Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai

JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ Šiauliai University WORD-FORMATION AND SEMANTIC FEATURES OF LITHUANIAN WRITERS’ NEOLOGISMS KEYWORDS: neologism, derivative, derived word, compound, potential derivative, occasional derivative, derivational meaning, lexical meaning. INTRODUCTION As a system, language is stable, yet at the same time it also changes. The composition of the vocabulary changes constantly in two directions: obsolete, unnecessary words (or their meanings) disappear from it, while new words (or new meanings) emerge (Jakaitienė 2010: 171, 203). The latter process is primarily driven by the need of spoken and written language users to name new realities, or by the desire to refer to something that already has a name in a different, distinctive way. Thus, new words continually emerge in Lithuanian (as in any other language)1, many of which are neologisms2. New words in spoken and written Lithuanian (including neologisms) are studied from various perspectives (origin, word formation, semantics, prevalence, etc.) (Girčienė 2013, 2015; Inčiūraitė-Noreikienė 2015; Mikelionienė 2002; Miliūnaitė 2012, 2014; Murmulaitytė 2014, 2016b; Vaskelienė 2007, 2010, 2011, 2012, and others). The aim of the article3 is to discuss the word-formation and semantic features of neologisms4 found in the works of Lithuanian writers. The object of the study is twenty books by thirteen Lithuanian writers (see the list of sources)5. The study employs methods of analysis, interpretation, and calculation. 1 A considerable number of new words have been recorded in the Database of Lithuanian Neologisms (ND) (see Miliūnaitė 2015; on the database, prospects for the study of neologisms, and the possibility of including new words in the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian (BŽ), see Murmulaitytė 2016; 2016a). 2 “The term neologism is appropriate only for a new word that has arisen as a result of word formation in that language” (Urbutis 2009: 37; on new words and neologisms, see also Jakaitienė 2010: 205–215). In this article, neologisms are defined as derivatives not recorded in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽe), the Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian (DLKŽ), the headword list of the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian (BŽa), the Digital Supplementary File of the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽPK), and the Database of Lithuanian Neologisms. Although this category of neologisms includes both regular formations and less typical / occasional derivatives, the chosen selection criterion is considered feasible and objective. 3 The author thanks the anonymous reviewers of the article for their valuable comments and suggestions. 4 Some derivatives found in the works of Lithuanian writers (e.g., čiurlioniškas, -a; donelaitiškas, -a; dostojevskiškas, -a; viršmentalinis, -a, and others) can only conditionally be regarded as neologisms, since, as shown by the data from the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language (DLKT) and the internet search engine Google (G), they are also used in other texts. It is difficult to say who coined such a derivative; this article does not set out to do so. 5The authors (and books) were selected at random: while reading prose by Lithuanian authors from various generations, less common (noteworthy) derivatives were selected, and it was then checked whether they were recorded in dictionaries, databases, and the like (after checking BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 2 A total of 397 derivatives not recorded in LKŽe, DLKŽ, BŽa, LKŽPK, or ND were found in the books by Lithuanian writers examined: 202 nouns, 123 adjectives, 36 verbs, and 36 adverbs (see Fig. 1). In the following, they are examined in groups according to part of speech. FIG. 1. Parts of speech of neologisms 1. FEATURES OF THE FORMATION AND SEMANTICS OF NOUN NEOLOGISMS Noun neologisms are formed by four principal methods: mostly suffixation (114) and compounding (72), and far fewer by prefixation (8) or inflectional ending derivation (5); three neologisms are considered derivatives with an unsettled system of derivational stages (see Fig. 2). FIG. 2. Noun neologisms a relatively small proportion of the selected derivatives remained to be analyzed). It should be noted that the language of some authors’ works has been studied from one or another perspective (see Akelaitienė, Žiliūtė-Batavičienė 2011; Barauskaitė 2001, 2001a; Bražėnas 2007; Gustaitienė 2013; Libonaitė 2005; Poškūvienė 2013), but no studies of neologisms in the selected works were found. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 3 The majority (94%) of noun neologisms are based on words included in dictionaries. A few nouns are formed from a base word not realized in the norm but easily imaginable—that is, a potential base word, itself also a neologism (on potential base words, see Urbutis 2009: 150, 241, 341)6. 1.1. It is appropriate to discuss suffixal and inflectional-ending derivatives together, classifying them into derivational categories according to their working meaning7. It should be noted that the works of all the authors abound in units of abstract vocabulary8—regular derivatives considered potential (on regularity and potential derivatives, see Urbutis 2009: 315–322)—neologisms that can be considered verbal (1) and nominal (2) abstracts. Most belong to productive types; for example, verbal abstracts most often take the suffixes -imas (-ymas), -tis, -esys (apsimokslinimas, duonėjimas, išbūtinimas, papaišymas, pasilabanaktinimas, stribukavimas, triušėjimas, žvangenimas; apmirtis, atitvertis, atpirtis, įgaubtis, išgaubtis, sukauptis, sutelktis; plastesys, sklidesys, švogždesys, tylesys, trioškesys), while nominal abstracts take the suffixes -umas, -ystė, -ybė (akinamumas, išblokštumas, karviškumas, minkštakūniškumas, našlaitiškumas, sakrališkumas, stinglumas, vienetinumas, visavertiškumas; citatmeldystė, luošystė, vienmylystė; negendamybė, nuspejamybė, nuosaikybė). There are also neologisms formed by other types: with the suffixes -smas (gelsmas), -snis (kūksnis), -astis (mūsastis, žeismastis), -ava (angeliava), the unproductive suffix -la (see LKG 1965: 301) (stingla, spengla), and the suffix of non-Lithuanian origin -izmas (hamletizmas, šopoholizmas). The lexical meanings of verbal and nominal abstracts that best preserve their categorical derivational meaning are clear even without much context; for example: apmirtis ‘fading away’ (When that happens, you go through all the inevitable stages—shock, denial, anger, searching for someone to blame, devastation, apathy. Apmirti DK145); sukauptis ‘concentration’ (This is not diffusion, but sukauptis of everything as if of one thing K166–167); sklidesys ‘(dis)persal’ (Poetry dies at the very moment when that sklidesys becomes worn out, exhausted K47); akinamumas ‘having something dazzling; the ability to dazzle’ (This summer morning is—<...> up to akinamumobleached out VP80); minkštakūniškumas ‘soft-heartedness’9 (Birontas, hating himself for such minkštakūniškumą, waved his hand SR115); vienmylystė ‘love for one person, loving one thing’ (Em’s love is exclusive; it is a special vienmylystėsvariant KE121). Sometimes neologisms (e.g., 6 Potential base words are marked in the article with an asterisk*, neologisms in a sentence (or sentence fragment) are highlighted, the meanings of neologisms are given as understood by the article’s author; the word or phrase being drawn attention to is underlined. 7 In this study, following the usage and insights of Pranas Kniūkšta (1976; 1998), the term working meaning is used rather than the term in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms (KTŽ 1990: 43), derivational meaning. It should be noted that both terms are used in DLKG (see 2005: 229–231 et seq.). 8 They are particularly numerous in Donaldas Kajokas’s prose; this tendency is also evident in examining the texts of other Lithuanian authors (see J. Vaskelienė’s publications cited above). 9 The adjective minkštas is presumably used in the sense ‘sensitive, compassionate; yielding’ in DLKŽ. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 4 atpirtis “redemption,” apsimokslinimas “acquiring a little knowledge”) or sentences linked by contact through words with a common root, e.g.: For pain would already be the beginning of redemption. But there is no redemption here K155; A benighted sort of learning. To learn in a benighted way means being unable to attain either true knowledge or <...> the limits of ignorance K78. The potential neologisms negendamybė10 “imperishability, that which does not perish” and nuspėjamybė “prediction, a correct statement made without truly knowing” are used alongside dictionary-recorded formations of analogous structure, nemarybė and nuobodybė, e.g.: it is necessary for this body to clothe itself in imperishability, for this mortal body to clothe itself in immortality SR171; there is such tediousness, such predictability DK28–29. The derivative anapusis, formed with the ending -is, was probably used in the sense “the beyond, not this reality,” e.g.: Ordinary people call them anapusiais, storytellers call them the heavens, philosophers call them the transcendent sphere K317. Although some abstract nouns are based on potential (assumed) base words, the derivational stages are clear, e.g.: pasilabanaktinimas: *pasilabanaktinti: *labanaktintis: labanakt, išbūtinimas: *išbūtinti: *būtinti: būtis (cf. įbūtinimas given in LKŽPK), bekiaušiškumas: *bekiaušiškas: *bekiaušis: kiaušis, bereikšmiškumas: *bereikšmiškas: bereikšmis, bemintiškumas: *bemintiškas: bemintis, paradoksiškumas: *paradoksiškas: paradoksas, priešybiškumas: *priešybiškas: priešybė, vieninteliškumas: *vieninteliškas: vienintelis, žeismastis: *žeismas: žeisti, and others. The meanings of these neologisms (pasilabanaktinimas “saying good night,” bekiaušiškumas “spinelessness, having no firm opinion,” bereikšmiškumas “absence of meaning,” etc.) are also clear from context, e.g.: For that evening ritual the two even came up with a secret word—pasilabanaktinimas11 KE200; Your allergy to the harmony of the self-abasing, whose manifestations <...> You contemptuously call bekiaušiškumas K337; Opposites that must not be set against each other, <...> praising one while disparaging the other (e.g., meditations on thought and mindlessness, abstraction and image) K231; the genius of Earth’s poetry, which alone conveys this <...> by subtle poetic means: intonation, pause, phonetics, rhythmic structure, word meaning, play, allusion, metaphor, meaninglessness K178; mystery <...> and paradoxicality K299; one must not categorically deny the oppositionality of [the mind’s favorite opposites] K300; We love its [meditation’s] uniqueness K133; Beside it lies a sheet of paper with a single word on it. A title. “Žeismastis.” Might be good DD100. The neologism išbūtinimas, through repetition, links adjacent sentences, e.g.: In this case, becoming free would mean a certain enduring. Enduring not at all in a negative sense, but in the sense that one day the human spirit will also have to tame Nonbeing, its mystery K228. The familiar formations velniava and savastis help clarify the meanings of the similarly formed neologisms angeliava and mūsastis used alongside them, e.g.: Velniava, whether those sunflowers are real or imaginary, existing 10 It should be regarded as a working synonym of the formation negendamumas recorded in LKŽPK. 11 The word’s novelty is perceived—it is stated that the neologism was deliberately coined. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 5 or at the edge of a hallucinatory12 consciousness?! <...> Velniaua, angeliau!.. KE141; without literature savasties there is no literature at all mūsasties, and there are none of us ourselves BLB35 (the addressee’s attention is drawn by repeating the related-root words mūsastis and mūsų). In the broader (historical postwar) context, the meaning of the neologism stribukavimas (: *stribukuoti: *stribukas: stribas), based on a potential base word, is understandable, e.g.: there behind my stribukavimą made up stories for me Č112. As stated in LKG (1965: 314–315), the suffix -izmas is used to form names of philosophical, religious, artistic, scientific, and political trends, systems, and regimes. The neologism hamletizmas “Hamlet’s ideology,” formed with this suffix, is based on a personal name (a certain hamletizmo form K94), whereas the abstract noun šopoholizmas “addiction to shopping; being a šopoholiku” is derived from the barbarism šopoholikas13 (that today’s šopoholizmo bout might end not in a terrible hangover EK132). People are named by derivatives with the suffixes class of agents and bearers of verbal properties-ėlis, -ė; -ukas, -ė; -tojas, -a; -ėjas, -a atsibeldėlis, -ė; įmitėlis, -ė; išsprūdėlis, -ė; išprotėjėlis, -ė; nuprotėjėlis, -ė; pabėgiukas, -ė; paklydžiukas, -ė; silpukas, -ė; smalsautojas, -a; nuskausmintojas, -a; aprengėjas, -a, by derivatives with the unproductive suffixes -onis, -ė and -aila melžionis, -ė and pašaipaila; derivatives with the endings -(i)us and -a also belong to this category: dvokius, baksnius, prisegą14, partraidą, as does the formation nuopisa, based on vulgarity. Most of these derivatives (even without a broader context) have a clear lexical meaning, essentially coinciding with their derivational meaning, e.g.: atsibeldėlis, -ė “someone who has arrived from somewhere to live” (regardless of whether he is a local or, as she says, atsibeldėlis VP39); nuprotėjėlis, -ė “someone who has gone out of his mind, a not very intelligent person” (to take advantage of this nuprotėjėlio candor KE20); smalsautojas, -a “someone who (excessively) pries, is curious” (even in the most secluded corner of the summer park there are <...> busybodies and smalsautojų or certified chatterboxes EK110); nuskausmintojas, -a “someone who alleviates pain” (a knower of human souls and their nuskausmintojas SR269). The meanings of some neologisms, e.g., aprengėjas “someone who dresses someone,” paklydžiukas “someone who has gone astray, is lost,” pabėgiukas “someone who has run away, a fugitive,” are easier to understand because familiar formations kirpėjas, pamestinukas are used nearby, e.g.: the barbers helped everyone kirpėjai and apren gėjai SRII64; We became pamestinukais, pabėgiukais, paklydžiukais K237. Understanding the meanings of some neologisms considered occasional (used only in that text and suited to that text) requires a broader lexical context. For instance, that the neologism melžionis is based on the verb melžti “to milk” becomes clear from the context: giants milked swollen clouds, made a drink from this cloud milk, called čvik u, and From that time on, those who liked čvikis came to be called 12 See 3.2 for discussion of it. 13 Jo variantas šopaholikas yra įtrauktas į ND (apie jį dar žr. Murmulaitytė 2016b: 13); kaip rodo Google duomenys, vartojami abu žodžio variantai. 14 This noun can also be a variant of the borrowing given in LKŽe, suffix, meaning “a man or woman, spouse.” BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 6 melžionimis KR16. The context also makes it clear that the noun prisega is used in the lexical sense “wife,” for example: That woman of mine prisega has, as luck would have it, gone swaggering off to the neighbor’s Č141. Vardažodinės ypatybės turėtojų pavadinimais laikytini naujadarai sudaryti su savos ir svetimos kilmės priesagomis –ininkas, -ė; -uolis, -ė; -ulis, -ė; -iena; -ukas, -ė; -nykas, -ė; -orius, -ė; -ra; -uva; -istas, -ė ir -ikas, -ė: birontininkas, -ė (: Birontas); daugelininkas, -ė (: Daugėla); bohemininkas, -ė; furtininkas, -ė (: furta „varteliai“); kraujomaišininkas, -ė; džiazuolis, -ė; glotnuolis, -ė; laisvuolis, -ė; tuštulis, -ė; debesiena; virvelinukas, -ė; mašininorius15; šūdelnykas; šūdra (: šūdas)16; kaimuva; slalomistas, -ė; panceristas, -ė (: Panceris – veikėjas); ironikas, -ė. Kai kurių vedinių leksinė reikšmė, iš esmės nesiskirianti nuo darybinės, suprantama ir be platesnio konteksto, pvz.: bohemininkas, -ė „bohemos žmogus“ (Ir jau kaip bohemininkai sėdim 26-ame viešbučio „Latvija“ aukšte KN202); džiazuolis, -ė „džiazo mėgėjas“ (Tikras džiazuolis turėtų jaustis keistai KN11517); glotnuolis, -ė „kas mielas, malonus, švelnus“18 (tarsi iš tokios glotnuolės būtų tikėjusis kažko daugiau SR161); laisvuolis, -ė „laisvas žmogus“ (Žmogus, matyt, buvo arba visai kurčias, arba laisvuoliu apsimetus kiaulė GD368); kraujomaišininkas, -ė „kas užsiima kraujomaiša“ (tarp kurių buvo vagys, žudikai, <...> kraujomaišininkai ir dukrų prievartautojai SRII180); panceristas, -ė „Pancerio šalinininkas“ (Panceristai matavosi gyvulėlių kostiumus UR84). Juozo Apučio kūrinyje pavartotas ne žodynų fiksuotas darinys slalomininkas („slalomo sportininkas“ DLKŽ), o jo darybinis sinonimas slalomistas, pvz.: pūkštelėjęs į vandenį, vilkas sukdavosi apie jį, skęstantį, ratais, išlėkdavo lyg koks slalomistas iš sukimosi orbitos, bet greitai grįždavo A22–23. Kontekstas leidžia suprasti, kad terminio darybos tipo (žr. LKG 1965: 362) vedinys kaimuva vartojamas „kaimui būdingo dalyko, kaimo realijos“ reikšme, pvz.: Kas tu šiandien, „Onute“, pramogų pasaulyje? Kaimuva DK118–119. Kitų šios darybos kategorijos naujadarų vartosenos pavyzdžiai: ir daugelininkams, ir birontininkams, kurie <...> šaudėsi tarpusavyje mirtinais žvilgsniais SR201; atsidarė furtos langelis ir pro jo groteles suspindo įtarios furtininkės akys SR242; Senamiesčio dangaus bliūde tirštėja debesienos EK129; kur jau čia, tuštuliuk, pro visa tai ką nors įžvelgsi K296; Visi namiškiai šmėsteldavo akyse, išskyrus putliakrūtę virvelinukę KE249; suvapėjo toksai traktoristas ne traktoristas, bet vis tiek kažkoks mašininorius, nes buvo apsivilkęs kombinezoną A225; Na palauk, šūdelnyke! KE240; pasijutumei esąs žudikas, amžinai kaltas savigrauža, laisvai mąstyti ir jausti nesugebąs šūdra K276–277; netrukus pastebėsi, kad su ironikais tau ne visada pakeliui K59. 15 A synonym of the standard derivative mašinistas, -ė. 16 The noun šūdra could also be a variant of the international word šudra (“in ancient India, one of the four principal castes, the lowest in the hierarchy <...>” (TŽŽ 723), or the result of a blend of both words (šūdas and šudra). 17 The collective noun džiazuomenė, which is not included in dictionaries, is used in the same text and has already been recorded in ND. 18 The noun is based on the meaning “pleasant, gentle” of the adjective glotnus, -i, for example, Glotnus person DLKŽ. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 7 Asmenų pagal kilmę darybos kategorijai skirtini gana aiškias leksines reikšmes turintys darių priesagų -ietis, -ė; -iškis, -ė vediniai hamburgietis, -ė (: Hamburgas) „Hamburgo gyventojas“; parlaukietis, -ė (: Parlaukis) „Parlaukio gyventojas“; užžiūrietis, -ė (: užžiūris) „užžiūrio gyventojas“; donbasiškis, -ė (: Donbasas) „Donbaso gyventojas“; šaukliškis, -ė (: Šaukliai) „Šauklių gyventojas“; pvz.: kartais jaučiau, kaip hamburgiečių bruožai tarsi srūva į mane KN164; Talkininkai, kaimynai, svečiai parlaukiečiai ar iš kokio ten Kauno Č32; Lig(i) šiol kaip absurdo anekdotą prisimenu vienos doros užžiūrietės žodžius K131; pasakė labai patenkintas donbasiškis ir išdidžiai patempė kaklą A276; Jis čia tik vienas toks, šaukliškis TG22. Šios darybos kategorijos vediniu laikytinas ir priesagos -oidas vedinys kaunoidas (: Kaunas) „Kauno gyventojas“. Platesniame kontekste jaučiamas menkinamas vertinimas, veikiausiai todėl ir pasirinkta netipiška asmenų pagal kilmę pavadinimų priesaga -oidas, kuri afiksų sąrašuose paprastai nepateikiama (žr. LKG, DLKG, Pakerys 1994), bet, esant darybos opozicijai, skirtina (plg. diftongoidas Kazlauskaitė 2000: 52): Tikras kaunoidas. Tokia rasė K325. Su dariomis vietų pavadinimų darybos kategorijos priesagomis –ynas, –ynė, –uma ir –idė sudaryti naujadarai tarydynas, stribokynas, vėmalynė, judruma, drakonidė. Kai kurių vedinių reikšmė aiški, pvz., judruma „judri vieta“ (Pačioj judrumoj, prisiglaudus rūmų sienos <...> sėdėjo sena moteris DK9); kitiems suprasti reikia konteksto: tarydynas (: Tarydas – kūrinio veikėjas) „vieta, kur gyvena Tarydai“ (nutempė į troškintais kopūstais nešantį tarydyno liūną SR47); stribokynas (: *stribokas: stribas) „stribokų / stribų buveinė“ (Ten buvo pats stribokynas ir saugumas BLB97). Perkeltinės reikšmės turi baisios vietos reikšmę pavartotas naujadaras drakonidė ir vėmalynė, kuria vadinamas žodžių srautas, pvz.: plūstamės prišnėrkštoje rembrantiškų19 atspalvių drakonidėje K317–318; Visus tenkina pusiau įvaldytas verlibras ir vos ne beprasmiškų atsitiktinių žodžių vėmalynė TG158. A fairly clear meaning is conveyed by the collective noun derivative with the suffix -ija, esinija (: esinys), meaning “the totality of beings,” e.g.: You are at one with yourself, with them, with the whole esinija K160. And understanding the meaning of the neologism angelija (: angelas), “angels, the totality of angels,” requires context—it is about the sky, e.g.: Say what you will—the sky and its spirits have a sense of humor, and its angelija does! K434. Individual neologisms belong to various other derivational categories: derivatives with the suffixes –alas and –(i)onė džeržgalas, kraigalionė are considered names of action results; the derivative skaliklis (: skalauti), formed with the suffix –iklis, is a name for a tool; agronomienė, pastalininkaitė (: pastalininkas, see LKŽPK) are names distinguished by gender; diminutives include draugaitė (We were such inseparable draugaitės GD19) and kelnačkės (as he fell, kelnačkės slid down to his heels Č174); the nonstandard suffix -ka, not recommended for the standard language, occurs in the derivative formed from the borrowing šnapsorius 19 See 2.1 for discussion of it. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 8 The derivative šnapsorka (Palubinskytė was šnapsorka A29). The meaning of some derivatives (agronomienė ‘agronomist’s wife’, pastalininkaitė ‘table-maker’s daughter’, kraigalionė ‘whatever has been scribbled, written down’, etc.) is entirely clear: I go in and meet the agronomienę A87; among a dozen other bodies lay the poor pastalininkaitė SRII172; this kraigalionė was unequivocally unsuitable for publication DD171. The meaning of the neologism skaliklis, for example, ‘a means of rinsing’, can be understood from the context—the passage uses alongside it dictionary-listed derivatives formed in an analogous way: A whole arsenal for the teeth – šveitikliai, skalikliai, plovikliai, gremžikliai DD93. The lexical meaning of the neologism džeržgalas (the word used in the work for a bicycle) is remote from its derivational meaning, so understanding it requires broader context: just burst that džeržgalą onto the ground Č26. 1.2. Eight nouns formed with prefixes. Potential derivatives include the derivatives with the prefix be-, bekiaušis and besaulė: the former denotes a person, while the latter augments the set of names for inanimate things (on derivatives with be-, see LKG 1965: 431–432). In Lithuanian, both nouns and adjectives are formed with the prefix be-, which most often denotes the absence of what the base word expresses. Usage shows that besaulė is a noun20 meaning ‘a dark place without sun’: The onions from the field on the slope made their way into the cellar’s besaulėn EK134. The derivative bekiaušis is used figuratively to refer to men wearing skirts: the Scots should stuff loaves of bread under their shirts to look even more like women, since they already wear skirts, and they called them bekiaušiais, because, as they say, women don’t have eggs under their skirts SR208. With the prefix under-, derivatives that meet the requirements of the word-formation type are formed: under-blade ‘the place beneath the blade’ and under-plate ‘a plate placed beneath another plate’21: the first denotes a place beneath the object named by the base word, while the second denotes “an object located or intended to be located beneath the object named by the base word” (LKG 1965: 431), e.g.: At night I wake as if cut with a knife under-blade K362; on the delicate faience plate with a silver under-plate SRII104. The location is denoted by derivatives with the prefix along-: along-Riešė (: Riešė) ‘a place along the Riešė’22 and along-grass ‘a place along the grass’, e.g.: but around eight the mists will disperse, along-Riešėthe leaves of alders and willows will dry GD308; Between the trees along-grassa thick fog meandered KE116. To understand the meaning ‘almost fog’ of the neologism formed with the prefix near-, near-fog, context is needed24: and it was already dusk, such was the near-fog, a streak of whitish 20 In LKŽe and BŽa only the adjective besaulis, -ė is recorded. 21 There are numerous examples of the noun polėkštė in use in DLKT and Google (the spoon is placed on the polėkštės DLKT; The main plates are placed either in the polėkštę or on a napkin G), but it is not included in dictionaries. 22 The name of the river Riešė is mentioned in the text. 23 The fact that the noun pažolė is absent from dictionaries and the supplements card file may be an oversight: LKŽe records the adverb pažoliais. 24 Only from the context does it become clear that the derivative prierūkis forms a derivational opposition with the noun rūkas, not with the verb prirūkti. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 9 keliuku A72. A derivative formed with the prefix už-, užsapnis (: sapnas), denotes what lies beyond a dream: Having thoroughly rummaged around in their own, and other <...> citizens’ dark užsapnių burrows KE180. 1.3. Of the 72 compound neologisms found in works by Lithuanian writers, 63 have a noun as their second constituent25. These are determinative compounds—the first constituent narrows (specifies) the entity denoted by the second; essentially, the meaning of such formations is equivalent to that of a phrase (for more, see Urbutis, 2009: 49–51), e.g.: badavietė ‘place of famine’, sielaspengsmis ‘soul’s ringing’, žodžiagarsis ‘sound of a word’. In 28 compounds, the first constituent is a noun: badavietė, bobkalnis, drambliaukojis, driežauodegis, gaidponis, garsasiūlis, krišnosparnis, krūtinplaukiai, langastiklis, mėšlajūrė, migdolmedis, obelžiedis, siūlagarsis, siūlažmogis, smeikelis, šiknaskylė, šūdmesė, veiksmažmogis, vidurkaktis, vilklakis, voraklynis, žmoggyvis, žmogpaūkštis, žodžiagarsis, žvaigždėrašтис26, žvilgsniašūdis; the compounds sielaspengsmis and spengsmasielis are based on the same two nouns (siela ‘soul’ and the noun spengsmas, listed in LKŽPK). In 21 compounds with a noun as the second constituent, the first constituent is based on an adjective: aukštakilmis, -ė; girtadienis; girtanaktis; ilgapimis; karštvandenis; kiaurašiknis, -ė; klaidkelis; klišuaodegis, -ė; kombinuotpašariai; kvailafilmis; kvaišgalvis27, -ė; rausvaakis, -ė; silpnakiausis; skersponis; skystag arbanis, -ė; slaptagarsis; stambianosis, -ė; švelnialiežuvis, -ė; šventlaikis; šviesmiegis; tvirtanugaris, -ė. There are only a few compounds of other types: the first constituent of praplėstgerklis, -ė; šikdarbis and varvaklynis is based on a verb; the compound saviparodija is formed from a pronoun and a noun; koja ‘leg’ combines with the adverb aukštyn ‘up’ to form aukšynkojis; the compound devynbėdis, -ė is formed from a numeral and a noun; the compound tarpuerdvis is formed from the preposition tarp ‘between’ and the noun erdvė ‘space’; it is hard to say whether the compounds pusministris and pusvadis are based on the adverb pusiau ‘half’ or the noun pusė ‘half’, while the first constituent of the compound pirmsergė is formed from an interjection. A few compounds have one non-Lithuanian constituent: the noun egomanija is formed from the Latin word ego and manija; the first constituent of the compound hipererdvė is the element hiper-, indicating excess beyond the norm (TŽŽ 299); the second constituent of the compound judologas is based on the element -logas, denoting a person who studies the field indicated by the first constituent, while the second constituent -logija of the neologism karvalogija indicates a connection with science (for -logas, -logija, see TŽŽ 444). 25 “The second element of the vast majority of compound nouns is based on nouns, and only about one in five on verbs” (Keinys 1999: 69); thus, the neologisms confirm this tendency.26 BŽa lists a compound formed in an analogous way, žvaigždėlapis. 27 The first constituent of the compound is probably based on the adjective kvaišas, -a, although it cannot be ruled out that it may also be associated with the verb kvaišti. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 10 In 9 compounds, the second constituent is based on a verb; in 7 of them—dievamaiša, kojatrypis, kvapadirbys, šiknalupis, šiknalindys, šūdmalė, žmogšaudys—the first constituent is a noun. The first constituent of gražiačiulbis, -ė and naujažudys, -ė is most likely based on the adverbs gražiai ‘beautifully’ and naujai ‘anew’, although they could also be associated with the adjectives gražus ‘beautiful’ and naujas ‘new’. The lexical meaning of noun compounds (especially those formed from two nouns) is entirely clear when it roughly coincides with their derivational meaning. In determinative compounds with a noun as the second constituent, the first noun constituent often indicates possession: krūtinplaukiai ‘chest hair’ (after him, a white hand of Euphemia now wandered lasciviously over his black chest hair SR145); langastiklis ‘window glass’ (the kitchen windowpanes completely covered EK155); migdolmedis ‘almond tree’ (I would like to watch how <...> an almond-tree stick blossoms in the hand GD83); obelžiedis ‘apple-blossom’ (having drawn deeply on his smoke while shielded, together with the scent of apple blossoms DD182); veiksmažmogis ‘man of action’ (All the godless fervently argue for God’s existence. Man of action K384); žodžiagarsis ‘sound of a word’ (those word-sounds can be repeated alone, like the “Our Father” K142–143); material (smėkelis ‘sandy road’—The branches of the sandy road that diverge on the hill soon come together again K399) or location (vidurkaktis ‘middle of the forehead’—raising his eyebrows questioningly in the middle of his forehead and gazing SR112). Compounds with a first adjective or pronoun constituent (1), as well as compounds with a second verbal constituent and a first noun constituent (2), most often also have a direct lexical meaning: (1) karštvandenis ‘hot, boiled water’ (In the big-bellied cup, oregano conscientiously colors the hot water EK11); kvailafilmis ‘stupid, shallow film’ (to watch some stupid film at the “Cinamone” EK122); kombinuotpašariai ‘compound feed’ (Well, they won’t get that compound feed, and to hell with it! A291); skystagarbanis, -ė ‘a person with sparse, limp curls’ (And everything else, my limp-curled one, everything else is freedom! K392); saviparodija ‘self-parody, making fun of oneself’ (to turn into one’s opposite, an incompetent self-parody or <...> a wretch? K314); (2) dievamaiša ‘mixing of gods, worship of different gods’ (Let us try, unafraid of being criticized for mixing gods K331); žmogšaudys, -ė ‘a person who shot (killed) people’ (—I won’t blow up until you, people-killer, show me where you buried my brother!.. TV179); kvapadirbys, -ė ‘maker of scents’ (She smelled good. <...> through the perfect armor of the scent-maker, thin needles managed to penetrate <...> her own scent KN62—in this last example, words containing the root kvap- (kvep-) are repeated, including the neologism). The neologisms skersponis and gaidponis probably have a meaning similar to the word pusponis, recorded in dictionaries (‘a minor, insignificant gentleman’ LKŽe). The addressee’s attention is drawn to the repetition of several compounds whose second constituent is the noun ponas ‘gentleman’, e.g.: If only they were real gentlemen; but now they’re just pusponiai, skersponiai or gaidponiai BLB242. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 11 Some neologisms have a figurative meaning and can be regarded as metaphorical or metonymic compounds; for example, the compounds dungsea and shitmuck are used to mean “bad things” (carefree rocking on the high waves of life’s dungsea waves K387; and the local shitmonger ground down the shitmuck K368); several compounds denote a person and, at the same time, one of their qualities—arse-licker, “sycophant” (When arse-lickerscome up against the King’s indifference UR83); stiff-necked, “a stubborn, intransigent person” (Unpersuadable stiff-neck KE61) and greenhorn, “a young, inexperienced person” (because he, greenhornwould choose poetry K174). Only context reveals that the neologism ass-licker is used in the work to mean “bicycle”: Propped against the porch, there stood only a ass-licker; not another bicycle was yet to be seen I179. A particular sound is named by compounds with figurative meaning whose elements are based on words with the roots soul-, sound-, ring-: sitting, standing, idling—suddenly a sound. Soundthread. Threadsounding. Soulringing. Ringsouling K123. The compound arsehole probably means “a bad place”—Vilnius is thus personified (Birontas, in the very, very Vilnius arsehole, swallowed up by the city, chewed up and digested SRII90); the derivative star-script (for us the whole world was still the cosmos, and our star-scriptsbear witness to this KN122) has the figurative meaning “the arrangement of stars”; an unpleasant look is called by the compound gaze-shit (People say of such looks: “He looked—as if a gaze-shithad been flung in his face” K287). Examples of other neologisms in use: humps [they called them]—fasting places KE171; for some reason people call them drunken granny-hills KE230; that elephant-footgave me just one <...> lesson KE174; All sorts of toadheads appeared, lizard-tails and cloven-hooves KR16; It turns out that black holes in time simply occur, and by misfortune the character mentioned fell into one of these time-gapsfell in EK97; For example, spider-knittersknit themselves socks KE212; This <...>insensitive ugliness human-creatures, but they hurt too K207; Whoever he may be—a little bridge, human-bird, secret-wing28an angel or a centaur K249–250. The neologism thread-person is an equivalent, repeated in a subsequent sentence, of the phrase that serves as the derivational base in the preceding sentence: Nevertheless, beyond the third islet he saw one more little creature. It was a little thread person. <...> The thread-person’slittle movements aroused sympathy KE216. 1.4. Several neologisms (neišmylėjimas, nesybė, neišreiškiamumas) should be regarded as derivatives with an unsettled system of derivational levels. All these derivatives contain the prefix ne- and the highly productive suffixes for verbal and nominal abstracts, -imas and -umas, with which potential derivatives are formed (see Urbutis 2009: 316–317). Thus, depending on the derivational opposition selected, the neologisms neišmylėjimas, nesybė, neišreiškiamumas could be treated as derivatives formed with the prefix ne- or the suffixes -imas, -ybė, -umas: neišmylėjimas (: išmylėjimas / neišmylėti), nesybė 28 See 2.5 for this adjective. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 12 (being / non-being), ineffability (expressibility / inexpressible). Examples of the use of neologisms: Having fallen in love with her own unloving KE32; Do you mean that those non-beings really exist? KE36; all that remains is to shrug <...> upon sensing the purpose’s ineffability K106. 2. FORMATION AND SEMANTIC FEATURES OF ADJECTIVAL NEOLOGISMS The texts examined yielded 123 adjectival neologisms: 66 suffix derivatives, 2 prefix derivatives, 2 inflectional-ending derivatives, 44 compounds, and 9 neologisms that may be considered mixed-formation derivatives (see Fig. 3). FIG. 3. Adjectival neologisms Almost all derivatives (98% of the total) are based on base words recorded in dictionaries. 2.1. Suffix derivatives. Most adjectival neologisms (54, i.e. 82% of all suffix derivatives) are derivatives with the suffix –iškas, –a, which denotes resemblance or a characteristic feature29; neologisms formed with this suffix are the most numerous in the works of all the authors. DLKG (2005: 207) states that adjectives with the suffix –iškas, –a “are most often formed from underived nouns, and less often from derivatives and compound words.” This study showed that neologisms with the suffix –iškas, –a are derived from nouns of varied morphemic structure—names of animate and inanimate entities—but are most often based on personal names and have a figurative meaning of resemblance (“like someone”) or the meaning “characteristic or typical of what is denoted by the base word”: adamiškas, –a 29 In modern Lithuanian, adjectives with the suffix –iškas, –a generally denote resemblance, whereas in earlier usage (in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century texts) they most often denoted possession (Ambrazas 2011: 82). BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 13 (: Adamsas „būdingas Adamsams“); breigeliškas, –a (: Breigelis „būdingas Breigeliui, kaip Breigelio“); borchesiškas, –a (: Borchesas „būdingas Borchesui, kaip Borcheso“), brazauskiškas, –a (: Brazauskas „kaip Brazausko“); čiurlioniškas, –a; dekartiškas, –a; donelaitiškas, –a; dostoj evskiškas, –a; d žeksoniškas, –a; empedokliškas, –a; faustiškas, –a; frankenšteiniškas, –a; gavenavičiškas, –a; hemingvėjiškas, –a; karamazoviškas, –a; kudirkiškas, –a; majakovskiškas, –a; sartriškas, –a; sokratiškas, –a; šve gždiškas, –a; tarkovskiškas, –a; taryydiškas, –a; vangogiškas, –a. Visi gana aiškias reikšmes turintys priesagos –iškas, –a naujadarai³⁰ eina epitetais, padeda žymimą dalyką apibūdinti trumpiau, glaudina tekstą, pvz.: Ir kalbu ne tik apie adamsišką kūrėjų „šeimynėlę“ EK40; Šiandien brolis Astijus atrodo oriai: pasidabruoti smilkiniai, <...> išlakus, beveik brazauskiškas stotas EK138; breigeliško va is kumo žiemą K255; demonstruojant nuovėles finalas ne dostoj evskiškas, veikiau kafkiškai³¹ borchesiškas KE79; prib lesusios čiurlioniškos spalvos K339; donelaitišką [posakį] „Vargsim“ reikėtų pradėti spausdinti ant visų litų banknotų DD190; d žeksoniškus trenų traukulius K336; Empedokliškas pasaulio kūrimas(is) tęsiasi K79; Pirmojo tipo materialistų laukia faustiškasis kelias K227; vaizduotė kaipmat pradeda kurti jų būsimo gyvenimo scenarijų – su bankrotais, <...> psichiatrijos ligoninėmis ir frankenšteiniškomis plastinėmis operacijomis DD88; Bėga strazdanotas berniukas su povu virš galvos, <...> tokiu <...> gavenavičišku K345; ištraukti hemingvėjišką žuvį K473; Tada lengva ranka dalijamos indulgencijos <...> karamazoviškajam [postulatui] viskas leista K28; esama dar ir kudirkiško idealizmo EK46; Viza į mano maj akovskišką pasą šlepeteli būtent lapkričio 9-ąją KN157; Lander tingeris pajuto pancerišką smūgį keliu į pilvą UR67; visai paprastučiai dalykai slypi paskališkajame [posakyje] „Pažinti, kad pamiltum, mylėti, kad pažintum“ K102; išgirdo radauskiškos jūros ošimą K145; rembrantiškų atspalvių K318; sokratiškojo sąmoningumo klausimas K54; gal tik Čiurlionio meditacijos vertos šve gždiškųjų [meditacijų] K230; primenantis tarkovskišką zoną K232; Tarp taryydiškos išminties žemių tvarkymo, kumečių kvailumo SR47–48; su manimi turėtų keliauti ir šiaudinė, kažkada Vepriuose vangogiška vadinama, skrybelė GD262. Prie šių būdvardžių šliejasi naujadaras bემბiškas, –a, sudarytas iš tikrinio daiktavardžio – stirniuko vardo Bembis: ji tiesiog įsiunta, pašoka, jau stovi netvirtai ant savo bembiškų stirnelės kojų DD49. Some neologisms are derived from common nouns denoting people, living creatures, or mythical beings: basilisk-like, –a (: basilisk); dandyish, –a (: dandy); stallion-like, –a; general-like, –a; gurvuolis-like, –a; centaur-like, –a; imp-like, –a; free-spirited-like, –a; mannequin-like, –a; monstrous, –a; šventakup riškas, –a; vorgovys-like, –a (: vorgovys³²). Two adjectives with the suffix –iškas, –a 30 To make the distinction still sharper and more emphatic, definite forms of neologisms are also used. 31 See Chapter 4 for neologistic adverbs. 32 DLKŽ and LKŽₑ list the derivational variant voragovys, containing a linking vowel, of the compound vorgovys, which appears as a base word. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 14 būdvardžiai remiasi potencialiais pamatiniais žodžiais: terbakrauskiškas, –a (: *Terbakrauskis); vištaprotiškas, –a (: *vištaprotis)33. Vienų naujadarų reikšmes galima suprasti net be konteksto, pvz.: eržiliškas, –a „kaip eržilo, būdingas eržiliui“; generoliškas, –a „kaip generolo“; šventakupriškas, –a „būdingas šventakupriui“, kitiems (kurių pamatinis žodis retesnis, pvz., baziliskiškas „būdingas baziliskui“) reikia konteksto. Visi –iškas, –a naujadarai eina įvairios semantikos daiktavardžių epitetais, pvz.: nė drąsiausiose baziliskiškose klejonėse neišsivaizdavo SR217; Anksčiau mojavai subtiliai nulakuota dendiška lazdele K167; jos sūnėnas skleidė kažkokį keistą, itin stiprų eržilišką žavesį SRII116; Jis pasižymėjo generolišku kūno sudėjimu UR49; jo gurvuoliška klausa jau ima aižėti, nepakeldama šio galingo tylesio K351; poezijos kentauriškoji dvasia K248; sąmonėje sukirba kipšiukiška mintis K152; Keistas provincialumo ir maneken iško stiliaus derinys EK144; įgauna juokingus, išsigimusius arba monstriškus pavidalus K247; buka, šventakupriška pareiga K392; Supratau, kad pirmas žingsnis į meno pasaulį – išlaužti terbakrausišką stylą EK152; jai nieko nereiškė <...> kišti tą savo vištaprotišką trigrašį SRII26; vorguviška prigimtis pajunta KE230. A group of neologisms with the suffix –iškas, –a is based on names of inanimate things with concrete or abstract meanings and has the derivational meaning “characteristic, customary, or attributed to the thing denoted by the base word; related to that thing,” e.g.: arcade-like, –a (: arcade); spell-like, –a; abyss-like, –a; mercury-like, –a; labyrinthine, –a; mantra-like, –a; necrophilic, –a; pencil-like, –a; tangled-like, –a; rachitic, –a; biscuit-like, –a; dragon-like, –a; cosmic, –a. The meaning of most neologisms is clear even without a broader lexical context (mercury-like, –a “like mercury, characteristic of mercury,” labyrinthine, –a “like a labyrinth,” and so on); for some, context is needed to understand the meaning, e.g. arcade-like, –a “with arcades.” Some combinations of –iškas, –a adjectives and the nouns they describe are synonymous with comparative expressions35, cf. a labyrinthine place – a place [winding] like a labyrinth, the mantra-like aspect of poetry – an aspect of poetry [repetitive and affecting] like a mantra, rachitic legs – legs [crooked] like those of a rickets sufferer, and so on. Examples of the use of the new lexemes (all adjectives in –iškas, –a function as epithets), e.g.: his arcade-like garden would not always be alive SR26; With such a spell-like cadence K143; The nuances of speech always have a direct connection with the abyss-like person K89; The same mercury-like nature DK90; She was located somewhere in a labyrinthine place EK64; his necrophilic loneliness K391; his own pencil-like tip hirudai bevels it and <...> draws KE234; A little dog with rachitic legs stopped beside the girl KE190; the tombstones made a far greater impression than the moai of Easter Island. 33 The nouns terbakrauskis, vištaprotis are not recorded in dictionaries, but examples of their use exist, and they are generally understood by language users, e.g.: the pranks had disappeared before the first cockcrow, but Terbakrauskis’s nickname followed him right to the grave DLKT; What kind of chicken-brain prepared this test? G. 34 ND gives the derivational synonym arkadinis, -ė for this neologism. 35 “For comparison and for the metaphorical epithet <...>, expressions with certain noun-modifying adjectives or adverbial modifiers of the corresponding kind may be distinguished, e.g.: Witch-like hag” (Župerka 2012: 60). BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 15 Of course, to some extent cookie-like [tombstone style], because cemeteries in Lithuania itself had been hard-pressed to find such an elegant style in such a place KN172; not universal, but perfection at the level of the human mind perfection K143; there is a touch of mantra, a touch of mantra-like <...> aspect of poetry K270 (in the latter example, the addressee’s attention is drawn to the repetition of words containing the root mantr-). The neologism slibiniškas, -a has a figurative meaning: this adjective describes an all-devouring flame (slibiniškon fire’s throat K349). Esama būdvardžių naujadarų, sudarytų su kitomis priesagomis, pirmiausia su daria priesaga -inis, -ė. „Būdvardžių darymas su priesaga -inis yra ne tik gyvas, bet ir plačiai paplitęs dabartinės lietuvių kalbos reiškinys“ (Kniūkšta 1976: 7). Visi iš savo kilmės ir tarptautinių žodžių (būdvardis kaktomušinis, -ė remiasi prieveiksmiu kaktomuša, visi kiti – daiktavardžiais) išvesti naujadarai turi panašumo reikšmę – jų darybinė reikšmė „toks, kaip tas daiktas, kurį rodo pamatinis žodis“, „toks, kaip tas pats dalykas to, ką rodo pamatinis žodis“ (žr. Kniūkšta 1976: 73–75): akimirksninis, -ė „kaip akimirksnis, trumpas“ (Akimirksninė reminiscencija K417); geriatrinis, -ė36 „senatvinis, -ė“ (Asistentas Davidas diplomatiškai nieko nesako apie tokį ūmų sentimentalus geriatrinio pykčio priepuolį DD125); likiminis, -ė „kaip likimo (nenuspėjamas?)“ (įsisąmonintos likiminės patirtys K284); kaktomušinis, -ė37 „daromas labai greit, stačia galva, užsispyrusiai“ (jų kasdieniai rūpesčiai daug svarbesni už tuos oželių kaktomušinius reikaliukus GD24), marazminis, -ė „kaip esant marazmui, kvailas“ (marazminė idėja KE34). Darinys mesianistinis, -ė („susijęs su mesianizmu“38) veikiausiai remiasi potencialiniu pamatiniu svetimos kilmės žodžiu mesianistas: Ir nenustosime rękti, kol nesuvoksime savo visavertiškumo39 ir gal net išskirtinės, mesianistinės vietos šiame pasaulyje LM119. Būdvardis sacharinini, -ė priartėja prie kokybinės ypatybės būdvardžio, nes turi reikšmę „(pernelyg) saldus“: Nebesiskausau kalbų, tuo labiau brolių, primenančių Frankonius, sacharininio dainavimo EK144. Some neologisms are formed with other suffixes: derivatives with the suffix -ingas, -a, denoting abundant possession of the properties expressed by the base (LKG 1965: 556–557), are considered potential formations: kirminingas, -a “abundant in worms”; slyvingas, -a “abundant in plums”; adjectives formed from verbs with the suffix -lus, -i and denoting a property resulting from an action are dužlus, -i “breakable”; stinglus, -i “(becoming) stiff”; the derivative šabakštynuotas, -a, formed with the suffix -uotas, -a, means “full of brambles” and denotes possession of things named by the base word; the derivative pašaipuoklis, -a, formed with the unproductive suffix -uoklis, -ė (see LKG 1965: 577), “one who mocks, likes 36 Cf. geriatrija “A branch of medical science that studies the causes and phenomena of aging, diseases of old age, their treatment and prevention, with the aim of halting premature aging. It developed as an independent branch in the 19th century.” Lithuanian Republic Terminology Bank. Available online: http://terminai.vlkk.lt/pls/tb/tb.search (accessed July–August 2017). 37 The neologism kaktomušinis, -ė should be regarded as a derivational synonym of the adjective kaktomušiškas, -a, recorded in BŽa. 38 See messianism TŽŽ 471. 39 See 1.1 for this. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 16 “to mock.” The meaning (and part of speech) of neologisms becomes clear in a phrase or sentence, for example: on his face, on the twitching, worm-ridden, <...> face, crammed with slowly moving blackheads K367; That autumn was long, warm, and very plum-rich TG27; He lies naked on the water, arms outstretched to both sides. As if surrendering. Before this brittle stiffness40 VP128; turning toward the furniture worn smooth by gazes and hands. Stiff, speechless VP29; Above the mountains at the far end of the valley—a little cloud; in the still air the smoke scarcely disperses VP70; her mocking sisters SRII124. The neologism šabakšyn(u)otas, –a is formed by analogy with dictionary-recorded derivatives of the same suffix used nearby, akmenuotas, –a, krūmuotas, –a: there were only Newcomers’ pastures: stony, bushy, bramble-covered,—one name for the pastures TG72. 2.2. D e r i v a t i v e s w i t h p r e f i x e s. Neologisms of the type of denominal derivatives with the productive prefix be- (see LKG 1965: 590) include benuotolis, -ė (: nuotolis) “having no distance” and bepalatis, -ė (: palata) “having no ward.” These adjectives are formed by analogy with dictionary-recorded derivatives of the same formation occurring nearby, begarsis, -ė; bekryptis, -ė; bevietis, -ė. Repetition of derivatives formed analogously also sharpens the lexical meaning of the neologisms and draws the addressee’s attention: what seemed lost forever would suddenly emerge from the gray soundless distance-less directionless fog GD36441; the ward was overcrowded, and there were perhaps twenty of us, so without places and without wards, there were perhaps twenty of us TV167. 2.4. D e r i v a t i v e s w i t h e n d i n g s: the dictionary-unrecorded adjective grimzdus, -i “one into which one sinks,” is formed from the verb grimzti with the ending –us, -i (October nights are deep and sinkable B114); the derivative nepasotas, –a (: nepa(si)sotinti), formed with the ending –as, –a, means “insatiable, never full”: Soon those unsated herons came flocking back KR12942. 2.5. C o m p o u n d s. In Lithuanian, adjectival compounds usually have “a lexical meaning clearly dependent on both constituents” (LKG 1965: 591) and often have a nominal (noun or adjective) second constituent. The first constituent of such compounds is usually a word related to the noun (the second constituent) as its modifier (see LKG 1965: 596; DLKG 2005: 229). Forty-four adjectival compounds were found in the works of Lithuanian writers, 42 of which have a nominal second constituent. Most often, the first constituent of compounds is adjectival. They indicate a distinctive property of the object denoted by the second constituent and tell what that 40 See 1.1 for this. 41 In Leonardo Gutauskas’s work, no comma is placed between coordinate modifiers. 42 It is difficult to say for certain that this is not a noun used as an appositive (only one example of this derivative was found). BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 17 daiktas turi ypatingą (daugiau žr. LKG 1965: 596–597; DLKG 2005: 229): didžiakilpis, -ė, didžiapautis, -ė43; liūdnaakis, -ė; mėlynėkelnis, -ė; minkštalūpis, -ė; murzinanosis, -ė; pilkakaklis, -ė; plačiašnervis, -ė; putliakrūtė; raudonkailis, -ė; raudonplytis, -ė; raudonmūris, -ė; raudonšvarkis, -ė; rausvašonis, -ė; skaidriaplunksnis, -ė; slaptasparnis, -ė; žaliadugnis, -ė; žaliasielis, -ė; žaliažvilgsnis, -ė; žilakuokštis, -ė. Kai kurių dūrinių leksinė reikšmė sutampa su darybine reikšme, pvz.: didžiakilpis, -ė „kuris didelėmis kilpomis“ (Mazgai labai įmantrūs, didžiakilpiai KE47); pilkakaklis, -ė „kuris pilku kaklu“ (Pilkakaklis kovas. Doroja balkone batono riekę K284); rausvašonis, -ė „kurio šonai rausvi ar raudoni“ (Prisiyrusi prie rausvašonės laukinės kriaušiukės KE215). Būdvardžiais apibūdinami įvardyti ar numanomi konkrečius dalykus reiškiantys daiktavardžiai, pvz.: Yra tokių, kurie stovi ant kalvos, įsirėžę, didžiapaučiai, o visas pasaulis – karių banda po kojom LM79; sulaikė tik liūdnaakis šeimos galva SR82; Du mėlynėkelniai milicininkai bevaikščiojo po miestelį TV167; paskolindavo mane ir vežimėlį tų murzinanosių plepių mergaičių pulkeliui GD20; plačiašnervis veršių šerikas K401; toks jau tos putliakrūtės virvelinukės būdas KE149; stengiasi ant palangės užkelti nusipėnėjusią raudonkailę katę K363; atsirėmęs į raudonplytį kaminą K353; į raudonmūrius gimdymo namus K396; išgiršta krizenant už krūmo kažkokį raudonšvarkį žmogėlį K305; Todėl aną kantrųjį akmenį dievaitis pavertė skaidriaplunksniu vilties paukščiu KR23; Nesvarbu, kas jis būtų – lieptelis, žmogpaukštis⁴⁴, slaptasparnis angelas ar kentauras K250; kaip barmenas į aukštą stiklinę <...> iš molinio ąsotėlio šliūkšteli šalto vandens ir žaliadugnė stiklinė nusidažo balzgana pieno rūko spalva VP14; knailai stryčioja ne žilakuokštis senis, bet naivus Holivudo komedijos herojus KE150. Kai kurių dūrinių leksinė reikšmė nutolusi nuo darybinės, pavyzdžiui, būdvardis minkštalūpis, -ė, kuriuo apibūdinamas personifikuotas liūdesys, vartojamas perkeltine reikšme „neskaudinantis, neslegiantis“ ([liūdesys] Lengvas, minkštalūpis, nemaudžiantis. Su kūrybingo ilgesio ženklais K285); būdvardžiu žaliasielis, -ė turinčiu reikšmę „kuris žalios spalvos“, apibūdinamas jūros dugnas ir laukas (Ir staiga iš tos žaliasielės jūros dugno K321; tūkstančiai skaidrių papūgėlių, trumpam plykstelėjusių virš žaliasielio lauko K322), o būdvardis žaliažvilgsnis, -ė turi reikšmę „kuris žalių akių“ (saulėtekis, žaliažvilgsnė moteris K295). Compounds striped-frame; beautiful-smiling; multicoloured-flaming; multifaceted; broad-souled; big-hearted; broad-smiling; low-born have the derivational meaning “having that which the second constituent denotes, characterized by what it denotes, as specified by the first” (DLKG 2005: 230). For some compounds, the lexical meaning essentially coincides with the derivational meaning, e.g., striped-frame ‘one with striped frames’ (with striped frames eyelashes K453; watched that 43 It is thought that the first constituent of the compounds big-hoofed and big-shoed is based on the adjective big, rather than great (on the mismatch between semantic and formal motivation, see Urbutis 2009: 101). 44 See section 1.3 for a discussion. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 18 įvairialiepsnį švytėjimą GD113; Jie [rašytojai] ten gyvena pakankamai įvairiaplanį alternatyvųjį gyvenimą KN129; [vyriškis] Plačiašypsnis, retos padermės K416; o prastakilmliai nugalėtojai siautėjo kaip senovės barbarai GD120), kiti dūriniai turi perkeltinę reikšmę (metaforiška vartosena), pvz.: gražiašypsnis, -ė „malonus, šviesus“ (skubu papasakoti keistą ir gražiašypsnį įspūdį, kurį sukėlė viena užsienio radijo laida K253); plačiadūšis, -ė „kuris atviras, atlapaširdis“ (jo vyrai vienas po kito kapituliavo prieš tą plačiadūšį bezdalių SRII147); plačiaširdis, -ė „kuris didelės širdies“ (plačiaširdės meilės pardavėjos SR45). Būdvardžiai apvalažandis, -ė45 („kurio forma panaši į žandus“); putliažandis, -ė („kurio forma panaši į putlius žandus“); rantytanosis, -ė („kuris turi rantytą nosį“)46 turi darybinę reikšmę „panašus į daiktą, kurį rodo antrasis dėmuo, apibrėžiamas pirmojo“. Ir šie naujadarai eina epitetais, pvz.: ji [mergina] visiškai nebepirminė tos apvalažandės vyš­naitės SR167; Už lango – keisčiausios putliažandžių debesų formos K285; Jie [vaikai] pirmieji pastebėdavo rantytanosius žuvėdų laivus BLB17. Compounds formed from two nouns—golden-hoofed, elephant-legged47, sword-toothed, deceit-eyed, and pig-snouted—denote ‘a distinctive part of the entity referred to, named by the second constituent and characterized by the first’ (DLKG 2005: 231). The first constituent of the adjectives golden-hoofed ‘having golden hooves’ (golden-hoofed the deer does not take a single step GD418); elephant-legged ‘whose legs resemble an elephant’s’ (This one too was dirty, the color and smell of untanned leather, elephant-legged KE173); pig-snouted ‘whose snout resembles a pig’s’ (pig-snouted little devils you are mine K452) indicates what the part of the entity denoted by the compound resembles. Two compounds have a figurative meaning of resemblance: sword-toothed ‘whose teeth are (sharp) like a sword’s’ (Sword-toothed a tiger, if not more B84) and deceit-eyed ‘deceptive’ ([day] white-toothed and deceit-eyed, flirtatious and open-hearted, fiery, receding EK146). Several compounds are formed from a verb and a noun. The first constituent of these unproductive formations is (as is usual) based on the past passive participle of a verb and denotes a distinctive part of the entity referred to. All compounds with a literal meaning function as epithets of concrete nouns: broken-winged (: broken, wing); cut-off-knobbed (: cut off, knob); furrowed-browed (: furrowed, brow), e.g.: or perhaps they are not covered with butterflies, perhaps with wounded broken-winged hawks K359; pulled out his cut-off knob gun SRII288; all around are plenty of arrogant, furrowed-browed people, who have crawled into their own holes, “creators” K188. 45 This compound has the connecting vowel -a-, rather than -ia-, as is usual for compounds of this type, e.g., round-headed, round-bottomed, and so on. 46 The neologism is probably based on the meaning of the noun nose ‘a protruding, pointed part of an object (the front of a ship, the spout of a vessel, the toe of a shoe, etc.)’ DLKŽ. 47 This derivative is also used as a noun in the work; see section 1.3. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 19 The compound tūkstantveidis, -ė, which may be considered a potential formation, has the cardinal numeral tūkstantis ‘a thousand’ as its first constituent, indicating the number of parts of the object denoted by the word it qualifies. In the text, however, this neologism is used figuratively: the personified poetry it describes does not have exactly a thousand faces, but simply many—in other words, it is diverse48: therefore poetry is destined to be not only two-faced, but also tūkstantveidei, but in a divine, not demonic, sense K248. The neologism savoipakankamas, -a (: save, pakankamas) is to be regarded as a non-productive formation derived from pronouns and adjectives (see LKG 1965: 601). This adjective is used in the sense ‘one who is sufficient unto oneself’; it essentially repeats what is expressed in the adjacent phrase: the great nations are sufficient unto themselves, they are savoipakankamos, and needlessly DK62. The neologism viršmentalinis, -ė, used in the sense ‘situated above the mental’, is based on the preposition virš ‘above’ and the international adjective mentalinis49: Viršmentalinės spheres K142. 2.6. Aptariamuose tekstuose rasti 9 naujadarai laikytini m i š r i o s d a r y b o s50 dariniais: su priešdėliais iki-, po- ir priesagomis -iškas, -a; -inis, -ė sudaryti naujadarai ikidonelaitiškas, -a „buvęs iki Donelaičio“ (Ikidonelaitiškoji Lietuvos era, neįtikėtina DD189); ikikolumbinis, -ė „buvęs iki Kolumbo laikų“ (tenykštės ikikolumbinės dvasios aiškiai trūko KN184); ikimobiliakinis, -ė KN122 „buvęs anksčiau negu mobilieji telefonai“ (Ikimobiliakinė balanos gadynė KN12251); podekartinis „atsiradęs po Dekarto“ (podekartinis mąstymas K252); priešėjiminis, -ė „atsirandantis prieš išėjimą“ (sunkiai nupasakojama priešėjiminė būsena K169). Although the neologism potragedinis, -ė could theoretically be based on the adjective tragedinis, -ė, it is thought to form a derivational opposition with the noun tragedija ‘tragedy’ (and is therefore the result of prefixation–suffixation), since it is used in the sense ‘arising after a tragedy’ (a hero who experiences the catharsis of potragedinės space K148). Neologisms containing the element virš and the suffixes -inis, -ė and -iškas, -a may also be considered mixed-formation (compounding–suffixation) derivatives: viršliteratūrinis, -ė; viršsąmoninis, -ė; smulkiachuliganiškas, -a. Formally, the derivatives viršliteratūrinis, -ė; viršsąmoninis, -ė could be based on the adjective literatūrinis, -ė and the noun viršsąmonė recorded in ND, but semantically they are closer to phrases: viršliteratūrinis, -ė ‘situated above literature, higher than literature’; viršsąmoninis, -ė ‘situated above consciousness, higher than consciousness’. The neologisms function as modifiers of nouns with various meanings, for example: he will lack some kind of “non-literary” or “viršliteratūrinės” light 48 Thus, the neologism tūkstantveidis, -ė is based on the meaning of the base word tūkstantis ‘denoting an indefinite multitude’ (LKŽė). 49 Apie šį darinį, vartojamą ir Viktorijos Daujotytės tekstuose, žr. Vaskelienė 2016: 162. 50 Apie mišriuosius darybos būdus žr. Urbutis 2009: 340–342, Keinys 1999: 82, priešdėlius ir priesagas turintys būdvardžiai minimi ir LKG 1965: 591. 51 In Kęstutis Navakas’s text, the identified neologism ikimobiliakinis is based on the slang word mobiliakas (see the Consultation Bank of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language. Available online: http://www.vlkk.lt/konsultacijos/791-mobiliakas (accessed July–August 2017). BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 20 K7652; the bird-like nature of the “Thrush” represents two worlds at oncepasauliam—the subconscious and the viršsąmoniniam K248; this will be done only after sufficient radiant energy, Grace, and viršsąmoninės clarity K338. The neologism smulkiachuliganiškas, -a is based on the adjective smulkus, -i, the noun chuliganas, and bears the suffix -iškas, -a53 (With this [work] we had to redeem our smulkiachuliganiškas faults TV66). 3. FEATURES OF THE FORMATION AND SEMANTICS OF NEOLOGISMS IN VERBS AND THEIR FORMS A total of 36 neologisms of verbs (and their forms) were found in the texts of Lithuanian writers: 25 are formed with prefixes, 9 with suffixes, and 2 may be considered formations with an unsettled system of derivational stages (see Fig. 4). FIG. 4. Neologisms of verbs (and their forms) The majority of the neologisms (28, i.e. 78 percent of all formations) are based on base words included in dictionaries; 8 (i.e. 22 percent) are based on potential base words. 3.1. Verbs formed with 8 prefixes: su- (subėzdžionėti, sudizaininti, suformuoti, sukalbinti, suklemensėti, supopierėti, sustulpėti), pa- (pakiaulavoti, pakiaulinti, paviolėtuoti), nu- (nušurmuliuoti, nužlebšėti, nuvampyrinti), pra- (pravirventi, praskurnėti, pratursenti), iš- (išbaisinti, išmešlinti, išsispruzdinti), į- (įskausminti, įsikaburkštinti), ap- (apsibumbuluoti), at- (atvibruoti), par- (parkriokinti), už- (užsigležinti). Most (18) 52 It should be noted that the neologism, like the prefixed derivative ne- used alongside it, neliteratūrinis, -ė, is written in quotation marks. 53 Another interpretation of the derivation of this neologism is also possible: since the phrase smulkus chuliganas has acquired an independent meaning, one may say that the adjective smulkiachuliganiškas, -a is formed from this phrase with the suffix -iškas, -a. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 21 most prefixed derivatives are based on verbs recorded in dictionaries, e.g.: subeždžionėti (: beždžionėti), suformuotuoti (: formuoti), nušurmuliuoti (: šurmuliuoti), praskurnėti (: skurnėti) and others; a few (7) are based on potential base words: sudizaininti (: *dizaininti: dizainas), sukalbinti (: *kalbinti: kalba), suklemensėti (: *klemensėti: Klemensas), supopierėti (: *popierėti: popierius), pakiaulavoti (: *kiaulavoti54: kiaulė), paviolētuoti (: *violetuoti: violetinis?), nuvampyrinti (: *vampyrinti: vampyras). Prefixes modify the meanings of base verbs in various ways, adding features to the action expressed by the base word. Neologisms with the prefix su- indicate intensity or completion of the action, e.g.: subeždžionėti ‘to turn into a monkey’, sudizaininti ‘to finish designing’, suformuotuoti ‘to finish forming’, sukalbinti ‘to turn into language’, suklemensėti ‘to turn into Klemensas / become like Klemensas’, supopierėti ‘to turn into paper’, sustulpėti ‘to turn into a pillar, become pillar-like’55. The meanings of some derivatives become clear from a minimal lexical context (She touched the silver fork on the table. No, not the one he himself had made, “sudizainino56 DK10; Even if you babble, that babble has been quite differently suformuotuota KN49; So essentially we are talking here not about the helplessness of reality, but of linguistic reality (sukalbintos?) reality K83); others require a broader (work-level) context (They said that the nine-bedžiai had prospered and suklemensėjo KR111 – Klemensas is a character in the work). Some derivatives with the prefix su- are used figuratively: an action of an inanimate object is transferred to a person (He waved his hand to Keršė once more (the hand is not visible on the poster, but that does not matter) and falls silent, supopierėja, becomes a mute product of the printing industry B56; This one – now a guest in the house – sat sustulpėjęs DK93) or, conversely, an inanimate thing (the abstract Ego) is described by a participle of a verb denoting a concrete action (subeždžionėjusio particles of Ego K390). The neologisms pakiaulinti and the hybrid pakiaulavoti may be regarded as synonyms—both are used to mean ‘to do someone a dirty turn’: Could I have remained in his debt? Or perhaps done something really awful to him? pakiaulinęs? Pakiaulinti—that’s something I know how to do Č192; when I feel like doing someone pakiaulavoti, I really feel like it Č108. The neologism pavioletuoti, based on a potential word of non-Lithuanian origin, expresses the intensity of an action; it is formed by analogy with the common derivatives of the prefix pa- used nearby: pajuoduoti, pamėlynuoti. The neologism is used to mean ‘to become violet’ (at that time of year the trees stand blackened, bluish, pavioletavę A448). Several neologisms are formed with the prefix nu-: the verbs to bustle away “to move off while bustling”56 and to trudge away “to go away, to shuffle off” show that the action denoted by the base word is directed away (And what about the just bustled-away holidays or days of universal gluttony 54 The verb has the foreign suffix -avoti (see the List of Major Language Errors (word structure). Available online: http://www.vlkk.lt/aktualiausios-temos/didziosios-klaidos/zodziu-sandaros (accessed August 2017). 55 It cannot be ruled out that the verb sustulpėti is a calque. 56 Recognizing its novelty, the neologism is highlighted in the work. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 22 only one or another more ingenious advertising slogan mentions EK70–71; And he scrapes himself off and shuffles off to his homestead Č161). The participle of the verb nuvampyrinti (“to exhaust,” probably used in the sense “drained by a vampire”) may be regarded as an occasional formation; it indicates the intensity and completion of the quality resulting from an action: love (God, the Universe, a child, a tree, an animal, the starry sky...) – and you will have no energy worries, you will never feel drained like a lemon, nuvampyrintas by those who are also already empty K119. Derivatives with the prefix pra-—pravirventi, praskurnėti, pratursenti—indicate that the action expressed by the base word takes place past someone or something (this is a typical meaning of pra- derivatives; see LKG 1971: 285; DLKG 2005: 403). The meaning of derivatives considered potential formations (all used to denote passing by at a certain speed57) becomes clear from the context, e.g.: Such a one, only much smaller [devil], at night pravirvenoacross the floorboards and crept into the cave LM14; no one is driving by just now, not even the puppy nepratursena Č169; Across the yard, if you need something, you can praskurnėtiunless some housewife happens by Č156. Two neologisms are formed with the prefix į-: the verb įsikabulkštinti (“to climb in”) indicates that the action is directed in a particular direction—in this case, upward (When hungover, he had a habit of going into the forest and įsikaburkštintiup into the tallest spruce A32), while the verb įskausminti (“to hurt”) carries an intensive meaning (Silence... She wraps the noise įskausmintasour ears in royal silks K295). Verbs considered potential formations are made with the prefix iš-, which modifies the action expressed by the base verb: the verb išsispruzdinti (“to emerge with great difficulty”) indicates the direction of the action denoted by the main verb, from inside to outside (It was necessary to išsispruzdintiout from under the bed A104), while the verbs išbaisinti (“to make frightening”) and išmešlinti (“to smear with manure”) indicate the intensity and completion of the action (It was not the years that išbaisinoBronius’s voice so much, but his service A102; Envy me, all of you, who were not thrown into the water and neišmėšlintieji! A476). One neologism was found with each of the other prefixes: apsibumbuluoti, atvibruoti, nuliaušti, parkriokinti, užsigeležinti58. The derivative with the prefix ap-, apsibumbuluoti, is used to mean “to go all covered in bobbles,” while the derivative with the prefix at-, atvibruoti, means “to approach while vibrating, quivering, or shaking.” The active participles of both verbs serve as noun epithets: her chest, tightly outlined by a gray apsibumbulavusiusweater, seemed even to have grown by two sizes DD173; Only love is a reality that has atvibravusionto the psychological plane K102. The derivative with the prefix nu-, nuliaušti (“to become threadbare”), indicates that, as the action denoted by the base word continues for some time, something—in this case, a hat—becomes worn down59 (Antanas, wearing a somewhat better jacket and a hat not quite so badly nuliaušusiąon his head Č117); the derivative with the prefix par-, parkriokinti, means “to bring or transport (with a crash, noisily)” 57Neologisms have additional semantic components. 58It should be noted that the neologisms nuliaušti, parkriokinti are based on meanings of the verbs liaušti, kriokinti that differ from those given in dictionaries. 59 Apie priešdėlio nu- reikšmes daugiau žr. LKG 1971: 279–281. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 23 indicates that “while the action denoted by the base word is taking place, something or someone is directed or turns toward home” (LKG 1971: 282) (the kolkhoz provided two tractors, which on specially made drags parkriokinothe very largest stone TV86), whereas the derivative with the prefix už-, užsigelėžinti (“to steel oneself”), indicates the intensity of the action (the devil užsigelėžinusiodid not seize him A38). 3.2. 9 neologisms are derivatives formed with the suffixes -auti, -čioti, -inėti, -telėti (-telti), -uoti, -uliuoti. The meaning of some derivatives is easy to understand, e.g.: kugždinėti “to rustle, move, stir gradually, little by little” (From a distance one can see that inside something is kugždinėja Č165); šaščioti “to keep darting about” (the machine šaščiojo, as if it knew the way VP18); sviduliuoti “to gleam repeatedly, to flash” (he looked at her, sviduliuojančią in the evening light that was beginning to fade VP81); vienišuoti “to be lonely” (to spend some time with vienišuojančia spirit of the fields K258). Context makes the meaning of the verb haliucinuoti, based on a foreign-derived root, “to be as if in a hallucination, unreal,” inferable: Damn, are those sunflowers real or imaginary, existing or haliucinuojančios on the edge of consciousness?! KE141. Derivatives formed with the diminutive-action suffix -telėti (-telti), namely tvirktelėti “to become (a little) debauched, to let oneself go” and mąstelti “to think a little, briefly” are atypical because of the mismatch between the meaning conveyed by the suffix and the meaning of the base word60: with those piquant, tvirktelėjusiomis stories, like spices, she sprinkled the conversation DD61; to think he never nemąstė, perhaps he only mąsteldavo, but subtly KE175 – in the latter example, the figure of repetition is prominent. The neologism to be utterly alone is probably used in the sense of “to be completely alone.” The addressee’s attention is drawn to the participles used alongside and describing, specifying the noun Being: being utterly alone, suffering, existing: A human being, <...> gazing into the secrets of the cosmosbeing utterly alone (perhaps even suffering; the participle “existing” is unsuitable here) Being is soon pursued by paranoia K389. The neologism to blaspheme, formed by analogy with the dictionary-recorded derivative, is based on a potential base word; to speak sacred words (: *sacredword: sacred, word), is used in the sense “to say beautiful, sacred words”: Sacred and at the same time speaking sacred words words? K222 (the sentence repeats words with the roots sacred- and word-). 3.3. The neologism pasigrūdinėti (: grūdinėtis / pasigrūsti) should be considered a derivative with an unsettled system of derivational stages, although it cannot be ruled out that it is a mixed-formation derivative—formed from the verb grūstis with the prefix pa- and suffix -inėti. The verb pasigrūdinėti denotes a repeated action, “to crowd together many times, gradually” (Outside they merrily pasigrūdinėja around the little tables Č197). The derivative dvivienišiauti should be considered an occasionalism, used only in that text and suited to it; it means “to feel lonely while being together as a pair.” Although Lithuanian has no compound verbs, this neologism can be treated as a compound formed from the neologism vienišiauti, listed in ND 60 The derivative mąstelti shows an apparent morpheme blend (mąst-yti + -telti). BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 24 and the cardinal numeral dui, or regard it as a mixed-formation derivative with a discontinuous formant (the junction dvi, vienišas, –a and the suffix –auti). The cognate neologisms vienišiauti ir dvivienišiauti are used in the same sentence: When I am alone, I vienišiauju; when I am with her, we dvivienišiaujam KE162. 4. FORMATION AND SEMANTIC FEATURES OF ADVERBIAL NEOLOGISMS The texts by Lithuanian writers under discussion contain 36 adverbs adverbs not recorded in LKŽ, DLKŽ, BŽa, LKŽPK, or ND. They have manner meaning and are formed with the most productive suffix –ai: 10 derivatives are formed from base words recorded in dictionaries: alpulingai, girtuokliškai, gudragalviškai, makabriškai, marginaliai, pasišventėliškai, rutiniškai, sąmokšliškai, siaurakaktiškai, vijurkiškai, while 26 derivatives are based on potential base words, most of which (23 formations, or 86 percent of the adverbial neologisms) are neologisms formed with the suffix –iškas, –a: albatro­siškai (: *albatro­siškas: albatrosas), berazumiškai (: *berazumiškas: berazumis), ciceroniškai (: *ciceroniškas: Ciceronas), etc.61 Many neologisms are used as implicit comparisons (or metaphorical epithets), e.g.: girtuokliškai ligotas mąstymas – thought [sick] like a drunkard; gudragalviškai klausinėti – to ask questions [intelligently] like a clever person; mintys sukasi vijurkiškai – thoughts spin [quickly] like a top; gaidžiukiškai dudena – coos like a cockerel; kengūriškai nušuokuoti – to hop away like a kangaroo; sugnybti kineziterapeutiškai – to pinch as a physiotherapist would; šaipytis pajaciškai – to mock like a clown. It should be noted that the meaning of all the adverbs formed from base words recorded in dictionaries (1) and from potential base words (2) is clear in a phrase or sentence: (1) [the girl] Graceful as a mountain doe, alpulingai yearning like a spring KR38; sluggishly and girtuokliškai with sick thinking K239; it is not worth gudragalviškai to ask questions K232; his laughter makabriškaicascaded beneath the church dome DD189; as an object in this context, shrimp would look very marginaliai KN140; Life is not lived, but with difficulty, patiently, pasišventėliškai <...> forced into Procrustes’ bed K39; She did it routinely, rutiniškai KE196; the gynecologist’s reminder rutiniškaito get checked for cervical cancer DD95; they sąmokšliškaifall silent K365; So perhaps it is not worth siaurakaktiškaito absolutize even this K250; if only his thoughts did not vijurkiškai spin around K357; 61 stupidly (: *stupid: idiot), Eurocentrically (: *Eurocentric: Eurocentrism), cockerel-like (: *cockerel-like: cockerel), deep-like (: *deep: depths), Haydnishly (: *Haydnish: Haydn), heterically (: *heteric: hetaira), Homerically (: *Homeric: Homer), Kafkianly (: *Kafkian: Kafka), kangaroo-like (: *kangaroo-like: kangaroo), kinesiotherapeutically (: *kinesiotherapeutic: kinesiotherapist), kvatoklisch (: *kvatoklish: kvatoklis), fatefully (: *fateful: fate), mantra-like (: *mantra-like: mantra), Medusianly (: *Medusian: Medusa), Mozartianly (: *Mozartian: Mozart), unintelligently (: *unintelligent: ignoramus), tiringly (: *tiring: fatigue), clownishly (: *clownish: clown), self-grievously (: *self-grievous: self-grief), emeraldly (: *emerald: emerald), stiffly (: *stiff: to stiffen), beetle-like (: *beetle-like: beetle), uniquely (: *unique: the only one). BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 25 (2) tarsi kokį angelą sargą, albatrosiškai nerangų Anapusių62 pasiuntinį K143; gi taip berazumiškai šaudot Č74; pamokslą sako su įkvėpimu. Kartais ciceroniškai retoriškai Č195; tarp debiliškai besivaipančių nelaimingų išprotėjėlių K294; Tie straipsniukai dažnai būna europocentriškai protingi K279; gaidžiukiškai dudenančis pusbernio baritonas K358; nemylėdamas kitų, niekados neįstengsi gelmeniškai mylėti savęs K102; Prisiminkime <...> jo haidniškai grakštų kalbos pakraštį K302; Bręsdamos jos [moterys] tiktai gražėja ir prieš savo valią tampa heteriškai plėšrios KE190; homeriškai išjuokti vienpusę aistrą K39; novelės finalas <...> veikiau kafkiškai borchesiškas63 KE79; Tada moteriškutė <...> kengūriškai nušokavo lazdynų pusėn KE35; Marta jai švelniai, bet tvirtai, kineziterapeutiškai sugnyba dilbį, o Algis pradeda šnypšti DD44; Sukoncentruoti sąmonę į spindulį ir pasišviesti juo. Nesvarstant, mocartiškai lengvai, kvatokliškai K291; Į rytus nuo Berlyno tai visada skambėjo likimiškai KN19; aš niekad nesugebėsiu deramai intonuoti, mantriškai tiksliai ištarti nė vienos eilutės K271; tvarkėsi neišmanėliškai SRII72; O parke lyja, varge, kaip nuoogaringai pliaupia K463; pajaciškai šaipėsi KE88; Pastaruoju metu jis puldavo į neviltį vis dažniau ir dažniau, kartais net savigriuoviškai DD163; iš Brazilijos atvežtos smaragdžškai auksinės <...> plunksnos GD384; vanduo buvo toks stingliai ramus VP26; vabališkai ropoti K79; tu pats <...> vieninteliau pašauktas ir išbrauktas iš visų sąrašų K73. Naujadaras medūziškai pavartotas greta analogiškos darybos darinio paukštiškai: Eliezeras <...> paukštiškai pasistiebdavo, juokingai ir sykiu kažki kaip medūziškai išsigaubdavo KE150. CONCLUSIONS 1. Nouns and adjectives make up the vast majority (82%) of the neologisms found in the works of the thirteen Lithuanian authors studied. Most formations belong to productive types and are considered potential formations (primarily abstract nouns, names of agents, names of persons by origin, adjectives in -iškas, -a; -ingas, -a, numerous compound nouns and adjectives, prefixed verbs, and adverbs). There are also occasional formations (dvivienišauti, mastelti). 2. The largest groups of noun neologisms are suffixal derivatives and compounds. The works of all the authors abound in units of abstract vocabulary (48% of the neologisms can be classified as verbal and nominal abstracts). The second constituent of compounds is most often based on a noun (this is the case for 88% of compounds). 3. Suffixal derivatives in -iškas, -a make up the vast majority of adjective neologisms (82% of suffixal adjectives). They are abundant in the works of all the authors. Adjectives in -iškas, -a 62 See 1.1 for discussion. 63 See 2.1 for discussion. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 26 are derived from various base words: almost half of them (48% of the neologisms formed with the suffix –iškas, –a) are based on personal names, while the others are formed from primary nouns of various semantic types, but also often from derived nouns—derivatives (burtažodiškas, –a; gelmeniškas, –a; gyvsidabriškas, –a; pieštukiškas, –a; sausainiškas, –a, etc.). 4. Most adjective compounds (95%) have a noun as their second constituent; the first constituent of these compounds is most often an adjective (such formations make up 74% of all compounds with a noun as the second constituent). 5. The majority of all neologisms (349, i.e. 88% of all formations) are based on base words attested in dictionaries; 48 neologisms (22%) are formed from potential base words—derivatives. A larger proportion (72%) of adverbs are based on neologisms; their potential base words are usually adjectives in –iškas, –a (these account for 88% of the base words). Although, in essence, all derivational chains are clear, there are neologisms whose derivational levels are not firmly established (neišmylėjimas: išmylėjimas / neišmylėti, pasigrūdinėti: grūdinėtis / pasigrūsti). 6. The meaning of neologisms (even without context) is entirely clear when the lexical meaning essentially coincides with the derivational meaning (this applies to verbal and nominal abstracts, names of agents and of bearers of verbal qualities, many compounds, verbs with a modifying meaning, and adverbs). 7. The meaning of neologisms is also clear when they are created by analogy with conventional formations, used nearby and having an understandable meaning, that are included in dictionaries (the neologism skaliklikis beside šveitiklis, ploviklis; the neologism angeliava beside velniava; the neologism bepalatis beside bevietis; and so on). 8. The meaning of all neologisms becomes clear in the context of a sentence or (in rare cases) a work: both those used figuratively (klastaakė day, minkštalūpis sadness), those whose lexical meaning is much more specific than their derivational meaning (džeržgalas and šiknalupis, meaning “bicycle”), and those based on potential base words and formed through several derivational levels (pasilabanaktinimas: *pasilabanaktinti: *labanaktintis: labanakt, gudragalviškai: *gudragalviškas: gudragalvis). 9. Neologisms in –iškas, –a almost always function as simple or metaphorical epithets, which give the words they modify new shades of meaning, while some are equivalent to similes. Adjectives in –iškas, –a derived from personal names are not only informative but also make it possible to express the intended idea more concisely, condensing the text. Many adverb neologisms function as metaphorical epithets. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 27 ŠALTINIAI A – Aputis J. 1986: Gegužė ant nulūžusio beržo. Vilnius: Vaga. B – Šerelytė R. 2006: Balzamuotojas. Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. BLB – Granauskas R. 2015: Baltas liūdesio balandis. Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. BŽ – Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. Liutkevičienė D. Prieiga internete: http://bkz.lki.lt/ (žiūrėta 2016 m. gegužės–rugsėjo mėn., 2017 m. liepos–rugpjūčio mėn.). BŽa – Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodyno antraštynas. Prieiga internete: http://bkz.lki.lt/antrastynas/?pg=c (žiūrėta 2016 m. gegužės–rugsėjo mėn., 2017 m. liepos–rugpjūčio mėn.). Č – Čigriejus A. 2011: Ir parnešė apynio kvapą. Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. DD – Sabaliauskaitė K. 2012: Danielius Dalba & kitos istorijos. [Vilnius]: Baltos lankos. DK – Kalinauskaitė D. 2015: Skersvėjų namai. Vilnius: Tyto alba. DLKT – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos tekstynas. Prieiga internete: http://tekstynas.vdu.lt/tekstynas/ (žiūrėta 2017 m. liepos–rugpjūčio mėn.). DLKŽ 2012– Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. S. Keinys. 7-as pataisytas ir papildytas leidimas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: http://lkiis.lki.lt/dabartinis (žiūrėta 2016 m. gegužės–rugsėjo mėn., 2017 m. liepos–rugpjūčio mėn.). EK – Karnauskaitė E. 2012: Ievos laiškai iš Galudienių miesto. Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. GD – Gutauskas L. 2008: Daiktai. Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. I – Granauskas R. 2015: Išvarytieji. Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. K – Kajokas D. 2002: Lietaus migla Lu kalne. Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. KE – Kajokas D. 2012: Ežeras ir kiti jį lydintys asmenys. Vilnius: Tyto alba. KN – Navakas K. 2008: Du lagaminai sniego. Vilnius: Tyto alba. KR – Saja K. 2013: Kinivar(p)ų raštai. Vilnius: Typoart. KTŽ 1990 – Gaivenis K., Keinys S. Kalbotyros terminų žodynas. Kaunas: Šviesa. LKŽₑ – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas, t. I–XX, elektroninis variantas. Prieiga internete: http://www.lkz.lt (žiūrėta 2016 m. gegužės–rugsėjo mėn., 2017 m. liepos–rugpjūčio mėn.). LKŽPK 2015 – Skaitmeninė Lietuvių kalbos žodyno papildymų kartoteka. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: http://lkiis.lki.lt/antra-kartoteka (žiūrėta 2016 m. gegužės–rugsėjo mėn., 2017 m. liepos–rugpjūčio mėn.). BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 JOLANTA VASKELIENĖ. Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai | 28 LM – Šerelytė R. 2006: Laukiniai mėnesiai. Vilnius: Alma littera. ND – Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas. Sudarytoja R. Miliūnaitė. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: http://naujažodziai.lki.lt/ (žiūrėta 2016 m. gegužės–rugsėjo mėn., 2017 m. liepos–rugpjūčio mėn.). SR – Sabaliauskaitė K. 2008: Silva Rerum. [Vilnius]: Baltos lankos. SRII – Sabaliauskaitė K. 2011: Silva Rerum II. [Vilnius]: Baltos lankos. TG – Granauskas R. 2014: Trečias gyvenimas. Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. TV – Granauskas R. 2013: Trys vienatvės. Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. TŽŽ 2003 – Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas.Vilnius: Alma littera. UR – Radzevičiūtė U. 2010: Frankburgas. Vilnius: Tyto alba. VP – Papievis V. 2010: Eiti. Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla. 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