrukcijos, aplinkraščiai ir programos, Kaunas. Murka J. 1920: Atviras laiškas A. Jakučioniui. – Mokykla ir gyvenimas 4 (viršeliuose). Murka J. 1923: Mašiotas Pr. Ašakaičio abecėlė. Tilžė, 1921. – Švietimo darbas 3–4, 268–270. PLK 1906: Pavyzdinis lietuvių kalbos mokymo programas žemesnėms ir vidutinėms mokslo įstaigoms Vilniaus, Kauno, Gardino ir Suvalkų gub. – Vilniaus žinios, 1906, gegužės 10 (23), Nr. 99 (417), 1. PMLP 1919: Pradedamųjų mokyklų laikinoji programa. – Švietimo darbas 1 (priedas). PMP 1940: Pradžios mokyklos programos, Kaunas: Švietimo ministerijos knygų leidimo komisijos leidinys. PMP 1939: Pradinės mokyklos programos. Švietimo ministerio patvirtintas projektas. Kaunas: „Šviesos“ spaustuvė. RP 1920: Lietuvių kalba (ir pasaulio literatūra). 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Zinkevičius Z. 1992: Lietuvių kalbos istorija 5: Bendrinės kalbos iškilimas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. Zinkevičius Z. 1993: Rytų Lietuva praeityje ir dabar, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. Gauta 2015 04 07 Priimta 2015 09 25 BENDRINĖ KALBA | 88 (2015) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204