Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis?

DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language WHAT PART OF SPEECH IS THE PARTICIPLE? KEY WORDS: grammar, parts of speech, verb, verb forms, participle, gerund, half-participle. INTRODUCTION When work began on creating the Information System of Lithuanian Grammar (LIGIS)1, interest arose in how parts of speech are described in various publications. Many inconsistencies were noted in discussions of the participle. This prompted the decision to write this article, which reviews the assignment of the participle to a part of speech, from the earliest grammars to the present day. It should be said that, over time, linguists’ views change not only on the participle. Sometimes, even at the same time, individual linguists interpret certain linguistic phenomena differently. This is particularly evident in publications intended for different purposes. For example, in books for the general public in the early 1970s, the infinitive morpheme -ti was considered an ending. Juozas Žiugžda writes in his grammar: “The infinitive has the ending -ti.” (Žiugžda 1971: 139). In scholarly grammars, the same morphological phenomenon is viewed differently. The three-volume Lithuanian grammar published that same year states: “the infinitive has the suffix -ti or -t” (LKG 1971: 398). In the one-volume Lithuanian grammar, this infinitive morpheme is likewise called a suffix (DLKG 2006: 383). More similar examples could be found. This article proposes interpreting the participle differently from the way it is treated in linguistics publications today: considering it a separate part of speech rather than a verb form—and presents arguments to support this claim. It should be emphasized that words are classified very differently across languages. Almost all languages have nouns and verbs, and this is true not only of Indo-European languages—for example, Tamil, which belongs to the Dravidian language family2. In a work dating from around 500 BCE that describes Tamil grammar, words are divided into four groups: 1 Information System of Lithuanian Grammar. Available online: http://ligis.lki.lt/ (accessed 2018 03 03). 2 Wikipedia. Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_language (accessed 2018 03 03). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? | 2 1) nouns, 2) verbs, 3) words that mark the relation between a verb and a noun, and 4) words that describe a noun or a verb3. However, there are significant differences in the classification of other words. For example, in Walter Jung’s German grammar, the numeral is not considered a separate part of speech, and it is said that words denoting numbers may be adjectives, nouns, pronouns, or adverbials4 (Jung 1967: 359). In another German grammar, the numeral is assigned to the adjective—it is called “Zahladjektiv” and discussed in the section on adjectives (Helbig, Buscha 1989: 320). Wikipedia offers a compromise, stating that in linguistics the numeral is sometimes considered an independent part of speech5, that is, only sometimes, but not always. Another example of an unusual characterization of words for us might be Japanese adjectives. They are inflected for tense6, e.g., blue – aoi, was blue – aokatta; hot – atsui, was hot – atsukatta, and so on. Thus, in each language, words are classified into parts of speech with due regard to that language’s specific features. The three-volume Lithuanian grammar published in 1965 states: “one should not assume that parts of speech are the same in quality and quantity in different languages” (LKG 1965: 31). Lithuanian authors draw on the works of foreign authors when writing grammars. Apparently, this is why in Lithuanian linguistic scholarship the participle is also regarded as a verb form. However, there are arguments that allow us to suppose that the participle could also be considered a separate part of speech. In English, the participle is in fact only a form, whereas in Lithuanian it is an entire paradigm. Descriptions of grammatical data intended for schools, as well as online information presented to the general public, already suggest the possibility of granting the participle the status of an independent part of speech. 1. DEVELOPMENT OF VIEWS ON THE CONCEPT OF THE PARTICIPLE Contemporary studies of Proto-Indo-European grammar state that words are divided into eight parts of speech: nouns, adjectives (including participles), pronouns, 3 Wikipedia. Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part_of_speech (accessed 2018 03 03). 4 “the numeral is not a part of speech in the strict sense. Adjectives and nouns, pronouns and adverbs can be ‘numerals’” (Jung 1967). 5 “In linguistics, the numeral is sometimes posited as an independent part of speech”, available online: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zahlwort (accessed 2018 03 03). 6 Wikipedia. Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_equivalents_of_adjectives (accessed 2018 03 03). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? | 3 verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections7. The classification of participles as adjectives is explained by the fact that, like adjectives, they indicate a quality (Quiles, López-Menchero 2011: 153). 1.1. Interpretation of the Participle in the Earliest Grammars The oldest surviving Sanskrit grammar, and also the oldest surviving grammar in the world, was written by Pāṇini in the fifth century BCE8, but it does not yet mention the participle. The participle is also absent from Yāska’s work on Sanskrit. The work itself has not survived to the present day, so it may be surmised that it was created even earlier9. As early as the second century BCE, Dionysius Thrax wrote the oldest known ancient grammar in Greek The Art of Grammar. Later grammars of Indo-European languages were written on the basis of its model (Kairienė 2003: 788). The Art of Grammar distinguishes eight parts of speech: noun, verb, participle, article, pronoun, preposition, adverb, and conjunction10. Latin grammars were written on the basis of Greek grammars. In his grammar De lingua latina, Varro identifies six parts of speech: noun, verb, participle, adverb, preposition, and conjunction. He divides all Latin words into inflecting and non-inflecting. Inflecting words are divided into four classes according to two criteria—tense and case: words inflected for both tense and case (participles); words inflected for neither tense nor case (adverbs); words inflected only for tense (verbs); and words inflected only for case (nouns)11. The Lithuanian grammar written by Kristupas Sapūnas and published by Teofilis Šulcas also adheres to the tradition of treating the participle as a separate part of speech. It presents eight parts of speech: four inflecting (noun, pronoun, participle, verb) and four non-inflecting (adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection) (Eigminas, Stundžia 1997: 27). In Danielius Kleinas’s grammar, the participle is not described in the section on verbs: it is presented in a separate section, equal in status to the sections on the other parts of speech, after the verb and before the adverb (Balčikonis, Larinas, Kruopas 1957: 504). Therefore, there is reason to consider that D. Kleinas regarded the participle as a separate part of speech. 7 “Words are divided into eight parts of speech: nouns, adjectives (including participles), pronouns, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections... A participle is a word that attributes quality like an adjective” (Quiles, López-Menchero 2011). 8 Wikipedia. Available online: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panini_(Grammatiker) (accessed 2018 03 03). 9 Wikipedia. Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C4%81ska (accessed 2018 03 03). 10 Wikipedia. Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part_of_speech (accessed 2018 03 03). 11 Available online: https://mokslai.lt/referatai/lietuviu-kalba/lingvistika.html (accessed 2018 03 03). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351–7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? | 4 1.2. Presentation of information about the participle in contemporary grammars In contemporary grammars (of both ancient and modern languages), the participle is described as a verb form. “Participles, originally nominal forms, gradually became integrated into the system of verb forms” (Ambrazas 1979: 16). Discussing when and for what reasons the participle was assigned to the verb would require a separate article. This paper will examine only the consequences of this phenomenon. The participle in grammars of ancient languages. In contemporary grammars of ancient languages (Latin and Greek), the participle is no longer considered a separate part of speech. Jonas Dumčius discusses the participle in the verb section of A Short Historical Grammar of Greek, alongside other morphological categories of the verb—tenses, persons, numbers, and so on (Dumčius 2011: 100). In the Latin grammar Elementa Latina, the participle is likewise presented as a non-finite verb form (Dumčius, Kuzavinis, Mironas 2010: 76). The participle in grammars of contemporary Indo-European languages. The Wikipedia12 article on parts of speech emphasizes that English grammar is written in accordance with the European tradition, except that the participle is regarded as a verb form rather than as a separate part of speech. This is also how it is presented in the most recent English grammars. In a contemporary English grammar, the participle is listed in a table of verb forms (Quirk et al. 1992: 62). In the Oxford English Grammar, the participle is identified as a non-standard verb form (Greenbaum, 1996: 132). The Oxford Guide to English Grammar describes eight major word classes: verb, noun, adjective, adverb, preposition, determiner, pronoun, and conjunction (Eastwood 2002: 1). As can be seen, the participle is not among them. In German grammars, the participle is also considered a verb form. In some, it is called a nominal verb form, described as non-finite (Jung 1967: 202). In others, it is described as an invariable verb form (Helbig, Buscha 1989: 105). In the most recent German grammar, which gives German names for parts of speech and morphological categories in place of the Latin terms used until then, the participle is called Mittelwort (literally translated as intermediate word, that is, intermediate between 12 Wikipedia. Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part_of_speech (accessed 2018 03 03). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? | 5 verb and adjective), but it is nevertheless described as an unmarked verb form—unbestimmte Verbform (Paukert, Holböck 2017: 7). The participle in Lithuanian is likewise assessed in grammars. In Frydrichas Kuršaitis’s grammar, published in 1876, the participle’s accentuation is discussed in the section on verb accentuation; thus, it can be said that he considered the participle a verb form, although the book states that participial inflection is based on adjective declension (Kuršaitis 2013: 357), so a certain inconsistency is already apparent. The influence of German grammar is clearly evident in F. Kuršaitis’s grammar. Participles are divided into adjectival participles, with the German equivalent Partizip I given, and adverbial participles (equivalent Partizip II) (Kuršaitis 2013: 358–359). The participle was also considered a verb form in twentieth-century linguistics. In Juozas Žiugžda’s grammar, the participle is defined as “a verb form having the properties of a verb and an adjective” (Žiugžda 1971: 174). The DLKG states: “The participle is an inflected form derived from a verb stem, having the properties of a verb and an adjective.” (DLKG 2006: 354). Russian linguists probably preserved the old tradition of considering the participle an independent part of speech for the longest time. In a 2012 school textbook, the participle is discussed in the section on independent parts of speech and defined as an independent part of speech denoting a property of an object related to an action and having the properties of an adjective and a verb13 (Бабайцева, Чеснокова 2012: 167). However, there are also Russian grammars in which the participle is defined differently: “the participle is an attributive verb form combining the meanings of two parts of speech—the verb and the adjective” (Шведова 1980: 664). 2. THE PLACE OF THE PARTICIPLE IN LITHUANIAN LINGUISTICS In the Lithuanian Grammar, which is written in English, the participle is discussed in the chapter on non-finite forms of the verb14 (LG 2006: 284). The Grammar of the Lithuanian Language lists 11 parts of speech, but does not mention the participle among them; it also notes that this classification of words was used in the grammar of Jonas Jablonskis, with only the treatment of the particle and the interjection differing (LKG 1965: 31). The 2011 Frequency Dictionary of Lithuanian Morphemics provides the following information about the participle bėgančio (Fig. 1): base form bėgti; verb, participle, masculine 13 “The participle is an independent part of speech that denotes a feature of an object by its action, combining the properties of an adjective and a verb” (Babaitseva, Chesnokova 2012). 14 “Non-finite forms of the verb” (LG 2006). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351–7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? |6 gender, present tense, singular genitive, active voice (Rimkutė, Kazlauskienė, Raškinis 2011: 596). bėg-anč-io bėgti; verb, participle, masculine gender, present tense, singular genitive, active voice. FIG. 1. Presentation of information about the word bėgančio in the Frequency Dictionary of Lithuanian Morphemics (Rimkutė, Kazlauskienė, Raškinis 2011: 596) Two years later, in 2013, the Lithuanian Morphemics Database, created at the Centre of Computational Linguistics of Vytautas Magnus University, no longer identifies the participle as a verb when providing information about it, although the database15 was compiled on the basis of the same morphemics dictionary. Fig. 2 shows how information about the participle bėgančio is presented in the Lithuanian Morphemics Database. FIG. 2. Presentation of information about the word bėgančio in the Lithuanian Morphemics Database The interactive database of Lithuanian language learning resources www.šaltiniai.info also includes procedures for morphological analysis. Here, the nominative is considered the base form of a participle, rather than the infinitive. Fig. 3 presents a morphological analysis of a participle in the sentence Atsisveikinę vaikai išėjo16. Example: Atsisveikinę vaikai išėjo. For the word Atsisveikinę: base form atsisveikinęs, participle, active, reflexive, past simple tense, masculine gender, plural nominative; in the sentence it functions as an adverbial of time (when did they leave? – after saying goodbye). FIG. 3. Morphological analysis of a participle in the sentence www.šaltiniai.info In a seventh-grade textbook for schools, the table for grammatical analysis of parts of speech (Fig. 4) lists the participle, adverbial participle, and half-participle in separate rows, just like all the independent parts of speech (Palubinskienė, Čepaitienė 2008: 185). Thus, the verb forms are presented 15 Lithuanian Morphemics Database. Available online: http://tekstynas.vdu.lt/page.xhtml?id=morfema-db (accessed 2018 03 03). 16 Interactive database of learning resources for the Lithuanian language, literature (culture), and Lithuanian history. Available online: http://www.šaltiniai.info/index/details/599%20 (accessed 2018 03 03). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? | 7 not alongside other such forms as the pronominal or reflexive forms. Moving the participle, adverbial participle and half-participle away from the edge of the line may indicate a certain dependence on the part of speech written one line above, but setting them apart on separate lines also shows a certain degree of independence. FIG. 4. Table for grammatical analysis of parts of speech in a seventh-grade textbook (Palubinskienė, Čepaitienė 2008: 185) In summary, it can be said that the participle is recognized as a distinct verb form that is more similar to an independent part of speech. In the table, the participle (as well as the adverbial participle and half-participle) is presented to pupils on a separate line, just like the other independent parts of speech. If it were considered a simple verb form, the heading of the column should be alongside BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? | 8 the pronominal and reflexive forms. The morphological analysis of parts of speech presented in a table in the aforementioned school textbook is clear and easy to understand. The information on the internet (Wikipedia) (Fig. 5), intended for the general public, also presents the participle (adverbial participle and half-participle) on a separate line, like the other independent parts of speech, and indicates the morphological categories characteristic of it; however, the greater indentation from the edge of the line still does not allow it to be regarded as a fully independent part of speech17. FIG. 5. Presentation of inflected parts of speech online, on Wikipedia 3. PROBLEMATIC CASES IN THE ASSESSMENT OF THE LITHUANIAN PARTICIPLE: ARGUMENTS “FOR” AND “AGAINST” That the currently widespread treatment of the participle as a verb form is not firmly grounded scientifically is also indicated by statements from scholars expressing a different view. Both in the works of Lithuanian linguists and in German grammars, the idea has been put forward that the participle, adverbial participle and half-participle are parts of speech other than the verb, for example, “participles denoting the properties of things may also be called adjectives” (Paulauskienė 2015: 201); “adverbial participles, being invariable words of circumstance, also function as adverbs in language” (Paulauskienė 1994: 373); “the participle, as an inflected form, is in fact a verbal adjective, whose primary function, like that of every adjective, is attributive, and whose second function is predicative, which can be performed only by the nominative” (Paulauskienė 2015: 356). A German grammar states that non-finite verb forms do not constitute a special word class, but belong 17 Wikipedia. Available online: https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalbos_dalis (accessed 2018 03 03). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? |9 to various other parts of speech18, e.g., the infinitive functions as a noun, participles as adjectives, and gerunds as adverbials or even particles19 and prepositions20 (Helbig, Buscha 1989: 113). Even when describing the analytical forms of the Lithuanian verb, which are perhaps the most important argument for treating the participle as a verb form, matters are not straightforward because participles can be interpreted in two ways. A participle with a finite verb may be regarded as synonymous with a finite form or as the nominal part of a compound predicate. No rules have been formulated for distinguishing them, and very often the same sentence can be interpreted in two ways: for example, I am already hungry may mean I have become hungry or I am hungry (Paulauskienė 2015: 356). It is further acknowledged that “To this day, not only the authors of morphologies but also those of syntaxes struggle with this situation” (Paulauskienė 2015: 356). 3.1. Criteria for classifying words into parts of speech in grammars and textbooks Wikipedia states that a part of speech is a category comprising words that share similar grammatical properties. Words assigned to the same part of speech have similar syntactic characteristics—they perform the same functions in a sentence—and, from a morphological perspective, they inflect in the same way21. Parts of speech are classes of words distinguished by commonalities in meaning, syntactic relations, and morphological features22. A 20th-century Lithuanian grammar states that parts of speech are classes of words distinguished by certain features. Four are listed: 1) lexical meaning, 2) grammatical categories, 3) syntactic function, and 4) word-formation devices (LKG 1965: 28). The grammar further acknowledges “the limitations of the traditional classification of parts of speech and the insufficient robustness of its criteria” (LKG 1965: 29). That the first criterion is insufficient is demonstrated by the statement that a noun can denote an object, an action, or a quality (LKG 1965: 30). The second feature—the system of grammatical categories and the forms associated with them—reveals inconsistency in the interpretation of the participle. The Lithuanian Language Reference states that “[e]ach inflecting part of speech has systems of forms formed on the basis of one common meaning, called grammatical categories” (LKŽin 2007: 82). Examples are then given: the noun has gender, 18 “In German, the non-finite verb forms (infinitive, Partizip I, Partizip II) do not form a separate word class, but belong to different other word classes.” (Helbig, Buscha 1989). 19 “He very much wanted to know it burningly.”, “Of all people, it was me who met him.” (Helbig, Buscha 1989). 20 “He is paid accordingly to his performance.” (Helbig, Buscha 1989). 21 Wikipedia. Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part_of_speech (accessed 2018 03 03). 22 Wikipedia. Available online: https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalbos_dalis (accessed 2018 03 03). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? | 10 number and case categories, while a finite verb has the categories of person, mood, tense, and number. Thus, a finite verb is identified as an inflected part of speech; that is precisely what it is called—not a verb, but a finite verb. It logically follows that a non-finite verb is another part of speech, since its grammatical categories are different. Thus, it would be appropriate to regard the participle (a non-finite verb) as another part of speech. The reference work further states of participles: “Participles of all tenses can serve as modifiers, and in this they differ from finite verbs.” (LKŽin 2007: 172). Thus, this is another indication that the participle and the finite form of a verb are not the same part of speech: their syntactic functions also differ (the third criterion for classifying words into parts of speech (LKG 1965: 28)), not only their grammatical categories. Here is another statement identifying the participle as a part of speech distinct from the verb: “The voice is a specific grammatical category of the participle” (LKŽin 2007: 172). This means that voice is something the verb does not have, since voice is not mentioned among the morphological categories of the finite verb in the reference work. All the more so because “finite verbs have no voice morphemes” (Paulauskienė 1994: 351); thus, finite verbs do not have voice. This fact has also been discussed in other works. The Historical Syntax of Lithuanian Participles states that voice and tense categories form the basis of the morphological classification of participles, linking them to the verb (Ambrazas 1979: 16). In the lecture series for students of Lithuanian, the question is raised: “How can the category of voice link with finite verbs when finite verbs do not express it morphologically?” (Paulauskienė 1994: 346). From what has been said, it can be noted that assigning voice to the categories of the verb in academic grammars is not sufficiently well-founded or convincing. If the part of speech is called verb and is not divided into finite verbs and non-finite verbs (“The verb is an independent part of speech denoting an action or state and having the morphological categories of tense, mood, person, number, and voice” DLKG 2006: 282), then all the grammatical categories should be listed, including those characteristic of the participle: case and gender; and the concepts denoted should also include the feature (not only an action or state). The descriptions of compound verb forms given in academic grammars also have shortcomings, as they do not provide complete information and therefore do not give a precise overall picture of the actual situation. One such definition states: “Compound verb forms in Lithuanian consist of active or passive present or simple past participles of a verb with an independent lexical meaning, together with an auxiliary BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? | 11 veiksmažodžio būti asmenuojamomis formomis“ (LKG 1971: 144). Kitame apibūdinime teigiama: „Sudėtinės laikų bei nuosakų formas sudaro veikiamieji esamojo arba būtojo kartinio laiko ir neveikiamieji esamojo arba būtojo laiko dalyviai su pagalbinio veiksmažodžio būti asmenuojamosiomis formomis“ (DLKG 2006: 346). Jau vien iš šių apibrėžimų matyti, kad veiksmažodžio formoms sudaryti naudojami ne visi dalyvių laikai. Reikia pažymėti, kad abiejuose apibrėžimuose net neužsiminta apie tai, kad sudėtinėms formoms sudaryti naudojamas tik dalyvių vardininko linksnis. Kiti linksniai nėra veiksmažodžio formos, nes nesudaro veiksmažodžio laikų – aš esu mačiusi – nėra tokios sudėtinio laiko formos lietuvių kalboje. Taigi, daug dalyvio formų iš viso nenaudojamos veiksmažodžio laikams sudaryti, tai: visi likę linksniai be vardininko, būsimasis ir būtasis dažninis laikai, kurių net vardininkas nenaudojamas sudėtiniam veiksmažodžio laikui sudaryti. Ir visa tai laikoma veiksmažodžio formomis. Bet „[1]lietuvių kalba pažyminių nevartojamos dalyvio formos neturi“ (Paulauskienė 1994: 352), vadinasi, visi dalyviai gali atlikti tą sintaksinę funkciją, kurios veiksmažodžio laikai niekada neatlieka. Tai pakankamai svarūs argumentai laikyti dalyvį ne veiksmažodžio forma, bet atskira savarankiška kalbos dalimi. Tuo labiau, kad net ir dalyvio laikas yra ne tokio pat pobūdžio kaip veiksmažodžio. Veiksmažodis reiškia sakinio predikatinį laiką (rodo santykį su kalbamuoju momentu), o dalyvio laikas yra susijęs su paties žodžio semantika, jis neturi nieko bendra su tarinio, t. y. juo einančio veiksmažodžio, laiku: esu pavargęs, buvau pavargęs, būdavau pavargęs, būsiu pavargęs (Paulauskienė 1994: 348). Taigi, dar viena prielaida manyti, kad dalyvis yra kita nei veiksmažodis kalbos dalis. Another claim is presented in the literature as an argument for treating the participle as a verb form: participles are linked to verbs also by the fact that active participles can govern the same cases as verbs (Paulauskienė 1994: 346). However, passive participles do not govern the same cases as verbs. Thus, attempts are made to fit participles into the framework of the verb using criteria that each apply only to a particular subset of them. This piecemeal attribution of the participle to the verb, riddled with contradictions, does not seem very sound. The same author states in another publication that participle formation, accentuation, declension, and usage are described in great detail and raise no doubts, but “[t]he theory and logic are quite shaky” (Paulauskienė 2015: 354). The conclusion is even reached that the conception of morphology should be changed: “Treating the participle as a verb form is now quite incompatible with the considerably narrowed and specified concept of morphology” (Paulauskienė 1994: 347). However, no indication is given as to when the concept of morphology was broader or when it narrowed. The author goes on to state: “To create a consistent grammatical theory of the participle, the concept of morphology must be expanded” (Paulauskienė 1994: 347). In other words, it is proposed that the science of morphology be adapted to the needs of the participle, that is, the need BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351–7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? | 12 to treat it as a verb form. Would it not be simpler to treat the participle as an independent part of speech within the framework of modern morphology? 3.2. Presentation of the participle in teaching materials for schools Confusion can also be seen in the morphological analysis procedure used by the database www.šaltiniai.info: for declinable parts of speech and verbs, the part of speech is specified (Figs. 6 and 7, respectively). For the participle (Fig. 8), there is no need to specify the part of speech; its analysis requires a verb form to be given23. FIG. 6. Procedure for grammatical analysis of declinable parts of speech www.šaltiniai.info FIG. 7. Procedure for grammatical analysis of the verb www.šaltiniai.info FIG. 8. Procedure for grammatical analysis of the participle www.šaltiniai.info 23 Interactive database of learning resources for Lithuanian language, literature (culture), and Lithuanian history. Available online: http://www.šaltiniai.info/index/details/599%20 (accessed 2018 03 03). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? | 13 It would be much more logical and simpler to say that the participle is a part of speech, since it is presented as a part of speech in the description of the analysis. It would be clearer if all words were analyzed in the same way, i.e., by specifying the part of speech. 3.3. The treatment of the participle in other languages In other languages, treating the participle as a verb form is more justified, because in analytic languages it is actually only a form, not a set of forms, i.e., not a whole paradigm as in Lithuanian. In both English and German, the participle is one of the principal verb forms. Information available online states that German verbs have three principal forms: the infinitive, the past tense, and the participle; several examples are given of both regular verbs lernen-lernte-gelernt and irregular verbs sprechen-sprach-gesprochen24. In English, the participle is also classified among the principal verb forms. The Cambridge Grammar states that verbs have three principal forms: the base form (the infinitive with or without the particle to), the past tense form, and the participle (the –ed form); examples of usage are also provided25. In Lithuanian, the participle is not among the principal verb forms. The Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian states: “The citation form of verbs is the infinitive, followed by the other two principal forms—the third-person forms of the present and simple past tenses” (DŽ 1993: X). Thus, in Lithuanian the participle is not a principal verb form; it is questionable whether it is a verb form at all. School grammar of Russian states that the participle is an independent part of speech (Бабайцева, Чеснокова 2012: 167). In the academic grammar of Russian, the participle is considered a verb form, but it is acknowledged that participles have non-verbal inflection—they form case forms26 (Шведова 1980: 662). It is illogical to assign to a part of speech (in this case, the verb) words that inflect for cases not characteristic of it. 24 “Das deutsche Verb hat drei Grundformen: Infinitiv-Präteritum-Partizip II.” Available online: https://www.lingq.com/lesson/25-drei-grundformen-der-verben-468764/ (accessed 2018 03 03). 25 „Main verbs have three basic forms: base form, the past form and the -ed form (sometimes called the ‘-ed participle): base form: used as infinitive form with to or without to (Do you want to come with us? I can’t leave now.); past form: used for the past simple (He opened the door and went out.); –ed form: used after auxiliary have and be (I’ve always wanted a piano and I was given one last week.).” Prieiga per internetą: http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/about-verbs/verbs-basic-forms (žiūrėta 2018 03 03). 26 «Причастия обладают неглагольным словоизменением: они образуют падежные формы по адъективному склонению.» (Шведова 1980). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? | 14 3.4. Selecting word forms in the electronic environment It has been noted that academic grammars use criteria other than those of LIGIS27 when determining the use of one form or another. Therefore, this issue is discussed in greater detail in this subsection. Cases of participle formation that may seem contradictory are also briefly described. Both in the writings of J. Jablonskis and in contemporary literature, one can observe a common feature: the use of forms is judged by how often they occur in written texts. In developing LIGIS, a somewhat different approach is taken when deciding whether or not to include a word in the database. Here, the primary criterion is whether the word is comprehensible. Work on the computerization of language has revealed instances where words that do not exist in Lithuanian are presented, even though they are formed from Lithuanian morphemes. For example, on the website morfologija.lt28, the word susitikimas is identified as an adjective, while susitikimoji is listed with forms for all cases as a participle, although no Lithuanian speaker knows what it means. LIGIS seeks to avoid precisely this kind of superfluous word. If a word is rarely used and has not even appeared in a corpus or in literature, this does not mean that it will never be spoken or written; therefore, this fact alone is not a sufficient reason to exclude the word from the database. If a word is understood by people whose native language is Lithuanian, that is enough for it to be included in the information system. A survey of twentieth-century grammars states that J. Jablonskis gives only two passive-voice future-tense participles: būsimas and mylėsimas. He claims that this participle has almost completely disappeared from spoken language. Today, only būsimas remains (Paulauskienė 2015: 74). However, nowadays future-tense participles with other roots are also used online, and thus, one might say, in spoken language; for example, the word bėgsimas in a marathon description: “Friday: the weekend’s longest bėgsimas distance awaits, at least for now.”29. Therefore, it is more appropriate not to rely solely on one scholar’s observations and experience: if a word has not been used in that scholar’s environment, this does not mean it will never be used in the future. A more precise criterion is whether the word is comprehensible. If a word is incomprehensible to a Lithuanian speaker today, then it should not be included in the database. In the lecture series for students, it is stated that grammars present “a paradigm of the past frequentative tense, whose forms are not used in the language” (Paulauskienė 1994: 359). DLKG 27 Lithuanian Grammar Information System. Available online: http://ligis.lki.lt/ (accessed 2018 03 03). 28 Available online: http://www.morfologija.lt/zodzio-formos/susitikimas (accessed 2018-03-03) 29 Available online: https://www.google.lt/search?q=b%C4%97gsimas&ei=gNiXWtOZlojXsAHZq4ioCg&start=10&sa=N&biw=1097&bih=495 (accessed 2018 03 03). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? | 15 It is stated: “For active participles of the past frequentative tense, only nominative forms are generally used, expressing an action experienced indirectly” (DLKG 2006: 359). However, other cases of past frequentative participles can also be quite clear and comprehensible; for example, dirbdavusiam. A sentence illustrating this could be: The installer, who used to work only in the evenings, was paid the same salary as everyone else. Even if a word is found neither in a corpus nor on the internet, this is not a sufficient argument for excluding it from a database. In summary, one can say that academic literature judges possible words by whether they are used, whereas LIGIS judges them by whether they are understandable to a Lithuanian speaker. CONCLUSIONS The participle’s place in the system of parts of speech is perhaps the most unstable of all—it has passed through several stages as a part of speech: beginning as an adjective in the grammar of Proto-Indo-European, it later became an independent part of speech in ancient grammars, was subsequently regarded as a verb form, and now, in twenty-first-century publications, especially textbooks, there is once again a discernible tendency to recognize the participle as an independent part of speech. In English, it is logical to regard the participle as a verb form, since it is in fact just one of the principal forms of the verb. In Lithuanian, the participle is an entire paradigm of forms. Perhaps the strongest argument against regarding the participle as a verb form in Lithuanian is that only a few participle forms are used to form compound verb tenses: only the nominative case (and not even for all tenses). Many participle forms—all the remaining cases except the nominative, and even the nominatives of the future and past frequentative tenses—are not used to form verb tenses. Yet all of them are considered verb forms. However, all participles function as attributes, that is, they perform a syntactic function that verbs never perform. The claim that participles are classified as verbs because of voice categories that link them to verbs is unconvincing, since finite verbs have no voice morphemes and therefore do not express voice. Thus, what a verb does not possess cannot link participles to verbs. Regarded as a verb form, the participle gives rise to inconsistencies in the definition of the verb: DLKG lists only the morphological categories of finite verbs. Logically, in that case, all categories should be listed, including case and gender—that is, the categories the participle has, if it is indeed considered a verb form. BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? |16 The participle has no forms that cannot function as modifiers; that is, it shares more features with the adjective than with the verb. LITERATŪRA Ambrazas, V. 1979: Lietuvių kalbos dalyvių istorinė sintaksė, Vilnius: Mokslas. Balčikonis J., Larinas B., Kruopas J. 1957: Pirmoji lietuvių kalbos gramatika, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla. Cambridge dictionary. Prieiga internete: http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/about-verbs/verbs-basic-forms (žiūrėta 2018 03 03). DLKG 2006 – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika, red. V. Ambrazas. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos centras. Dumčius J. 2011: Trumpa istorinė graikų kalbos gramatika, Vilnius: Skaitmeninės filologijos centras. Dumčius J., Kuzavinis K., Mironas R. 2010: Elementa latīna, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos centras. DŽ 1993 – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, vyr. red. S. Keinys. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. Eastwood J. 2002: Oxford Guide to English Grammar, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Eigminas K., Stundžia B. 1997: Sapūno ir Šulco gramatika, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Greenbaum S. 1996: The Oxford English Grammar, Oxford: Oxford university Press. Helbig G., Buscha J. 1989: Deutsche Grammatik, Leipzig: VEB Verlag Enzyklopädie. Interaktyvi lietuvių kalbos, literatūros (kultūros) ir Lietuvos istorijos mokymosi šaltinių duomenų bazė. Prieiga internete: http://www.šaltiniai.info/index/details/599%20 (žiūrėta 2018 03 03). Jung W. 1967: Grammatik der deutschen Sprache, Leipzig: VEB Bibliographisches Institut. Kairienė A. 2003: Dionisijas Trakietis. Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 4, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Kuršaitis F. 2013: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1876, Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. LG 2006 – Lithuanian Grammar, red. V. Ambrazas. Vilnius: Baltos lankos. Lietuvių kalbos morfemikos duomenų bazė. Prieiga internete: http://tekstynas.vdu.lt/page.xhtml?id=morfema-db (žiūrėta 2018 03 03). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? | 17 Lietuvių kalbos žodžių formų žodynas. Prieiga internete: http://www.morfologija.lt/zodzio-formos/susitikimas (žiūrėta 2018 03 03). LIGIS – Lietuvių kalbos gramatikos informacinė sistema. Prieiga internete: http://ligis.lki.lt/ (žiūrėta 2018 03 03). LingQ. Prieiga internete: https://www.lingq.com/lesson/25-drei-grundformen-der-verben-468764/ (žiūrėta 2018 03 03). LKG 1965 – Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1: Fonetika ir morfologija, red. K. Ulvydas. Vilnius: Mintis. LKG 1971: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 2: Morfologija, red. K. Ulvydas. Vilnius: Mintis. LKŽin 2007 – Lietuvių kalbos žinynas. Sudarė P. Kniūkšta, Kaunas: Šviesa. Palubinskienė E., Čepaitienė G. 2008: Lietuvių kalba. Vadovėlis VII klasei. Antroji knyga, Kaunas: Šviesa. Paukert H., Holböck S. 2017: DEUGRA – eine Deutsche Grammatik, Version 7.1. Eigenverlag http://www.paukert.at. Prieiga internete: http://www.paukert.at/sprachen/deugra.pdf (žiūrėta 2018 03 03). Paulauskienė A. 1994: Lietuvių kalbos morfologija. Paskaitos lituanistams, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. Paulauskienė A. 2006: Pirmosios lietuvių kalbos gramatikos, Vilnius: Gimtoji žodis. Paulauskienė A. 2015: Svarbesniosios XX a. lietuvių kalbos gramatikos, Vilnius: Gimtoji žodis. Quiles C., Lopez–Menchero F. 2011: A Grammar of Modern Indo-European. Indo-European Language Association. Prieiga internete: https://indo-european.info/indo-european-grammar.html (žiūrėta 2018 03 03). Quirk R., Greenbaum S., Leech G., Svartvik J. 1992: A Grammar of Contemporary English, Singapore: Longman Group Ltd. Rimkutė E., Kazlauskienė A., Raškinis G. 2011: Dažninis lietuvių kalbos morfemikos žodynas, 3 dalis, Kaunas: VDU. Vikipedija. Laisvoji enciklopedija. Prieiga internete: https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagrindinis_puslapis (žiūrėta 2018 03 03). Žiugžda J. 1971: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika: 1 Fonetika ir morfologija, Kaunas: Šviesa. Wikipedia. Die freie enzyklopädie. Prieiga internete: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Hauptseite (žiūrėta 2018 03 03). Wikipedia. The free encyclopedia. Prieiga internete: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page (žiūrėta 2018 03 03). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351–7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? | 18 Бабайцева В., Чеснокова Л. 2012: Русский язык – Теория, Москва: Дрофа. Шведова Н. 1980: Русская грамматика 1, Москва: Наука. Įteikta 2018 03 05 Priimta 2018 11 12 WAT KIND OF PART OF SPEECH IS PARTICIPLE? Summary We describe participle treatment from the very Proto-Indo-European language grammar, when it was referred to as an adjective, further describing antique times during which a participle was treated as an independent part of speech, also discussing 20th century grammars stating that a participle is a verb form, finally noticing 21st century trend which we see very clearly in educational literature as well as websites aimed at the wide public to give the status of an independent part of speech back to a participle. The view of a participle in other languages such as German, English, and Russian is also discussed. We further provide arguments as to why a participle is referred to as an independent part of speech by showing flaws in the academic grammar statements basing the reason for a participle to be a verb form. According to one of the grammars, the reason behind this is that a participle is required to form complex verb tenses. However, a group of a few participles is enough: nominatives of present, past iterative, and past simple tenses. Any other forms there are incomparably more of are not used for building verb tenses, yet they are treated as verb forms. We noticed even more drawbacks when referring to participle as a verb form: there are inconsistencies found in the very verb definition: The “verb” is described as the part of speech listing only the morphological categories of a personalized verb. Logically, in this case, all of those categories should be listed including both the case and gender i. e. what participles have if they are verb forms. The statement that participles are assigned to verbs because of the voice and tense categories joining them with verbs and it is not convincing because non-personalized verbs do not have voice morphemes does not imply voice hence. That is why we cannot join participles with verb by something verb does not have. BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ. Kokia kalbos dalis yra dalyvis? |19 KEYWORDS: grammar, parts of speech, verb, verb forms, participle, half-participle, gerund. DAIVA ŠVEIKAUSKIENĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius [email protected] BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351–7204