„Chaki“ dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje

LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language KHAKI IN CONTEMPORARY LITHUANIAN (WRITTEN) LANGUAGE KEYWORDS: loanword khaki, semantics, construction, color, dictionary, corpus. ABSTRACT The subject of this article is the lexeme khaki. The aim is, on the basis of material from the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian (DLKT), to clarify the semantics of khaki in contemporary written Lithuanian and, on that basis, to “see” the khaki color. Color terms are examined from a syntactic-semantic perspective. The study showed that one can speak of transitional shades of green (grass) and brown (earth) khaki. It emerged that in contemporary Lithuanian, khaki color terms are used both as variants and in opposition. This is related to the construction type (attributive versus predicative) and/or semantic collocability (a natural versus an artificial object). INTRODUCTION. THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS Color, according to the definition of this word given in the academic Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽe), is “a visible tone of light.” Being inherently associated with human vision, or the visual universal (English seeing universal, cf. concept of SEEing)1, it is of interest to representatives of various scientific disciplines: physiologists, psychologists, physicists, chemists, art historians, and linguists. The latter study color terms from various perspectives both abroad and in Lithuania (see Biggam, Hough, Kay, Simmons 2011; Kazlauskaitė, Ramanauskienė 2011: 178–179; Gritėnienė 2017: 136–137, and the extensive literature cited there). The subject of this article is the color term khaki. The aim of the study is to establish the semantics of khaki in contemporary Lithuanian (written) language and, on this basis, to “see” the color khaki2. The objectives are: to compare definitions of khaki in dictionaries of individual languages and in studies of color terms; taking this into account and drawing on material from The Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language (DLKT), to define the meaning of khaki in contemporary Lithuanian; to discuss the use of khaki in phrases and sentences; to identify its possible synonyms; and to determine the color of khaki from contexts. The names of this color are discussed in the article 1 Plačiau apie tai žr. Wierzbicka (1996: 78–82, 287–301) ir ten cituojamą literatūrą. 2 When the article discusses a word as a color term (English color term), it is set in italics (khaki); when the color itself is meant (English hue), it is set in roman type (khaki). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 2 are examined from a syntactic-semantic perspective. To the best of our knowledge, chaki has not previously been studied in Lithuanian. This is a corpus-based study. The research material consists of 409 sentences from the DLKT3, compiled at the Centre of Computational Linguistics of Vytautas Magnus University. Teoriniu tyrimo atskaitos tašku imamas Ekaterinos Rakhilinos (2007) ir jos bei Galinos Paramei (2011) darbuose dėstomas požiūris į spalvą. Rakhilina (2007) pirmiausia remiasi Annos Wierzbickos (1990; dar žr. 1996: 291) mintimi, kad spalvos konkrečioje kalboje nėra abstrakcijos; jos susijusios su iškiliomis (angl. salient) kultūriniu požiūriu realijomis, materializuojančiomis (angl. reifying) tą spalvą. Etnolingvistinei spalvos reikšmės, arba koncepto, apibrėžčiai, Rakhilinos nuomone, taip pat svarbios yra konstrukcijos (angl. constructional-based framework), kuriose yra (gali būti) vartojamas spalvos pavadinimas. Analizuojama spalvos reikšmės būdvardžio vartosena atributinėse ir predikatinėse konstrukcijose (plg.: chaki uniforma buvo nauja ir nauja uniforma buvo chaki). Be to, nagrinėjant spalvos pavadinimą, papildomai siūloma atsižvelgti į jo semantinį junglumą (angl. combinability) (Rakhilina, Paramei 2011): spalvą reiškiančio būdvardžio vartosena su vadinamuosius natūralius ar dirbtinius daiktus (angl. natural objects / surfaces vs. artefacts) žyminčiais daiktavardžiais4 (plg.:?chaki kerpės ir chaki uniforma). Pagal tai galima nustatyti spalvos materializaciją (angl. color reification): daiktus, kurie yra (gali būti) „nuspalvinti“ ta spalva. Rakhilina (2007: 367–368, 375–376; dar žr. Rakhilina, Paramei 2011: 121tt) teigia, kad naujojo, kitaip kalbant, antrinio (angl. secondary colour terms), spalvos pavadinimo kelias į kalbos sistemą yra ilgas. Visų pirma, jos nuomone, spalvos reikšmės būdvardis be apribojimų jungiasi su daiktavardžiais, žyminčiais žmogaus darbo produktus (angl. man-made artefacts), t. y. tokiems daiktams priskiriama spalva yra „dirbtinė“; žmogus juos taip nudažė. Po to antrinis pavadinimas skverbiasi į spalvos pavadinimų su natūraliais daiktais sritį, t. y. (labai) ribotai jungiasi su daiktavardžiais, žyminčiais daiktus, kurie tokią spalvą turi iš prigimties; galiausiai be apribojimų imamas vartoti su visais daiktavardžiais. Saulutė Juzelėnienė (2001: 19), išnagrinėjusi spalvos reikšmės būdvardžių semantiką „XX amžiaus lietuvių poezijoje“, nustatė, kad „spalvų reikšmės būdvardžiai dažniausiai jungiasi su daiktavardžiais, žyminčiais daiktus, kuriems yra būdinga spalva. Tačiau aiškiai išsiskiria du atvejai: 1) ypatybės turėtojas tikrai yra „tam tikros / tokios spalvos“ <...>; 2) ypatybės turėtojas nebūtinai yra „tam tikros / tokios spalvos“. Kitaip kalbant, vienų daiktų spalva yra tokia iš prigimties (žalia 3 The DLKT is available online at: http://tekstynas.vdu.lt. The material for the article was collected in February and March 2018. 4 Plačiau apie natūralių ir dirbtinių daiktų skirtį žr. Rakhilina, Paramei (2011: 124) ir ten cituojamą literatūrą. BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351–7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 3 grass), while for others the color is assigned by people (a green dress). There are cases in which an object's natural color, in the broad sense, differs from its typical color designation (cf. a green frog). Rakhilina (2007: 375–376) su Paramei (2011: 129) teigia, kad pirmiausia antrinis spalvos pavadinimas vartojamas su daiktavardžiu spalva (plg. chaki spalvos uniforma), vėliau pramaišiui (variantškai) imamas vartoti be jo (plg. chaki uniforma), kol pagal kalboje vyraujantį darybos modelį pasidaromas kaitomas spalvą reiškiantis būdvardis (plg. *chakinė uniforma). Autorės atkreipia dėmesį ir į tai: jei antrinis spalvos pavadinimas jungiasi su daiktavardžiais, žyminčiais natūralius daiktus, kurį laiką kartu vartojamas ir senasis, kitaip, pirminis, spalvos pavadinimas (plg.: rusvai žalios kerpės resp. ?chaki kerpės). The article combines a structural approach to meaning with a cognitive one. It analyzes the relations between words within phrases and sentences and considers what information they convey, that is, what khaki concept is verbalized as variable conceptual information, the content of thought, and a strategy residing in language users’ consciousness (cf. Jakaitienė 1988: 42–43, 57–94; 2010: 17–18, 45–46, 50). On this basis, it would be possible to speak of the so-called linguistic worldview5 as an understanding of content encoded in linguistic elements; a particular interpretation of reality in language (for further discussion, see Gudavičius 2007: 10, 2009: 11–17; cf. Wierzbicka 1996: 13, 15 and the literature cited there)6. On the other hand, as will become clear below, the khaki concept is not distinctive or ethnocentric in Lithuanian. The study employs semantic analysis, structural, descriptive, and comparative methods. 1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE OBJECT OF STUDY: CHAKI IN DICTIONARIES AND STUDIES OF COLOR TERMS The adjective chaki is a common loanword in many languages. It entered Lithuanian from Persian, via a neighboring language or languages and/or other languages, in which khak means “earth, mud.” In view of this, the meaning of this word is examined below in Lithuanian, Latvian, Russian, Polish, German, and English dictionaries, as well as in studies of color terms. In dictionaries of international words (TŽŽ1 1985: 83; TŽŽ2 2007: 188), chaki is defined as “a brownish-green color; fabric or clothing of this color.” chaki appeared in Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries only recently. As an indeclinable adjective meaning “brownish-green (color),” it 5 Plg. Rutkovskos, Smetonos, Smetonienės (2017: 22) vartojamą terminą pasaulio vaizdas kalboje (PVK). 6 Etnolingvistine koncepto samprata remiamasi ir, pavyzdžiui, Jurijaus Stepanovo (1997), Svetlanos Ter-Minasovos (2000), Valentinos Maslovos (2001) darbuose. Dar žr. ten cituojamą literatūrą. BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 4 is provided by the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian (BŽₑ). The name of the colour under discussion is not included in the academic Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽₑ) or the Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian (DŽₑ). In the booklet Language Advice devoted to vocabulary (KP4 (L1) 2005: 36), chaki is proposed to be replaced by the phrase rusvai žalsva (spalva) ‘brownish green (colour)’, as an 7undesirable foreignism. In the expanded and revised vocabulary volume of Language Advice (KP4 (L1₂) 2013: 21), chaki is assessed as a secondary variant of the norm, while the phrase rusvai žalsva (spalva) ‘brownish green (colour)’ is the primary (neutral) form. On the basis of synonymy, sentences containing rusvai žalsva were also selected from DLKT for the study (see Section 2). In dictionaries of neighbouring Latvian, chaki (Latvian haki) is defined as “greenish brown” (Latvian zaļganbrūna) (LLVVₑ; LVVₑ) or “brownish yellow, brownish green” (Latvian brūngandzeltena, brūnganzaļa) (MLVVₑ); a fabric of this colour. In the Dictionary of the Latvian Language published in 2006 (LVV 2006: 334), chaki is given as “yellowish or greenish greyish brown” (Latvian dzelteni vai zaļganpelēki brūns). According to explanatory Russian dictionaries, it (Russian xaki) is a “brownish green” (Russian коричневато-зеленый) (SRJ 1984: 746; TSRJₑ), “brownish green with grey” (Russian коричневато-зеленый с серым) (TSRJ₂ₑ), or “greyish green with a brown tint” (Russian серовато-зеленый с коричневым оттенком) (NTSSRJₑ; SRJ IV 1988: 590) colour. In Polish, chaki (Polish khaki) means “greyish green” (Polish kolor szarozielony) (DSJPₑ), “greyish brownish green” (Polish kolor szaro-brązowo-zielony) (SJPₑ)8, and “yellowish-brown colour” (Polish kolor wyblakły żółtobrązowy, płowy lub szaro-brązowo-zielony) (SOJPₑ); a fabric of this colour. German dictionaries define this adjective, borrowed from English (German khaki / kaki), as “earth brown” (German Erdfarbe, erdbraune Farbe) (DW 2000: 705) or “earth brown tending towards yellow” (German ins Gelbliche übergehendes Erdbraun9) (DUDEN 2007: 917). In English, chaki is a “greenish or yellowish brown” (English a dull10 green-brown or yellow-brown colour) (LDOCEₑ), “greenish or brownish yellow” (English A dull greenish or brownish-yellow colour) (OXFORDₑ, cf. CONCISE 1995: 744), or “yellowish brown, sometimes with a greenish tint” (English A drab11 yellowish-brown dust-colour; sometimes with a greenish tinge) (DC 2003: 223) colour; a fabric or garment of this colour. 7 Undesirable means “indicating that the phenomenon being evaluated has not been approved as a norm of the standard language: it is undesirable because it is already nonstandard and has no future prospects, or because it is not yet standard, has not been studied sufficiently, and so on” (KP4 (L1) 2005: 11). 8 Cf. the Polish synonyms of chaki: moro, olive, greyish green. Available online: https://synonim.net/synonim/khaki. Greyish green is also given as a synonym for chaki in DSJPₑ. 9 Plg.: Braun – von der Farbe feuchter Erde (DUDEN 2007: 331). Braun – goldgelb (DW 2000: 293). 10 “Dull – [a]s regards colours, dim or indistinct; lacking in brightness or vividness. Synonyms include: obscure, flat, drab, [...] blurred, gloomy, colourless” (DC 2003: 142). 11 “Drab: Dull brown or grey colour; of a dull light-brown or yellowish-brown; lacking in colour. Also olive drab” (DC 2003: 142). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 5 It can be seen that the definition of chaki in Lithuanian is the narrowest; this meaning of chaki is also found in Latvian and Russian dictionaries. The adjective chaki in the neighboring Latvian language has the greatest number of potential meanings12. This color encompasses various shades of green, brown, or yellow. According to the definitions, simple (chaki) and compound (e.g., brownish green) (English simplex13 or complex lexemes14) color terms are synonyms. Syntactically, a compound color term is an adjectival phrase (BJ), whose head is an adjective denoting color in various cases—greenish, green, brownish, brown or yellowish, yellow—and whose modifier is a color-denoting adverb, greenishly, brownishly, yellowishly or grayishly. The adjective serving as the head of the phrase denotes the dominant (primary) color, while the modifying adverb indicates the shade of the color expressed by the adjective. Based on the relation between the primary color and its shade, corresponding to the head and modifier of the adjectival phrase, dictionary definitions of the adjective chaki are summarized in Table 1. What matters here is whether (and how) distinct meanings of chaki are differentiated in a language. For example, which meaning of chaki is intended when, say, one writes Haki krāsas drēbēs ģērbušies pasažieri (MLVV). TABLE 1. Dictionary definitions of the adjective chaki Modifier in the adjectival phrase, denoting a color shade Head in the adjectival phrase, denoting the dominant color Grayishly (Polish) or grayishly brownishly (Russian, Polish) Green / greenish Brownishly (Lithuanian, Latvian, Russian) Greenishly grayishly (Latvian) or greenishly (Latvian, English) Brown / brownish Greenishly yellowishly (English) or yellowishly (Latvian, Polish, English) Brownishly (Latvian, German, English) Yellow / yellowish Greenishly (English) The indeclinable chaki is a denominal formation: it is derived from the noun chaki (chaki (fabric of this color) > chaki (color) > *chakinis (-ė); cf. bordo (wine) > bordo (color) > bordinis (-ė); sand (fine, loose earth (according to 12 Cf.: “The description of a word’s meaning may vary, legitimately, in completeness form one work to another, but it should not differ in its basic content. A „definition“ is meant to represent the truth about a word’s meaning“ (Wierzbicka 1996: 259). 13 „Simplex lexemes have meanings, which cannot be determined from internal components. They all have or had noncolour physical-object senses in addition to colour senses“ (White 1990: 188). 14 „Secondary colour terms either have or have had polysemous entity colour relationships. If the colour term has both entity sense and colour sense, it is a transparent colour term“ (Casson 1997: 232t, dar žr. 1994: 6). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351–7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 6 DŽ)) > sand colour > sandy (−ė)). This adjective, as a secondary colour term, is associated with four primary colour terms (English basic colour terms; cf. conventional colour)15: green, brown, yellow, and grey. The colour under discussion is dark16 (English dark colour; cf. dull, grab colour); it is a mixture of two (brown and green, grey and green, yellow and brown, green and yellow) or three (grey, brown, green or green, yellow, brown) colours; it falls within the range of green, brown and/or yellow. In other words, chaki is assigned to one of the basic colour concepts. Anitra Roze, a researcher of Latvian colour terms, assigns chaki to the green concept (2005: 123ff.; cf. 2018: 233). Aleksandras Vasilevičius, Svetlana Kuznecova and Sergejus Miščenko (2005: 180), who have described Russian colour terms from various perspectives and compiled catalogues of them, state that chaki, which entered Russian in the late nineteenth century, denotes in contemporary Russian a broad range of greyish-brownish-green shades (Russian диапазон оттенков серовато-коричневато-зеленого цвета; see also: сероватозеленый с грязно-желтым оттенком (ibid.: 123); the definition of chaki in NTSSRĮe; SRĮ IV 1988: 590; TSRĮ₂e). Alongside olive, swamp, pea, lettuce and other green colour terms, chaki is mentioned by Julija Zolnikova (2009: 89). Henrika Florén (2005: 9, 25) places chaki, which entered English in the eighteenth century, among brown colour terms. More precisely, chaki, being between brown and green, lies more within the brown range (ibid.: 25, 3717) (cf. the definition of chaki in LDOCEe). The author reached this conclusion on the basis of surveys of 20 respondents conducted without visualisation (a stimulus), in which native speakers were asked what colour a given word evoked. Is chaki unambiguous in contemporary Lithuanian? Given that this adjective is a loanword and considering its dictionary definitions in other languages mentioned above, it may be assumed that Lithuanian speakers perceive chaki in a way similar to speakers of other languages. It is hypothesised that chaki in contemporary Lithuanian may have another meaning (or meanings) in addition to the one mentioned. 15 For more on the names of basic colours in individual languages and their perception, see, for example: Berlin, Kay (1969); Wierzbicka (1996); Hardin, Maffi (1997); Florén (2005); Roze (2005); Vasilevič, Kuznecova, Miščenko (2005). 16 Apie šviesias ir tamsias spalvas plačiau žr. Wierzbicka (1996: 288tt). Dar plg. DLKT sakinius: (i) Niūrios chaki spalvos sienos, stalas, rašomoji mašinėlė, spinta... (ii) Vilkėjai juodą odinį švarką, tamsios spalvos (berods chaki) golfą. „For khaki the classifications are divided between brown and green, with a majority of thirteen surveys marking khaki as brown (13/20). Six categorise khaki as green (6/20), and there is one mark for white (1/20“ (Florén 2005: 25–26). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351–7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 7 Figure 1 shows chaki in accordance with one of its synonymous names—brownish green. Green, or grass18, predominates in this chaki. Because of the brown mixed in—chestnut19, peat20, earth21, wood22, chocolate23, or the like (see Figure 2)—it has a brownish hue. If brown predominates in the colours being mixed and there is less green, a (ii) greenish brown chaki can be seen. FIG. 1. Chaki colour Compare also: (i) Brownish green24 (ii) Greenish brown25 18 Green – like grass (of a colour), grass-coloured (BŽė.); which is the colour of grass (DŽė.); of a colour like grass (LKŽė.). Grass is mentioned in definitions of the adjective “green” in all the Latvian, Russian, German and English dictionaries cited above. 19 Rudas – kaip kaštono sėklos (apie spalvą), kaštono sėklos spalvos (BŽė.). Plg.: Имеющий цвет корицы, жареного кофе, спелого желудя (NTSRJ). 20 Brown – which is the colour of peat (DŽė.). Cf.: brown – dark yellow (LKŽė.). „I believe that <...> brown can be thought of as the colour of the ground [naked earth]; or at least as that colour which is likely to make people think of the ground“ (Wierzbicka 1996: 327). 21 Braun – von der Farbe feuchter Erde (DUDEN 2007: 331). Brown – the colour of earth and of wood (DC 2003: 70). 22 Brown – as of dark wood or rich soil (CONCISE 1995: 166). 23 Brūns – such as, for example, chocolate-coloured or roasted-coffee-coloured (LLVV, LVV, MLVV.). 24 The colour image was found by entering brownish green and green chaki in the Google Images search box. Other images were searched for in the same way to illustrate the colours while writing the article. 25 The colour image was found by entering the Latvian term zaļganbrūna in the Google Images search box. BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 8 FIG. 2. Green and brown by prototype26 2. SELECTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF EMPIRICAL MATERIAL As noted, chaki was chosen for examination on the basis of a corpus. The DLKT, which has been compiled since 1992 and is still being developed, consists largely of written texts, often edited and belonging to different genres: journalistic, fiction, nonfiction, and administrative literature. Some of them are translations. The DLKT contains few examples of spoken language. Entering chaki in the DLKT extended-search field retrieves sentences containing it. Given the possible synonymy of color names, compound names mentioned in dictionaries were also selected for the study. For example, entering rusvai in the search field retrieves in sequence examples with different forms of rusvai žalsvas (–a) / žalias (–a) / gelsvas (–a) / geltonas (–a); entering žalsvai retrieves examples with žalsvai rusvas (–a) / rudas (–a), and so on. The search criterion matches was used. The query chaki returned 101 examples in the DLKT. Duplicates were not counted in the study. The query rusvai returned 202 examples in the DLKT; entering pilkšvai returned 192, while žalsvai and gelsvai returned 282 and 475 cases, respectively. Taking into account the definitions provided in dictionaries of other languages 26 A prototype is a natural-world referent well known to a linguistic community and recognized as a source of color (Kazlauskaitė, Ramanauskienė 2011: 179; on this issue, see also Wierzbicka 1996: 289–290; Gudavičius 2009: 66–69). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351–7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 9 khaki definition and assuming that the semantics of Lithuanian khaki may be close to those given in dictionaries of the aforementioned languages, examples of grayish, brownish, greenish, yellowish were used to select, in turn, forms of various aforementioned compound color terms (greenish-brown, yellowish-brown, and so on). Of the 1,252 examples found, 409 sentences with minimal context (300 characters, corresponding to the DLKT concordance-line width) were selected for the study, in which the simple and compound color terms under discussion occur: 96 sentences with khaki, 61 sentences with brownish, 69 sentences with grayish, 114 examples with yellowish, and 69 with greenish. Sentences selected for analysis were classified by color (without distinguishing its saturation (English saturation)) in Table 2 according to whether the color name is used at the noun-phrase (NP) or sentence level. The data are broken down by color saturation in Table 2a. At sentence level, compound names for more saturated colors are used somewhat more often. However, given the relatively small number of examples, the view adopted here is that color saturation has no substantial effect on the use of compound color names in a phrase or sentence. Color names most often function as attributes, as is typical of adjectives. TABLE 2. Simple and compound color names Color name (in all attested case and gender forms) In phrase In sentence (nominally, predicatively) Number of examples Chaki 91 (95 percent) 5 (5 percent) 96 Brownish (greenish) green 8 (80 percent) 2 (20 percent) 10 Brownish (yellowish) yellow 37 (72.5 percent) 14 (27.5 percent) 51 Greenish (yellowish) yellow 20 (45.5 percent) 24 (54.5 percent) 44 Grayish (greenish) green 32 (76 percent) 10 (24 percent) 42 Grayish (brownish) brown 16 (59 percent) 11 (41 percent) 27 Yellowish (brownish) brown 64 (56 percent) 50 (44 percent) 114 Greenish (brownish) brown 18 (72 percent) 7 (28 percent) 25 Total: 286 (70 percent) 123 (30 percent) 409 (100 percent) BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 10 TABLE 2A. Simple and compound color names Color name (in all case and gender forms) In a phrase In a sentence (nominally, predicatively) Number of examples Khaki 91 (95%) 5 (5%) 96 Brownish green 4 (80%) 1 (20%) 5 Brownish green 4 (80%) 1 (20%) 5 Grayish green 20 (83%) 4 (17%) 24 Grayish green 12 (67%) 6 (33%) 18 Greenish brown 9 (82%) 2 (12%) 11 Greenish brown 9 (64%) 5 (36%) 14 Yellowish brown 24 (67%) 12 (33%) 36 Yellowish brown 40 (51%) 38 (49%) 78 Grayish brown 7 (58%) 5 (42%) 12 Grayish brown 9 (60%) 6 (40%) 15 Brownish yellow 17 (71%) 7 (29%) 24 Brownish yellow 20 (74%) 7 (26%) 27 Greenish yellow 14 (54%) 12 (46%) 26 Greenish yellow 6 (33%) 12 (67%) 18 Total: 286 (70%) 123 (30%) 409 (100%) 3. CHAKI IN PHRASES AND SENTENCES 3.1. In the DLKT examples, chaki is used at the level of phrases and sentences. One sentence was found in which the nominal use of chaki means “a fabric of this color.” In sentence 1, this chaki as the head word of the DJ takes a dependent modifier—an agreeing participial attribute (faded). Chaki is also used nominally in sentence 2, where, as will be seen below, it denotes one of the mixed colors. Adjectival chaki functions predicatively in sentences 3–5. Here the semantic distinctions emerge from the minimal contexts: sentence 3's chaki means “brownish green” or “brownish green,” BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 11 sentence 2's is associated with “yellow,” or the color of gold27, sentence 4's with the color of sand, while the meaning of sentence 5's chaki remains unclear without a broader context (English vague) (see below). 1) A windowless underground hall—grated ventilation openings, metal casings of apparatus, officers’ backs bent over them. Flickering dials. Faded khaki. Beside the apparatus, uniform caps bearing hammer-and-pliers insignia lay on the tables; headphones were on the officers’ heads. 2) It is especially fashionable to combine several shades of one color, for example, khaki with yellow. By the way, a playful personality can even replace a tie with a scarf. 3) The uniform was dominated by an English-cut design. The main color of the uniform was khaki. The tunic stood out with its upright collar, to which fabric triangles had been sewn. 4) The color spectrum for female aviators [is] heavenly blue, evening glow pink, cloud white, peach cream, sand (khaki). 5) Long, classic jackets have nearly disappeared. Short ones are now fashionable, ending at the waist or just a little lower. The trendiest colors are “khaki,” brick, and white. This information will be useful to fans of a calm style. Most of the sentences found in the DLKT (91, or 95%) are cases where chaki is a dependent word in the DJ, that is, it is used attributively. A minority of these (4 of 91 sentences, or 4%) are like sentences 6–7, where adjectival chaki is a dependent modifier of the noun color, while the entire DJ (khaki color) functions predicatively. 6) Everything is in dull, inconspicuous colors, even the backpack—normally they are bright, but this person’s was military “khaki” (cf. this person’s backpack was brownish green / khaki), and long use had also covered it with irregular brown spots resembling camouflage. 7) I always thought that they [Dalton’s shirts] were khaki-colored (cf. Dalton’s shirt is khaki), like army shirts, until I saw that they were made of heavy Chinese silk or thin flannel and therefore gave off such a brown hue. 27 Yellow—gold-colored, e.g., egg yolk; wax is yellow (DŽė); gold-colored, the color of the sun (LKŽė). Cf.: yellow—the color of a buttercup (ŠŽė). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 12 Most of the examples examined are sentences of types 8–15 (58 of the 91 sentences, or 64 percent). In sentences 8–12, one can speak of pleonastic use of the genitive of the noun colour in a noun phrase: the colour of an object denoted by the noun uniform, motorcycles, walls, and so on, can also be expressed as khaki. This variant usage is supported by sentences 16–18, of which there are 24 out of the 91 available, or 26 percent. Sentences 13–15 show that the use of khaki as a colour term is extended (English: extended); it is used with nouns denoting animate or abstract entities (see below). 8) At the camp, having civilian clothes made was strictly forbidden. There was no khaki-coloured fabric (cf. there was no khaki fabric; the fabric was khaki). 9) The stench of war and khaki-coloured uniforms – everyday life in Macedonia. 10) The youngest played clarinets, flutes, and saxophones; the older ones were given cymbals and drums. They wore a uniform: a khaki-coloured jacket, blue trousers, and a peaked cap. He dreams of being one of them. 11) Trucks with their license plates covered by yellowed newspapers, carrying ammunition covered with camouflage nets, towing howitzers and accompanied by khaki-coloured motorcycles (cf. accompanied by khaki motorcycles). 12) The boss nodded while looking at the pile of gravel. I quickly opened the door and peered in. Gloomy khaki-coloured walls (cf. gloomy khaki walls), a table, a typewriter, a wardrobe... “There’s no cactus!!!” I screamed in fright. 13) Let us remember how fascism became popular after the crisis of 1929. We need a real war. This costly khaki-coloured thing (cf. khaki thing) usually “boosts” the economy, because after the destruction inevitably comes a time when everything has to be rebuilt. 14) Through my tears, this entire menacing khaki-coloured convoy (cf. khaki convoy) begins to look like some dreadful web, a terrible green-black reptile, tangled around and strangling the purest country in the world. 15) So, to them? Let’s go! There’s the square; I can already see them sitting by the town hall. I start to laugh, because I see a long-haired khaki-clad man sitting down next to my people khaki-coloured longhair (cf. khaki longhair) – a budding hippie at the end of the twentieth century? If only he knew how ridiculous he looks! Never mind. BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 13 16) With his extravagant gestures and rhetoric, Arab headdress, perpetually unshaven beard, impeccably pressed khaki uniform, and a pistol perpetually tucked into his waistband, Y. Arafat was an outstanding embodiment of Palestinian self-expression. 17) – Don't be afraid, my name is Krategis. – Who's asleep? – The baby. Turning around, I saw a man with a khaki belt cinched around his waist. – I'm a friend of your father's, he added after a moment. 18) Robert Langdon decided that this day was apparently going to be one surprise after another. Descending the helicopter ladder, Victoria Vetra, dressed in khaki shorts and a white sleeveless top, was nothing like the dry, academic physicist he had expected to see. A different situation arises when indeclinable khaki functions as a predicative. Sentences 3–5 showed that it is used when the subject is expressed by the nominative of the noun color. Khaki could also function as a secondary predicative, for example, You see, she did buy the dress after all, in khaki (cf. brownish green), i.e. she did buy the dress after all; it was khaki, though. The predicative adjective khaki is more or less restricted when the subject, functioning as its agreement controller, is the nominative of a noun denoting things other than fabric or an item made from it (whether concrete or abstract, artificial or natural); cf.: ?The gloomy walls of the room were khaki; *War is khaki; *The long-haired man who sat down was khaki; *Lichens are khaki. In such cases, following the examples in sentences 6–7, the predicative could be expressed by the noun phrase khaki in color; cf.: The gloomy walls of the room were khaki in color; War is khaki in color; The long-haired man who sat down was khaki in color (i.e. dressed in khaki clothes and/or had his hair dyed khaki). No examples of this type were found in DLKT. From what has been said about khaki, it is clear that in contemporary Lithuanian this color term is most often used adjectivally. The adjective khaki generally functions as a noun modifier. In cases where the color of a fabric or garment is specified in a noun phrase, it may be expressed in either of two ways: more often as khaki in color, and less often as khaki. In all other possible uses, the color is expressed by the phrase khaki in color. 3.2. The DLKT material suggests that in contemporary Lithuanian the adjective khaki denotes another color besides brownish green. Setting aside cases that are not very clear without broader context (e.g., sentences 5, 17–18), this is supported by the semantic and/or structural differences between sentences 3, 6–7, 9–10 and 2, 19–23. Usually military khaki (see sentence 6) or uniform khaki (see sentence 3) is understood as brownish green or brownish-green. Such a typical, say, green khaki, as becomes clear from the context of sentences 19–20, is distinguished from another kind. It may be thought that the other khaki is (a soft) brownish BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 14 yellow and/or yellowish (greenish) brown. The following expressions used in the sentences point to such colors: sand28 (cf. sentences 20–21), brownish khaki (see sentence 22), yellowish-greenish gold (see sentence 23), soft pumpkin khaki (see sentence 24), and a possible correlation between color terms, for example with sentences 25–26 (see below). Here we see that, unlike in sentence 2, in sentence 23 golden is rather an antonym of “yellow” (cf. *yellowish-greenish yellow), while, according to the basic color specified in the compound color term (e.g. yellowish brown), brownish khaki in sentence 22 can be understood in two ways: as yellowish brown and greenish brown. The khaki color of spring in sentence 23 could be perceived as yellowish-greenish brown. The shade of the herbs in sentence 24, expressed as soft pumpkin khaki, can be “seen” by reference to the color of the noun pumpkin29: as yellowish, or as a color mixed from yellowish, brownish, and reddish (cf. soft pumpkin-colored khaki). Further grounds for claiming that in contemporary Lithuanian khaki also has another, broad-sense meaning, “brown,” will be sought by examining other compound khaki terms mentioned in dictionaries. 19) Avoid reddish shades. Bring out your eyes with “Mocca” coffee, the greenish hues of a military uniform or khaki shades (cf. bring out with khaki shades). Liven up your hair with red streaks. 20) For a moment, his body, half like a white worm, was cut in two by khaki-colored sand and little green waves along the shore. Then he crawled completely out of the greenery onto khaki-colored and disappeared among a dozen other worms writhing or simply sprawled between sea and sky. 28 On the basis of the 1,084 DLKT sentences examined, it could tentatively be said—that is, without a detailed study—that sand color ranges from white through (yellowish) yellow to (brownish) brown or (grayish) gray. Cf.: So on a cooler day, when a refreshing breeze blows, it is easy to forget where you are and imagine yourself on the Baltic coast—the same white sand, the same roar of the waves, the same gently sloping shore. Even on the hottest days it is not crowded here; holidaymakers are drawn by the clean yellowish sand. It is easy to find a cozy, quiet spot on the beach, where, whichever way you look, you see only the boundless sea and yellow sand. Beneath patches of the undisturbed hearth layer, traces of the hillfort's cultural layer were found—brownish sand with pebbles. This cultural layer was up to 15 cm thick, but very sparse, as it had rotted away. The layer ended at the western end, at the site of a former landslide—there only very faint traces of it remained. Brown sand, marking the former cultural layer, was only up to 10 cm thick. Imagine the Nemunas near Kaunas. The riverbank and bushes are full of rubbish; the sand is grayish, dirty and foul-smelling. People do not bathe in water like that, and animals do not drink it. In many places, horizon 4A did not differ from horizon 4; it was more pronounced only in the northern part of the area. The horizon consisted of gray with charcoal fragments sand, and darker patches of clay. 29 On the basis of the 533 DLKT sentences examined containing the stem moliūgas, it could tentatively be said that pumpkin color ranges from yellowish (cf. butternut squash) and yellow through orange to red. Cf.: The slits of his eyes became slanted and narrowed so much that his eyes could no longer be seen at all; his face rounded, becoming like a yellow pumpkin. Yellow-cheeked pumpkin – for those who love a quiet life and a warm hearth. He can make the sauce from marinated olives and peppers. And he has garlic. “I'll take it,” said the eunuch, pointing to the orange pumpkin. “If you have them, a few more pairs. Your face is like the plainest brownish pumpkin, which gives everything away. A tiny red pumpkin. A larger red knobbly pumpkin. Three large pumpkins—or heads—in the shape of carved stone. BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 15 21) (=4) The color spectrum for flight attendants [–] sky blue, sunset pink, cloud white, peach cream, sand (khaki). 22) That was very strange, because, as far as she knew, apart from his postman’s uniform, Bret’s wardrobe contained only brownish khaki and yellowish-brown polo-style shirts (cf. there were only brownish khaki shirts). 23) 24-karat khaki spring color: yellowish-greenish gold. 24) Spice plant hues: cinnamon and paprika, forest green and rust gold, deep red and soft pumpkin khaki, camel wool and salmon hues, wood-bark brown, parchment yellow and pale ochre. 25) Loamy sand. B2 55-64 cm – yellowish-brown, structureless, loose, gravelly loamy sand, with a gradual transition to the next horizon. B3 64-94 cm – brownish-yellow, structureless, loose sand, with a clear transition to the next horizon. B4 94-112 cm – dark brownish, loose, structureless, gravelly. 26) The sand was so white! In Brayport—where our home was—the sand was usually a dirty yellowish-brown color (cf. dirty khaki-colored). Here the sand reminded me of flour. As I walked, my feet sank into it. The relationship between khaki and green in the broad sense (i.e., including greenish shades) is discussed below, namely the synonymy and differences between khaki and brownish (greenish) green, and grayish-brownish (greenish) green. Considering the meanings of khaki in dictionaries of other languages, khaki is understood more broadly: it encompasses dominant colors of varying saturation. 4. CORRELATION OF COLOR NAMES IN THE SENTENCE AND PHRASE 4.1. Color terms: brownish green, grayish brownish green, and khaki, correlation in sentence and phrase 4.1.1. According to BŽₑ, the color terms khaki and brownish green are synonymous. The DLKT contains 5 sentences with brownish green, and the same number with different forms of brownish green (see Table 2). These compound color terms are used attributively (see sentences 27–31) or predicatively (see sentences 32–33). The sentences show that the compound khaki color term brownish green cannot always be replaced by the simple term khaki. They may be used interchangeably as variants when the color BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 16 meaning is modified by a noun denoting an artificial object (cf. sentences 27–29). In other cases of attributive and predicative use, brownish green rather correlates with the noun phrase khaki-colored (cf. sentences 30–33). The DLKT has no examples such as a khaki-colored crucian carp, the crucian carp is khaki-colored, or a long khaki-colored fruit stalk, the fruit stalk is long and khaki-colored (cf. sentences 20, 23–24). Use of the simple term khaki is restricted when referring to natural objects. Thus, khaki is usually understood as a brownish green that a person can dye something (cf. sentence 34 as well), while khaki and brownish green are synonymous when they refer to the color of an artificial object (see also below). 27) Mum sighed and cleared the remaining dishes from the table. “No, Nesta. I know it’s hard, but until things get sorted out, there’s nothing doing. You’ll look great in brownish-green trousers (cf. khaki trousers) and a T-shirt.” “That’s not fair.” 28) The loose silhouette of the 1980s banker’s suit is updated with refined fabrics. Leather jackets, brownish-green trousers (cf. khaki trousers), fitted silhouettes, and crisp white shirts are paired with richly patterned ties. 29) Beautiful and mass-market scenes. It is truly remarkable that the artist managed to create at least thirty shades of brownish green (cf. thirty shades of khaki) from three colors. Well, I wish “Kronta” success and continued inventiveness. 30) Milda walks along the river bluff, looking at the brownish-green water (cf.?looking at the khaki water, but: looking at the khaki-colored water); the river bluff slopes down into a damp meadow, and the girl wades into the reeds. 31) Horror seeps into me. Huge white eyes bulge and protrude like enormous full moons on either side of the snout. OH GOD! Giant [monster’s] tentacles slap the water; they reach farther out and upward, brownish green and slimy (cf.: the monster’s tentacles, *khaki and slimy, but: the monster’s tentacles, khaki-colored and slimy), studded with suckers; it waves them, splashes about, and stirs up a whirlpool. We are caught in the whirlpool. I try to shout. 32) The body of the common crucian carp is deep and flattened at the sides, with large scales. Its flanks are usually golden. Its back is humped, dark, brownish green (cf.: *the carp’s back is dark, khaki; the carp’s back is dark, khaki-colored). In peaty waters, crucian carp are darker. BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (raš to) kalboje | 17 33) They are used fresh and processed. On young branches, the fruit clusters are long; on old ones, they are of medium length. The cluster axis is thin and curved. The pedicel is long, brownish green (cf.: *the pedicel is long, khaki, but: khaki-colored), thin. 34) Reaction with concentrated sulfuric acid, 96% ethanol, and a 10% solution of iron (II) sulfate—the solution turned brownish green (saponins) (cf.?the solution turned brownish green; turned khaki-colored, but: turned green, *turned khaki). 4.1.2. In defining khaki in Russian and Polish dictionaries, alongside brown and green, grayish is also mentioned. No examples were found in DLKT using combinations such as grayish brownish green, brownish green with gray, or similar. However, there are examples such as sentences 35–37, in which the different forms of grayish green would allow this color name to be associated with khaki (cf. DSJP.). In other words, if the color of a uniform, which is typically perceived as khaki, is also grayish green, one may assume that grayish is (may be) one of the shades of khaki and is likewise included in the range of green khaki. On the other hand, the possibility of contrasting grayish green with brownish green indicates that they are different shades of green; cf.: The man was wearing not a grayish green, but a brownish green—khaki uniform,?The man was wearing not a brownish green, but a grayish green—khaki uniform³⁰ (see also sentence 38). Speakers of contemporary Lithuanian distinguish khaki from olive³¹ green, i.e. brownish green from grayish green (cf. sentences 39–42). 35) I knew I had been defeated. I turned back. The flowers nodded like cheerful little acquaintances as I carried them into the hallway. I felt foolish in my grayish green volunteer uniform (cf. khaki volunteer uniform) and out of place, unlike the doctors and nurses—in white—or even the cleaners—in brown—uniforms. 36) The uniform is made of camouflage-patterned fabric. The knitted T-shirt, sweater, beret, and knitted winter cap are a muted grayish green (cf. muted khaki, muted khaki), while the footwear and belt are black. 30 Cf. “Офицерский зеленый [–] темный серо-оливковый” (Vasilevič, Kuznecova, Miščenko 2005: 164). “Оттенок весны [–] светлый голубовато-зеленый или нежнооливковый” (ibid.: 154). “Оливковый [–] цвета спелых оливок или пареной травы, желтозеленый (ibid.: 122, cf. 81). “Olive [–] the yellowish-green colour of unripened olives. <...> Olive drab [–] the olive green of US army uniforms“ (DC 2003: 278). 31 Cf. also olive black in the DLKT sentence We fell in love with the girl from the moment we saw her. Her hair was shining, and her eyes were the color of black olives. — But there were people in Bette’s family who opposed our decision, Lloyd said. BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 18 37) Everything about him—the voice of that young man, especially his voice and bearing, his hard, seemingly sculpted face, handsome though it was, and finally even his greyish-green jacket (cf. his khaki jacket)—emanated some kind of waves, the sort we do not really welcome. With people like this one, you can neither argue nor negotiate. 38) A bullet was a bullet, something you could dodge or be hit by, and the two sides stood facing each other, marked by their own colours—red and black, or khaki and greyish green, without ambiguity, or so it seemed at the time. 39) The darker its shade, the longer one's own interests will be defended. Olive green is a mixture of green and grey, and is therefore thought to encourage betrayal, deceit and self-deception, and insincerity. And the desire to find someone to blame. 40) The skin is white with a bluish tinge, sometimes with a greyish-green olive hue (southern type); the eyes are dark brown or blue, greyish blue, grey, turquoise or hazel. 41) Jasimas was already breathing evenly. In the candlelight, he watched the young Greek woman with a straight forehead and an olive-coloured face. Bent over the basin, she was absorbed in her silent work. 42) From the apples on the bed, right beside the pillow, two greyish-green hay stalks32 fall. “Whose apples are these?” Mother asks. “Petrienė gave them to me. They’re green, but tasty.” The fact that transitional cases occur between olive and khaki green—that is, greyish, brownish and greenish shades may be mixed—is shown by the nominal phrase her greyish-green back used in sentence 43, and by the comparison of the robin’s back to the colour of spruce bark. Figure 3 shows that the robin’s back mentioned in the sentence is in fact greyish-brownish-green. 43) Only the robin keeps drawing out its simple little verses. It perches somewhere on a dry spruce branch. You do not notice this little songbird at once, because its greyish-green back resembles spruce bark. But then it turns toward us—and its fiery-red breast flares up in the twilight. A real live little flame. 32 Plg. šieno spalvą anglų kalboje. „Hay [–] a light olive green“ (DC 2003: 198). „Olive green [–] a colour similar to olive“ (DC 2003: 278). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 19 FIG. 3. The color of a flame and spruce bark When discussing chaki in contemporary Lithuanian, sentences 44–46 also become relevant. In these sentences, replacing the name for the olive color grayish green with khaki-colored reveals criteria of change and temporariness associated with semantic combinability (natural or artificial object). Certain circumstances can change (alter) the inherent color of a natural object; it is as though it is repainted, interpreted as more artificial. Typically, the Atlantic Ocean (or another body of water) is (perceived as) blue; under certain circumstances it “turns” grayish green—for example, in sentence 44, before a storm, during a storm (cf. Early autumn painted the (green) meadows khaki; see also sentence 30). Similarly, this could apply to the color of the pale dawn in sentence 45: at different times in the morning (on different mornings), in different places, dawn (may be) seen in different colors or shades of color; that is, grayish green is not a typical and constant color of dawn—it varies. If so, then the criteria of change and temporariness also allow Irena’s eyes in sentence 46 to be (perceived as) khaki-colored, for example, Since childhood, Irena’s eyes were (grayish) green, but now they have become khaki-colored; From happiness, Irena’s (grayish) green eyes turned khaki-colored (cf. turned khaki), but ?Irena’s eyes have been khaki-colored since birth;?Irena was born with khaki-colored eyes33. 44) In his dream, Rik imagined that the grayish-green waters of the Atlantic34 (cf. *khaki Atlantic waters, khaki-colored Atlantic waters), turned that color before the storm, rose ever closer to the car like a tidal wave, and he frantically tried to open the door. 33 Cf. also: The upper surface of the [broad-leaved lichen, i.e. lichen] thallus is [a] brownish or grayish green (cf.?the broad-leaved lichen is khaki-colored); when wet, it turns bright green (cf. when wet, it becomes khaki-colored). Cited from: https://www.delfi.lt/grynas/gamta/misku-savanoriai-kviecia-prisijungti-pazink-misko-kerpes-ir-samanas.d?id=63054274. 34 Cf. the definition of this color in Russian: “зеленый тайфун [–] серо-оливковый” (Vasilevič, Kuznecova, Miščenko 2005: 151). BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 20 45) When I was walking, it was just after seven. In the pale grayish-green dawn (cf. in the pale khaki-colored dawn), they looked like war refugees, their faces pale and glum as they bundled up the remains of the traveling circus. 46) By old age they had faded somewhat, but how beautifully they must have shone in her youth! But Irena’s eyes were only grayish green (cf. were only khaki-colored, but:?Irena’s eyes were always khaki-colored). Vaitkus climbed out of the car and greeted them, holding the medicine in his outstretched hand. 4.2. The correlation between the color terms greenish brown and khaki in sentences and phrases The aforementioned Latvian and English dictionaries provide grounds for discussing the relationship between greenish brown—including greenish russet—and khaki. Sentence 47, in which the color property is attributed to a garment, together with the previously mentioned correlation between khaki and russet, would allow us to suppose that greenish brown may be associated with khaki. If broader contexts than those available here were to confirm this, then one could argue that in sentences 48–50 the potential use of khaki is constrained by the aforementioned semantic and syntactic criteria. The construction used in sentence 49, I saw her large, greenish-russet eyes, could be interpreted in light of sentence 46. I usually see Indrė’s eyes as russet; while dancing very close to her, I saw that Indrė’s eyes were (seemed) greenish russet. An unusual way of (perceiving) the color of the eyes could be expressed by the construction while dancing very close, I saw that Indrė’s eyes were khaki-colored. For similar semantic reasons, in sentence 50 it is possible to say khaki-colored hands or the hands were khaki-colored from the resin. Moreover, sentence 51 shows that the potential use of khaki (color) may also be restricted by other structural criteria: a noun phrase expanded by agreeing and non-agreeing modifiers, in which it would be unclear with what khaki (color) is semantically compatible (cf. immersed in the khaki-colored tall grass or immersed in khaki (colored) light). 47) That was what the young woman you danced with briefly wanted to tell you, since, for delicate reasons, she was feeling very unwell that evening. She was wearing a greenish-russet sweater (cf. a khaki-colored sweater) and brown jeans. Her hair was dark and wavy. 48) Lizards live in dry, sun-warmed places (steppes, forests, mountains up to an altitude of 1.5 km). A russet or greenish-brown (?khaki) color of the lizard camouflages it well among stones and grasses. Lizards live in pairs, hiding at night in burrows, under stones, and beneath tree-stump bark. BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 21 49) Or I’ll jump. Indrė glanced back at me. Her face—with its even, delicate feminine features—was very close; I could see her large, greenish-brown eyes beneath dark eyelashes (cf. *I could see her large khaki eyes; I could see her large khaki-colored eyes). “You’re beautiful,” I said, and took hold of her shoulders. 50) I don’t even know how old this woman is—perhaps younger than my mother and older than my grandmother. Her hands, which she wipes on a coarse linen apron, are greenish brown like pine branches (cf. hands like pine branches—khaki-colored); the apron is stained with resin, and the pancakes the woman flips with her fingers smell woefully of wood... 51) I descend the left slope of the ravine, ford the stream, and slowly force my way up the right slope, immersed in the greenish-brown light of tall grasses, tree foliage, and thickets (cf.?immersed in the khaki(-colored) light of tall grasses, tree foliage, and thickets), clambering through boggy moss, splashing slimy mud and crawling to the top of the slope. 4.3. Color terms: brownish or greenish yellow, yellowish brown, and khaki, correlation in sentence and phrase When defining khaki, Latvian, Polish, German, and English dictionaries mention brownish yellow or yellowish brown. The fact that Lithuanian khaki has a similar meaning was noted in section 3.2. By analogy with the color of sand, the compound color terms used in sentences 52–56 may be close to the simple term khaki, whose attributive or predicative use in sentences 57–61 is impossible on account of the semantic criteria mentioned above. On the other hand, sentence 62 (cf. also sentences 39 and 56) shows that if the color of a natural object is perceived as inconstant, it can be expressed by the phrase khaki-colored. 52) A tranquil brownish-yellow color (cf. a tranquil brown khaki color) sometimes gleams with gold so dazzlingly that it takes your breath away. 53) The designs are silhouette-style, always monochrome, dark, and set against a brownish-yellow background. 54) You’re blonde; you were wearing a yellowish-brown coat, and you held a dark “Bear beer” bag in your hand. 55) He wore what is known as a Palm Beach suit, yellowish brown in color, elegantly tailored and undoubtedly very expensive. 56) Indeed, over time the white cover color turned yellowish brown. BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351–7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 22 57) This is essentially a tawny-yellow dog with a black “saddle”. The head, legs up to the thighs and elbows, the lower part of the torso, and the chest are tawny-yellow, while the ears are a darker tawny-yellow. 58) Here by the roadside flutters a tawny-yellow spotted butterfly. It settles on the path—and disappears, because the undersides of its wings are grayish-brown like the earth. 59) Maple wood is hard and durable. It is yellowish-white or tawny-yellow, with a very beautiful, lustrous grain. Maple wood is used to make furniture, musical instruments, and decorative items. 60) Both varieties of saluki may be white, cream, golden, reddish, grayish yellow-brown, tricolor (white, black, and yellowish-brown), or black and yellowish-brown. 61) The shoots are of medium length and thickness, slightly curved. Their bark is yellowish-brown, with a greenish tinge and a grayish waxy coating; the lenticels are small, sparse, and brownish. The leaf buds are medium-sized, conical, and spreading. 62) Up to two months of age, they are grayish-blue with blue eyes; from three months of age, their coat takes on a silvery-gray hue, and their eyes turn yellowish-brown. The true color of the coat and eyes appears only when the puppies are eight months old. There are three varieties of this breed, distinguished only by their coats. It has been noted that in English khaki may be synonymous with the phrase greenish-yellow. Sentence 63, in which grass (in this case, a meadow), typically associated with green, is greenish-yellow, would at the very least allow this mixed color to be included among the potential shades of khaki. 63) The prolonged episode disrupts the structure of the performance, but at the end it brightens again: crickets chirp, against the greenish-yellow meadow two women lie. 4.4. Correlation of the color terms grayish brown and khaki in the sentence and the phrase In neighboring Latvian, grayish brown is (can be) one of the meanings of the adjective khaki (see Figure 4). The context of sentence 64 and Figure 5 would allow us to speak of a similar meaning of khaki in Lithuanian: the grayish brown of earth can be close to shades of sand (see footnote 28; cf. sentence 25). In view of this, khaki becomes possible in sentences 65–66. BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351–7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 23 FIG. 4. Grayish brown35 and brown36 FIG. 5. Color of the underside of the wings of a fritillary 64) Here, by the roadside, a yellowish-brown spotted butterfly flutters. It alights on the path—and disappears, because the underside of its wings is grayish brown like the earth. Its little wings are so strange, as if someone had roughly cut them out. That is why it is called a fritillary. 65) A goose feather in an open book. The folds of the garments fall in beautiful lines. The colors are cool: a blue cloak and a gray-green (cf. olive-colored) garment beneath, against a grayish-brown (cf. khaki) background. 66) The view from the other side of the room opens onto a busy railway platform crowded with people, where the selection took place, and beyond it looming, gloomy grayish-brown brick barracks (cf. looming, gloomy khaki brick barracks); the whole scene was crowned by a metal arch bearing an inscription, facing directly this way: ARBEIT MACHT FREI. 35 The color image was found by entering Google image search with grayish brown. 36 The color image was found by entering the Latvian phrase Google image search: pelēki brūns. BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 24 The potential correlation between the color names grayish brown and khaki in sentences 65–66 brings us back to instances of the use of khaki whose meaning is unclear without a broader context, such as in sentence 67. In keeping with the principles of clarity and economy of language, speakers generally avoid such usage. It may also be that language users interpret “unclear” instances of khaki according to the typical khaki color—the green of a uniform. Considering all that has been said, it becomes clear that, in a broad sense, khaki comprises transitional shades between two colors. According to the color prototype, green and brown khaki corresponds to grass and earth khaki. The latter encompasses the palette of sand shades mentioned in the article (brownish yellow, yellowish brown, grayish brown, yellowish greenish brown, and so on; cf. sentence 68), while the former covers shades of grass (brownish green or greenish yellow; cf. sentence 69). 67) – “Come in!” I invited him, and Badis Willard entered the room, holding a khaki-colored cap... 68) The prepared tincture is clear, greenish-yellowish-brown in color (cf. khaki-colored), with a specific faint odor and an astringent, bitterish taste37. 69) Hop bines are cut and dried. In Tasmania, special drying sheds have been built near hop plantations—the dried cones must remain greenish yellow and intact. Why are hops valued so highly? Is there no other substitute for flavoring beer? GENERALIZATION AND CONCLUSIONS An examination of 96 examples from contemporary written Lithuanian containing khaki and comparison of these with its potential synonyms in 313 sentences showed that this adjective can have the meanings “(soft) (grayish) brownish green (color),” “(soft) grayish (and) and/or greenish (and) and/or yellowish brown (color),” and “(soft) brownish or greenish yellow (color).” According to the green and brown prototype, it is possible to speak in general terms of transitional shades of grass and earth khaki. By analogy with sand shades, the more broadly understood earth khaki is distinguished from grass khaki, which typically correlates with the color of a military uniform. 37 Cf. also the sentence in which, owing to the semantic criteria mentioned above, khaki is restricted: A moss of yellowish, greenish, brownish shades [i.e., Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus]. Quoted from: https://www.delfi.lt/grynas/gamta/misku-savanoriai-kviecia-prisijungti-pazink-misko-kerpes-ir-samanas.d?id=63054274. BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 25 The color khaki is expressed by a simple and/or compound name. In contemporary Lithuanian, the names for this color are used both as variants and in opposition to one another. This is related to the type of construction and/or semantic combinability. Usually, khaki (color) is used with nouns denoting artificial objects (a khaki uniform, khaki-colored walls), and is rarely combined with nouns referring to natural objects (khaki-colored sand; khaki-colored spice plants). For the latter usage, the criteria of temporariness and change are influential (Indrė’s eyes look / have turned khaki-colored with joy,?Indrė’s eyes have been khaki-colored since birth; *Lichens are khaki). The semantic combinability of compound names for the color khaki is unrestricted. Semantically, khaki can be unclear. A compound color name is more precise and clearer38. Most often, the adjective khaki functions as an attributive modifier in a noun phrase, and rarely as a predicative (The new uniform is khaki). In predicative position, khaki-colored (The walls are khaki-colored) is more common. In contemporary Lithuanian, khaki and khaki-colored can be used as variants with nouns denoting artificial objects (khaki (color) walls). The phrase khaki-colored is more common. The loanword khaki is taking its first steps toward becoming established in Lithuanian. ŠALTINIAI BŽe – Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas: elektroninis variantas. Vyr. red. Danutė Liutkevičienė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2015. Prieiga internete: http://bkz.lki.lt. CONCISE – The Concise Oxford Dictionary, Ninth Editon. Ed. Della Thompson, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995. 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Color for the Electronic Age, New York: Watson-Guptil Publications. BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 29 Wierzbicka A. 1990. The Meaning of Color Terms: Semantics, Culture, and Cognition. – Cognitive Linguistics 1, 99–150. Wierzbicka A. 1996: Semantics: Primes and universals, Oxford: OUP Zolnikova J. V. [Зольникова, Юлия В.] 2009: Цветообозначения во фразеологической картине мира немецкого и русского языков. – Вестник Челябинского государственного университета. 2009. №30 (168). Филология. Искусствоведение 35, 88–93. Gauta 2018 10 17 Priimta 2018 12 17 KHAKI IN MODERN (WRITTEN) LITHUANIAN S u m m a r y The article addresses the issue of whether the lexeme khaki is unambiguous in written Lithuanian, and of how deeply it is rooted in the language. The names of the colour are dissected from a syntactic-semantic standpoint, in reliance on material from the Corpus of the Modern Lithuanian Language (CMLL) by the Centre of Computational Linguistics at Vytautas Magnus University. Analysis of the CMLL cases and their comparison with potential synonyms has revealed that this adjective can have the meanings of ‘(light) (greyish) brownish green (colour)’, ‘(light) greyish and/or greenish and/or yellowish brown (colour)’, and ‘(light) brownish or greenish yellow (colour)’. In general and with reference to the prototype green resp. brown, we can talk about transitional khaki shades of grass and earth. Based on the analogy of the colour of sand, the khaki of earth with its broader sense is distinguished from the khaki of grass, which usually correlates with the colour of the military uniform. The colour khaki is verbally expressed using its simple and/or complex lexeme. In modern Lithuanian, the names of this colour can be used both in variation and in opposition. This has to do with the type of the construction (attributive vs. predicative) and/or semantic combinability (natural objects vs. man-made artefacts). Semantically, khaki can be vague. The complex lexeme of the colour is rather more definite and transparent. BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ. Chaki dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje | 30 The study has showed that the loanword khaki is taking its first steps towards solidifying its place in the Lithuanian language. KEYWORDS: loanword khaki, semantics, construction, colour, dictionary, corpus. LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius [email protected] BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204