Vokietis „Lietuvių kalbos žodyno“ pasaulėvaizdyje

DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language THE GERMAN IN THE WORLDVIEW OF THE DICTIONARY OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGEDICTIONARY OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE1 Whether we are friends or enemies, the future will have to show, German. Vincas Krėvė KEYWORDS: dictionary, semantics, illustrative example, worldview, German. ABSTRACT Ethnologists, folklorists, historians, and linguists have examined the image of the German through Lithuanian eyes. However, the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language has not yet been studied from this perspective; it can be viewed as a chronicle encompassing material from our earliest writings in 1547 through 2001. This article accordingly seeks to clarify the image of the German on the basis of this dictionary. A semantic analysis of approximately 650 illustrative examples related to the word vokietis showed that the image of the German most often reflected in the dictionary is negative. In these sentences, Germans are mentioned as enemies who have long attacked, oppressed, and killed Lithuanians; they destroyed or seized Lithuanian property, burdened people with various obligations and taxes, and drove them away to work. To Lithuanians, Germans seemed cruel, wicked, arrogant, choosy, and deceitful, but sometimes also foolish and unpleasant in appearance. Considerably less material in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language concerns positive German traits. 1 In this article, worldview is understood more broadly than merely as a linguistic worldview. What is meant is ‘a view of the world and its phenomena’; compare the Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanianhttp://lkis.lki.lt/dabartinis).. Here, the discussion concerns the image of the world revealed specifically in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language. Undoubtedly, “[T]he image of the world, or a model of reality composed of words, may differ across dictionaries, even when they are not particularly far apart in historical time” (Kravcova 2013: 10). BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 2 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS Relations between Germans and Lithuanians have long been ambivalent. Until the Second World War, Germany shared a border with Lithuania. As the historian Saulius Kaubrys writes, “[T]he German historian G. Wagner identified three waves of German migration to Lithuania. The first began in the mid-thirteenth century and continued until the beginning of the sixteenth century, the second—from the mid-sixteenth century until the mid-seventeenth century, and the third—from the late eighteenth century until the mid-nineteenth century” (Kaubrys 2011:15). Lithuania Minor never belonged to Lithuania, while the Klaipėda Region was assigned to our state only in 1923. Consequently, many Lithuanians lived within German territory, while Germans lived in western and southwestern Lithuania and in Kaunas (Anglickienė 2000b: 25; 2006: 45); thus, representatives of these two nations had been neighbors since long ago. On the other hand, Lithuanians often fought against Germans. Historians, folklorists, ethnologists, and others have written about this duality in their relationship: cruel conquerors—that is, enemies—and reliable, respected neighbors—that is, friends (Anglickienė 2006; Zybertienė 2006; Kaubrys 2011). This duality is also evident in many of the sources studied. Lithuanian folklore reflects two sides of interaction with Germans: peaceful neighborly relations and fighting against them. Folk creativity seems to preserve, as if in amber, the popular attitude toward people of other nationalities over several centuries. The German can be found in domestic tales, jokes, legends, local traditions, military-historical songs, courtship and herding songs, humorous rhymes, proverbs, and sayings. In narrative folklore, the peaceful side of our relations with Germans is more visible, whereas sung folklore depicts the fighting. Short forms of folklore illustrate everything—the experience of several centuries and the multifaceted ties with Germans (Anglickienė 2000a: 2; 2000b: 25; 2006: 184–186). Humorous rhymes mock the German, portraying him as dim-witted, incompetent, and generally deserving of ridicule (Vengrytė-Janavičienė 2004: 61; Anglickienė 2006: 193–194). In jokes, Germans are either conceited or stupid (Lukošiūtė 2012: 164; BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 3 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 Bandoriūtė 2015: 114–115). Taigi folklore dominuoja neigiamas, neretai paniekinantis vokiečių įvaizdis (Anglickienė 2006: 68; 2007: 446). Linguist Silvija Papaurelytė-Klovienė examined the ethnic stereotype of the German revealed by examples from Vytautas Magnus University’s Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian. Her study shows that the trait most often emphasized is Germans’ inclination toward order, sometimes even toward pedantry. In addition, from the Lithuanian perspective, Germans are organized, disciplined, and patriotic (Papaurelytė-Klovienė 2010: 5–7)2. In 2001, dominant ethnic stereotypes among students were also studied. In students’ eyes, Germans are orderly, hardworking, and excessively frugal. They are also nationalists, conceited, and prone to glorifying themselves and their nationality (Senvaitytė 2004). Nicknames associated with this ethnonym have also been studied. As their researcher Alvydas Butkus notes, the name “German” is applied to people who speak very quickly and unclearly or stutter; to angry, rough people; to big-headed, hooked-nosed3 people; and to people who wear German-style clothing. Less often, such a nickname is connected with a person’s origins (Butkus 2009: 17; see also Anglickienė 2005). The historian Alvydas Nikžentaitis analyzed the interwar press and scholarly historical literature discussing images of Germans and Germany. In his view, at least during the first decade of independence, positive stereotypes of Germans and Germany took shape (Nikžentaitis 1998: 239; see also Kaubrys 2011: 16). 2 It should be noted that S. Papaurelytė-Klovienė’s study focused primarily on the national character traits of Germans (and other nations), examining the adjective vokiškas and reviewing examples of the genitive form of the noun vokiečių. A more comprehensive picture of the German could be obtained by examining examples of the entire inflectional paradigm of the noun vokietis. 3 This appearance is also evaluated negatively, for example, “facial resemblance to people of other nations is a negative trait, that is, it is regarded as a lack of beauty”; see Butkus (1995: 224). BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 4 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 Thus, quite a number of studies have indeed been conducted on Germans. However, our largest work of linguistics—the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (hereinafter LKŽe)4—has not yet been studied from this perspective, although it too can be regarded as a kind of corpus, a chronicle encompassing material from our earliest writings in 1547 up to 2001. Lexical material from spoken language has been collected for it since 1902, and the dictionary describes around half a million Lithuanian words. This dictionary is like a bridge between folklore reaching back into the distant past and the corpora, press, and so on of the present day; it records entire eras and provides detailed descriptions of everyday life—work, hardships, wars, feelings, fears, and joys. The aim of this article is to investigate the concept of GERMAN5 as it emerges from the illustrative sentences in LKŽe that mention people of this nationality. The following objectives were set: to extract from LKŽe all material related to the concept of GERMAN and, after examining it, to classify it so as to reveal the historical relations between Germans and Lithuanians; Germans’ attitudes toward Lithuanians and Lithuanians’ attitudes toward Germans6; and German character traits. Illustrative sentences, rather than definitions, were chosen for study because they record a highly varied and authentic worldview—not that of the lexicographer, but that reflected by all the dictionary’s contributors: speakers of dialects from whom material was recorded, writers, authors of old texts, and others7. The methods used to achieve this aim 4 The image of the German alone is meant. Using LKŽe (though not always exclusively), studies have already examined Lithuanian images of rowan (Gritėnienė 2016: 85–104) and the dictionary (Gritėnienė 2017: 1–19), the political worldview (state, law, government) (Zabarskaitė 2010: 126–143), the words marios, pamarys, pamariškis (Zabarskaitė 2012: 239–271), values in the Lithuanian worldview (Rutkovska et al. 2017), and terminological information embedded in definitions and illustrations (Umbrasas 2019: 162–183). 5 Apie terminą konceptas plačiau žr. Gudavičius (2000: 44–58; 2011). 6 Although the article focuses primarily on the word German, it also examines to some extent the illustrative sentences concerning Lithuanians’ attitudes toward Germans, Lithuanians’ reactions to German actions, and so forth. In the author’s view, this helps to reveal a more complete image of the German. For example, if many illustrative sentences record how greatly Lithuanians feared Germans, this characterizes not only Lithuanians but also Germans: it follows that Germans possessed traits that frightened people of other nations, and so on. 7 It is quite possible that selecting definitions that mention the German would produce a different image. Perhaps such a study should also be undertaken in the future. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 5 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 were the semantic, descriptive, and interpretive methods. The research material was collected from the electronic version of the dictionary, updated in 2018 (hereinafter LKŽe)8. That Lithuanians have been in contact with Germans since ancient times, and that these contacts were long-lasting and multifaceted, can be inferred from the number of dictionary entries in LKŽe associated with the concept GERMAN9: 1) 1 vokietaitis, 2 vokietaitis, vokietelka, vokietėlis, 1 vokietis, 2 vokietis, vokietka, vokietpalaikis, 1 vokietukas, 2 vokietukas, vokietūtis, vokytaitis, vokytalis, 1 vokytelis, 2 vokytelis, vokytelka, vokytinas, 1 vokytis, 2 vokytis, vokytka, vokytkikė, vokytpalaikis, 1 vokytukas, 2 vokytukas, vokiečiokas, 3 vokis; 2) vokietauti, vokietėjimas, vokietėti, vokietybė, vokietynė, vokietinimas, vokietininkas, vokietinis, vokietinti, vokietintojas, vokietuoti, vokietmetis, vokietystė, vokietišius, vokietiškai, vokietiškas, vokiečiavimas, vokiečiuoti, vokiečiuotojas, vokiečkapiai, vokiečkapis, vokytauti, vokytėti, vokytinis, vokytinti, 3 vokytis, vokytkapiai, vokytmetis, vokytumas, vokytuoti, vokyčiuoti, katvokietis, katvokytis. This study examined the first group of words10, that is, those lexemes most closely associated with nationality. All illustrative examples were selected not only from the dictionary entries for headwords in the aforementioned first group, but from the entire dictionary; in other words, the headword could be any word. Around 1,500 illustrative sentences containing the nouns vokietis, vokytis, and others were found. After analysis, more than half of the examples were rejected as uninformative for the topic selected. The remaining approximately 650 illustrative examples were examined and 8 See www.lkz.lt. Material was collected in June–August 2020. It should be noted that data from the LKŽe card files were not examined. 9 Given the exceptionally large volume of material, this article does not examine other terms for a German—prūšas, fricas, germanas, and so on. This would be a topic for another study. 10 All forms of the words in the first group, as recorded in the illustrative sentences of LKŽe, were examined. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 6 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 They are grouped together and used as the basis for this study. Examples found in written and spoken language are not separated, since the overall image of the German took shape similarly in illustrations drawn both from written sources and from dialects11. It can only be said that examples from earlier times are, of course, mostly from written sources, because when Simonas Daukantas, Antanas Baranauskas, and others lived, no one yet collected material for LKŽ from actual usage. Moreover, the sentences selected for analysis were not divided into periods in the article. The illustrative sentences taken from written sources could be arranged according to the period discussed in the examples, but this would not always be possible for those recorded from people's speech. For example, in a sentence such as You have to cross all Lithuania, who has not trampled the Lithuanians here: the Swedes, the Germans Ad (see peržengti)12, the speaker might have been referring to the times of the Teutonic Knights, to the Germans of the First or Second World War, or, most likely, to all three collectively13. The principal word in this group, also used in contemporary standard Lithuanian, is vokietis (and vokiečiai). LKŽe gives the following meanings: 1 vókietis, -ė, vokietỹs, -ė 1. a person of German nationality. ‖ A soldier of Germany. 2. a person of the Protestant faith living in Lithuania. 2 vókietis, vokietỹs 1. devil14. 2. The German occupation authorities. 3. The German army. 11 Several illustrative sentences describing the same matters related to Germans can be compared. See the examples given later in the article: 1 and 2; 22 and 21; 94 and 95; 187 and 188, and so on. The first examples were recorded from spoken language, the second from written language. Elsewhere, too, the author deliberately seeks to illustrate claims with examples from both written and spoken language. 12 Abbreviations in the illustrative sentences are as in LKŽe. The word whose entry the example is taken from is given in parentheses. 13 It is worth recalling that L. Anglickienė, discussing songs that mention battles with Germans, writes that chronologically such songs fall into two groups: older ones (dating from before the 20th century) and those sung during the First and Second World Wars. These layers have no clear boundary, since older songs were remembered and sung again later when they became relevant (Anglickienė 2006: 190–194). 14 In fact, this meaning refers to another word: see 2 vokietukas 1. And that vokietukas means ‘devil’. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 7 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 Germans 1. A people of Central Europe speaking one of the West Germanic languages. 2. The German occupation authorities. 3. The German army. The same meanings are also expressed by 1 vokytis, 2 vokytis, vokyčiai. It is often difficult to distinguish (and perhaps there is no need to) what is meant—a people, the authorities, the army, or simply a few Germans—especially when such examples occur under other headwords (with roots other than vokiet*, vokyt*). For example, the sentence A Russian drove a German away Pgg (see 2 vokietis) illustrates the meaning ‘the German army’; however, if it appeared in the entry for the headword vyti, it would be impossible to say whether the army is meant here, or whether simply one person (a Russian) is driving another person (a German) away from somewhere. Compare also these two sentences: The Germans used to come, so one always had to give them something Slv (see 1 vokietis) and The Germans then went through our village Kpč (see vokiečiai). The first example refers to an ethnicity, the second to the German army, although the sentences are very similar. Therefore, all examples relating to a German as a representative of his or her people were examined together. Other words in this group refer to the same person (man or woman) of German nationality without stylistic connotation (vokietka, vokytka, vokyčia, 3 vokis), or with a negative connotation (vokietelka, vokytelka, vokietpalaikis, vokytpalaikis), or refer to a young German (man or woman) or a German’s child (1 vokietaitis, -ė, 1 vokietukas, -ė, vokietūtis, -ė, 1 vokytelis, vokytalis, vokytkikė, 1 vokytukas, -ė, vokiečiokas). The semantic shift from ‘person’ to ‘devil’ is highly systematic. ‘Devil’ is the meaning not only of, as noted, 2 vokietis (2 vokytis), but also of vokietpalaikis, 2 vokietukas15, 2 vokietaitis, vokietėlis, vokytaitis, 2 vokytelis, 2 vokytukas, vokiečiukas. 15 2 vokietukas and 2 vokytukas can also mean ‘a small paddle connecting the end of a cart shaft to the wheel axle, a small leg, a peg’, 2 vokietukas means ‘a kind of old-time dance’ and ‘a mushroom of the Cortinariaceae family, the gypsy mushroom (Rozites caperata)’, while 2 vokytukas means ‘gingerbread’. This further demonstrates that relations between Lithuanians and Germans were sufficiently close for the name of a German to be applied to things unrelated to ethnicity. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 8 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 The model at work here is foreigner – mythological being; structurally speaking, both foreigners and mythological beings belong to the “category of non-humans.” Thus, in traditional culture, foreigners are attributed demonic traits (Jasiūnaitė 2018: 181). It should be said that the opposition between one’s own and the foreign has existed for as long as humanity itself. For a Lithuanian, a foreigner is a person of a different faith, another nationality or social group, an inhabitant of another ethnographic region or another village (Vengrytė-Janavičienė 2004: 57; Anglickienė 2006: 64; Bandoriūtė 2015: 111). As Norbertas Vėlius writes, many scholars of Lithuanian folklore have mentioned one of the devil’s most popular guises—a German—including Simonas Daukantas, Eduardas Gizevijus, Jonas Basanavičius, Povilas Višinskis, and Jurgis Dovydaitis. They linked this guise of the devil to historical memory—to Lithuanians’ hatred of the German Teutonic Knights (Vėlius 1986: 19–20, 33). It is possible that the difference in religion (denomination) from that of the Lithuanians also influenced this semantic shift (Savukynas 2012: 94; cf. also Bandoriūtė 2015: 115). The devil was called Germans most often in places where more Germans lived or where people had encountered them more frequently throughout history than elsewhere—Samogitia, Suvalkija, and Lithuania Minor (Vėlius 1986: 41; Jasiūnaitė 2018: 181). Lithuanians almost invariably referred to the devil by a single ethnonym16—German (occasionally Prussian) and its derivatives. Only once, in a mythological legend, is another ethnonym recorded as a name for the devil: Tatar (Anglickienė 2000b: 26; Kaubrys 2011: 16; Jasiūnaitė 2018: 177–178). It is noteworthy that some other peoples also imagined the devil in German form—the Poles, Latvians, Belarusians, and Estonians. The demonization of foreigners (or adherents of another faith) is a universal phenomenon. For example, the Sámi of Finland imagined the devil as a Norwegian, while the Slavs, alongside other foreigners appearing as devils—Germans, Frenchmen, Jews, Ethiopians—also imagine a Lithuanian (Anglickienė 2006: 188; Jasiūnaitė 2010: 88; 2018: 183). 16 This refers only to ethnonyms used as names for the devil. In general, the devil has many other names. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 9 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 It should be noted that the LKŽe examples do not always make it clear whether the person meant is of the nationality under discussion or the devil, cf.: We have become so bold that we would not even meet that devil Plt (see sutikti). 1. THE NEGATIVE IMAGE OF THE GERMAN IN THE DICTIONARY OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE 1.1. The reflection of wars with the Germans in the LKŽe The lexical analysis of the LKŽe shows that, first and foremost, Lithuanians viewed the Germans as a highly warlike and aggressive people toward both their near and distant neighbors. This is not surprising, since the illustrative examples mention both the Lithuanians’ constant battles with the Teutonic Knights and the First and Second World Wars. There are particularly many such examples in the LKŽe17. The illustrative sentences in the LKŽe show that these wars and battles were marked by cruelty, and that the Germans were most often to blame for them, cf.: 1) It is the German who starts wars, no one else. That rascal stirs everyone up and makes trouble; it all starts with him Gdr (see vajokas). 2) The Germans waged inhuman wars A1883,129 (see nežmogiškas). 3) The German army is charged with vile deeds Pt (see juodas). 4) The aims pursued by the Nazi Germans in the Second World War were cruel and inhuman; they were the contemptible dregs of history sp (see išgama). The sentences in the LKŽe show that German military ambitions were immense, cf.: 5) From what they said, it seemed that the whole world would become the Germans’ slaves Plšk (see vergas). 17 According to ethnologist L. Anglickienė, “once again, the ‘active military’ interaction between the two nations is more prominently reflected; such foreigners are mentioned more often than those with whom only peaceful, friendly relations were maintained” (Anglickienė 2007: 453). It is worth noting that in the folklore of many other European peoples, too, the image of the German is associated with that of an enemy—to whom strength, cruelty, malice, and bestiality are attributed (Anglickienė 2007: 449). BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 10 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 6) During this war, the world was wrapped in barbed wire by the Germans Rd (see vynioti). The sentences examined mention that Germans attacked many countries at different times, waged wars, and fought many peoples: Latvians (see examples 7–8), Prussians (see example 9), Estonians (see example 10), Russians (see example 11), Poles (see example 12), English (see example 13), Danes (see example 14), Norwegians (see example 15), Belgians (see examples 16–17), French (see example 18), Americans (see example 19), Hungarians (see example 20), and even one another (see examples 21–22): 7) The Germans subdued the Latvians with arrows and svilksnis S. Dauk (see svilksnis). 8) The Germans’ advance into the mouth of the Daugava K. Būg (see brovimas). 9) The sad fate of the Prussians under the German yoke, a threat hanging over all Lithuania rš (see karti). 10) The Estonians18 fought the Germans with all their might, sparing neither wealth nor life S. Dauk (see skųsti). 11) Back when the German was at war with the Russian Dbg (see 2 vokietis). 12) The Poles had rebelled because they did not want to submit to the German Dr (see leisti). 13) Buildings in London splattered by German bombs rš (see 1 aptaškyti). 14) The Danes had to confront German forces—the Order of the Sword Brothers rš (see kardininkas). 15) The English fleet could not prevent the Germans from landing troops in Norway sp (see kliudyti). 16) Advancing through Belgium, the Germans swiftly captured a very strong fortress prš (see umaru). 17) The only thought prevailing in the minds of the Belgians was that the Germans were their murderous enemies Vd (see žudingas). 18) When the furious Germans began firing their guns—the French leapt out of the trenches Dr (see virinti). 19) The German would have prevailed, were it not for America Šts (see viršėti). 18 ‘Estonians’, cf. igaunis LKŽė. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 11 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 20) Hungary can be of interest to the Germans only as a springboard for further campaigns into the Balkans sp (see springboard). 21) The Germans have been at war among themselves for no more than three years S. Dauk (see three). 22) The men were very indignant that a German was shooting a German Plšk (see 1 German). Of course, since the material was taken from LKŽe, it mostly concerns the relations of Germans not with other peoples, but with Lithuania and Lithuanians. From ancient times, the Samogitians fought against the Germans—the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Teutonic Knights19. This is also reflected in some illustrative dictionary examples from written sources (no such examples from spoken usage were recorded in LKŽe): 23) For 300 years, the Samogitians refused to be baptized and fought the Germans tooth and nail, day and night S. Dauk (see end). 24) When the Germans settled along the coast of Samogitia, they drove the [Lithuanians] into the stone and [water] of the land where the Germans wished to establish themselves S. Dauk (see cast into). 25) Gediminas badly defeated the Germans who, after breaking away from Courland, were making their way through Samogitian lands to Prussia M. Valanč (see 1 breakaway). 26) Vytautas rebelled against the Germans and liberated the Samogitians who had earlier surrendered to them A1883,108 (see liberate). In ancient times as well as during both world wars, not only the Samogitians but all of Lithuania came into conflict with the Germans. This is attested by illustrative sentences from both written sources and spoken language; cf.: 27) Because of the constant wars with the Germans, Lithuania seems to have been completely devastated, its inhabitants plunged into severe hardship LTI250(Bs). 19 Cf.: Crusades in the Baltic region VLE; Battle of Durbe VLE; Battle of Saule VLE; Baranauskas et al. (2016); LKK. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 12 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 28) The Teutonic Order, attacking Lithuania continuously for 125 years, had turned large areas of our land into a desolate wilderness A. Sal (see tuojit(m)pos). 29) Lithuania had been devastated even by the first Germans Šts (see tinti). The LKŽe also mentions quite a number of specific locations attacked by the Germans—rivers (see examples 30–31), parts of Lithuania (see examples 32–34), and cities or towns (see examples 35–40); compare: 30) They halted the Germans by the Nemunas Įnšk (see turėti). 31) Beyond the Nevėžis, the Germans entrenched themselves and fortified their position Kdn. (see užtvirtinti). 32) In the autumn of 1914, the German army invaded Užnemunė, but after some time was driven out; only on February 11, 1915, did it march into Lithuania again LKXIII313 (see įžygiuoti). 33) The Germans once again occupied the entire railway line—from Klaipėda to Courland rs (see palinijs). 34) The seaside fishermen rise up in a brave struggle against the arbitrary actions of the occupying Germans K. Kors (see sauvaliavimas). 35) When the Germans began shelling Pasvalys Ps (see tratyti). 36) We’ve only just heard that the Germans are already coming from Gruzdžiai Mšk (see vokičiai). 37) The Germans bombed Skuodas Šts (see išbombuoti). 38) The Germans lay near Kuršėnai for three months, but drove the “serpents” back Krš (see nustumti). 39) How much the Germans destroyed in Endriejavas—terrible! End (see ištratinti). 40) As far as the Germans’ second push against the people of Ukmergė Vaižg (see brukimas). The research material indicates that the Germans attacked the Lithuanians with every weapon available at the time (see examples 41–47) and used various methods (see examples 48–50), all to achieve their goal: 41) The Germans rolled battering rams up to the river cliffs S. Dauk (see parioglinti). 42) The German planes are already coming; their whirring and crackling can be heard PnmR (see užskristi). 43) The Germans took the castle from the aeroplanes Įrb (see pilti). BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 13 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 44) The Germans opened fire with machine guns and went wild throwing grenades K1 (see pašėlti). 45) The German mortars began speaking rš (see prabilti). 46) The Germans are firing away with submachine guns almost at point-blank range rš (see kulti). 47) I just look—and from that rampart rifles, bayonets, and the Germans’ tall caps are poking out! poking out! Žem (see kyšu). 48) The Germans were digging beneath the castle and had dug so far that the whole castle was left hanging S. Dauk (see kyboti). 49) The Germans agreed to erect a framework there, so high that they could use it to sneak into the castle S. Dauk (see sures­ti). 50) The Germans demolished the castle walls and captured Goštautas Kel1937,22 (see gavimas). Several examples are also mentioned that indicate which weapons were used to defend against the German attackers20, although there are far fewer such sentences: 51) With their wooden cudgels they lured the iron-clad Germans down from their horses and killed them M. Valanč (see geležėtas, rendėtinis). 52) A gigantic sword whistled and crashed into the German’s head rš (see džekterėti). 53) Ta ta ta ta, and he smashed the Germans with machine guns Grg (see suteškinti). 54) Cannons are set up by the church—they are waiting for the Germans Kp (see sustatyti). Far more sentences are found testifying that the Lithuanians (especially in ancient times) did not readily yield to the warlike Germans, but defended their native land; this also says a great deal about the Lithuanians themselves and their image, cf.: 55) And they did not give the Germans even a foot of land that they had not soaked with their own blood S. Dauk (see suslėkinti). 20 It is likely that the Lithuanians defending themselves are meant, but without broader context this cannot be stated with certainty—people of some other nationality may also have been defending themselves. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 14 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 56) That was enough: the Lithuanians had beaten the Germans so badly and avenged all the bloodshed V. Piet (see pritalžyti). 57) The Prussian Lithuanians withdrew with great force against the Germans prš (see atitraukti). 58) I rode out to fight, to hack the Germans LLDIII113 (Tvr) (see vokietis). 59) Our forefathers had tried to resist the Crusaders, but they could no longer escape German bondage and restore freedom to their homeland Kel1881,263 (see aplaikinti). 60) More than a thousand Samogitians suddenly rushed out of the castle and quickly surrounded all the Germans M. Valanč (see apsiausti). 61) Gediminas’s campaigns went well: he routed the Germans and laid many Russians low A1885,77 (see įesti). The dictionary records many examples illustrating the arrival of Germans (soldiers) in Lithuania. Many of them emphasize how numerous the Germans were (see examples 62–64) or how quickly they arrived (see examples 65–66). These illustrative examples were recorded mainly from spoken language: 62) All night long a line of Germans marched by; the Germans marched all night K1 (see virvė). 63) Well, the Germans have arrived: they swarm like an anthill Glv (see skruzdėlynas, virbėti). 64) The Germans move across the fields like slugs21 Zp (see 1 slankius). 65) They’re sweeping in, they’re sweeping in on us from every side, the Germans! Klt (see semti). 66) He couldn’t escape the German; they swooped down quickly Lnk (see anttūpti). As the LKŽe material shows, it was thought that the Germans had not come to Lithuania merely for a while—they intended to settle there, take land from the Lithuanians, and turn the Lithuanians themselves into virtual slaves; thus, the Germans were regarded as occupiers. Compare: 21 ‘a mass, a swarm of swarming little bugs, worms, and slugs’, compare slankius LKŽe. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 15 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 67) The Crusaders took their districts and homesteads and gave them to all sorts of German rabble, so that they could enslave and torment the Lithuanians, and strengthen and enrich the Germans S. Dauk (see kerinti). 68) The German pilgrims, having lost the zeal of the Christian faith, wanted not only to seize the wealth and land of the Highlanders and Samogitians by this means, but also to enslave the people themselves S. Dauk (see pamesti). 69) The Germans wanted to take the land, not the people BsVVIII (see imti). 70) Meanwhile, many Germans were brought to settle in the new country A1883,229 (see atklukinti). 71) Lithuanian peasants were driven off their land, and German colonists were settled in their place rš (see sodinti). The dictionary (both in written language and in examples from spoken language) also records that people expected the German conquerors to have to withdraw from Lithuania (see examples 72–73). As the illustrative examples show, these hopes came true (see examples 74–75), because the Germans were defeated (see examples 76–79): 72) This war will last a long time, but the German will meet with humiliation Pt (see vokietis). 73) I had always thought that the German would lose the war, and he did Krt (see dingoti). 74) The Germans fled in great disarray Lpl (see stambus). 75) Quietly, like mice sneaking out from under a broom, no longer shouting or jeering, the little Germans slipped away, taking their rifles with them Pt (see šluota). 76) The Lithuanians repelled the Germans’ advance eastward prš (see saulėtekis). 77) The Battle of Tannenberg toppled the German Order from its high pedestal and broke its power prš (see stovyla). 78) The Germans lost the war B. Sruog (see prakišti). 79) We crushed the Germans Jrb (see sutriuškinti). BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 16 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 1.2. The conduct of the German conquerors during wartime in Lithuania as reflected in LKŽe Lithuanians fear the German invaders and conquerors. This is borne out by the following examples of actual usage found in LKŽe: 80) People were terrified of those Germans—when they saw them coming, they trembled Bsg (see išgąsčioti). 81) As soon as he sees that the Germans are coming, he shits himself! Sml (see triest­i). 82) Even the fleas died when I saw a German coming Btg (see numirti). 83) When she saw the Germans in the yard, she was so frightened that she crawled under the bed Srv (see pastalė). 84) The Germans came to Lyduokiai and massacred22 the whole village Ldk (see sušikinti). There are only a few examples in which it is said that a German is afraid of something, and even those are quite ambiguous. Thus, it can be said that Lithuanians did not consider Germans cowards. Only one sentence was found in which the fear is specifically identified: 85) The German is not clever enough to grab a club—he is afraid Šts (see klėbys). From LKŽe we can learn that there was good reason to fear the Germans—they were cruel to other peoples too (see examples 86–87), killed (or were expected to kill) (see examples 88–91), and mistreated people (see examples 92–93); cf.: 86) The Germans behaved cruelly; they shot many people Žr (see žiaurus). 87) The Germans were more cruel; we didn’t see that many Russians Erž (see žiaurus). 88) The Germans killed not only Jews but also other people whom they considered unreliable Plšk (see žudyti). 89) Because of his pro-Lithuanian stance, he was about to be killed by the Germans Plšk (see nustatymas). 90) They said the Germans would come, they said they would kill the girls Plt (see žudyti). 91) There the Germans buried them half-alive, piled them up Gl (see sukasti). 92) The people of Sodėčiai loudly lament; they are supposedly being hurt by the Germans Pt (see skausti). 22 ‘frightened’, cf. šikinti LKŽe. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 17 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 93) We have been battered by the Germans [soldiers]23 Šts (see nukriokinti). As the illustrative sentences show, when the German army arrived, it was not only people who suffered. Foreign soldiers, both on their way into Lithuania and as they withdrew from it, destroyed everything in their path (see examples 94–95)—the homes and property of local residents (see examples 96–98), other buildings (see examples 99–100), and forests (see example 101); they spared no animals either (see examples 102–103), cf.: 94) The Germans came and swept everything away as if with a broom24 Bgs (see šluoti, šluota). 95) The Germans turned a cultivated and fertile land into dreadful wastelands S. Dauk (see brandingas). 96) The Germans set fire to the Samogitians’ dwellings S. Dauk (see dagioti). 97) The people had carefully tended everything for so many years, and then the Germans came and destroyed it all in no time Šl (see tausoti). 98) On St George’s Day the Germans came to us and poured out all the grain and potatoes, then trampled them Ms (see sutrypti). 99) The Germans blew up the bridge Trg (see sproginti). 100) The Germans burned down the family home and blew up the mill rš (see sprogdinti). 101) After the Germans had passed through, only clearings remained in the forests Dglš (see išskyna). 102) During the war, the Germans ordered farmers to slaughter their dogs Krt (see vokyčiai). 103) The Germans tormented all the bees to death Šr (see kankenti). The material under study attests that during wars German soldiers took local people away for forced labor (see examples 104–106), and sometimes (judging from the examples found) for purposes that remain unclear (see examples 107–108). The sentences found in LKŽe make it clear that this was not only done by force, but that no regard was paid to people’s age or health (109–110): 23 ‘to mistreat’, cf. kriohinti LKŽe. 24 ‘made so that it would no longer exist, disappear, destroyed’, cf. to sweep LKŽe. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 18 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 104) The Germans rounded up a hundred workers and drove them off to Vilnius Snt (see round up). 105) They wanted to take me to Germany, to work Varn (see transport). 106) Farmers still have to suffer from the Germans, who constantly drive them to repair bridges and roads Pt (see driving). 107) When the war was on, the Germans selected the men and drove them away Smal (see drive away). 108) So the Germans used to catch us, young fellows like these Ss (see young fellow). 109) Back then, the Germans used to drive little girls out to bind sheaves, three to a sickle Skr (see per). 110) I’m such a weakling, and yet they threaten to deport me to Germany Šts (see weakling). Illustrative sentences were found showing that local people, afraid of what German soldiers might do to them, hid as best they could: 111) I crawled into a nook, and the Germans didn’t see me Skr (see nook). 112) People hid in sand pits from the Germans Šts (see sand pit). 113) When we see a German coming, we’ll jump on the horse and gallop off to the devil Všv (devil). 114) The Germans had ordered us not to take in any fugitive Kair (see 2 fugitive). As the research material shows, the German conquerors not only killed and mistreated local inhabitants and destroyed their homes; throughout history, they also took local people’s property for their own use. This was so commonplace that the dictionary records a great many examples of it. From them, one can form a very precise picture of what German soldiers took and how local people felt about it. First of all, the most general things should be mentioned: 115) The Germans, having looted heaps of all kinds of treasures, rejoiced S. Dauk (see heap). 116) During the war of ’14, the Germans took everything Krš (see German). 117) The Germans worked us to the bone, as after baptism Šts (see dirbti). It is stated that the peasants lost what formed the basis of their farms—grain and fodder (see examples 118–119) and livestock (see examples 120–121); horses were taken from them (see 122 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 19 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 example), cows (see examples 123–124), sheep (see examples 124–125), pigs (see example 125), geese (see example 126), ducks (see example 127): 118) I came back with only an empty threshing floor; the German took the fodder too Šts (see dugininė). 119) The Germans took out the grain and cleaned it Grd (see išvalyti). 120) The Germans rounded up all the livestock and burned down the barns Ad (see užrinkti). 121) The Germans kept taking the livestock; you couldn’t come to an agreement with them Krž (see sutarti). 122) The Germans led the horses away; my man sits and weeps Krž (see verkti). 123) The German military authorities took one cow after another from the inhabitants, and the last one too from another Plšk (see valdžia). 124) The Germans slaughtered all the calves and lambs right away Kp (see telyčia). 125) The Germans came and swept everything away as with a broom: they shot the sheep and slaughtered the pigs Bgs (see iššaudyti). 126) The German killed a whole flock of geese Slm (see sužudinti). 127) The German shot all the ducks; only one rose on its wings and flew away Sem (see 1 vokietis). The research material shows that Germans also took food from the inhabitants of conquered lands, sometimes the last of what they had—butter (see examples 128–129), bacon (see example 129), cheese (see example 129), meat (see example 130), bread (see example 130), and milk (see example 131). 128) Every little lump of butter had to be handed over to the Germans rš (see gniužinys). 129) The Germans go around the villages taking butter, bacon, and cheese Š (see sviestauti). 130) The Germans took the meat, the bread, whatever food we had—everything Sb (see everything). 131) We fattened the Germans on milk, while we ourselves went hungry Šts (see to fatten). BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 20 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 The LKŽe records that the German conquerors were interested in absolutely everything that could bring them profit—from forests (see example 132) to amber (see example 133) or millstones (see example 134); cf.: 132) The Germans drove the forests of Lithuania away25 Brb (see to drive away). 133) The Germans want to appropriate the amber rš (see to appropriate). 134) When the Germans were around, we also hid the millstones, afraid they would take them Žb (see Germans). The material under study also reveals other methods the German conquerors used to profit from the local population, namely requisitions (see example 135), taxes (see examples 136–137), and levies (see example 138): 135) German requisitions are finishing us off Pt (see requisition). 136) The German wrote out a receipt—pay the dog taxes (levied for keeping a dog) and the fine at once, because the dog was not tied up A. Vencl (see 1 dog tax). 137) The German picked our pockets, picked our pockets for dog taxes rš (see dog tax). 138) The levies had to be handed over to the Germans for next to nothing J. Avyž (see for next to nothing). The LKŽe illustrative sentences record how Lithuanians tried to survive and protect their property, most often simply by trying to hide it: 139) In German times, people had devised all kinds of secret hiding places Skd (see secretly). 140) When we found out the Germans would take the cows, we drove them into the forest Als (see to take). 141) The hidden animals had to be well fed so they would not give themselves away while the Germans were walking around Vkš (see to give away). 142) We put the grain somewhere out of the way, and the Germans did not find it Šd (see to put away). However, the material under study also shows how the Germans would search for hidden objects and livestock (and perhaps people), and conduct searches: 143) In one dash (quickly), the Germans came rushing to search people Gršl (see tašymas). 25 ‘took away, carried off’, cf. varyti LKŽe. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 21 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 144) The Germans ransacked the house and searched it Šts (see iššvaistyti). 145) The Germans climbed up and searched and searched the attic, but found nothing Pns (see grozdyti). 146) The Germans searched at that person’s place all day—they were looking for bacon Plt (see krėsti). 1.3. Reflections in LKŽ of life under German rulee26 As the illustrative sentences show, the Germans imposed their own order in the territories they conquered (in any period), and life became considerably harder for the local people (see examples 147–149); even the most essential things were in short supply (see examples 150–153): 147) The Germans were already oppressing them in the first year Slm (see smaugti). 148) We starved under the Germans Kš (see prieg). 149) When we lived under the Germans, many little taxes had sprung up Kal (see rinkiukas27). 150) Under the Germans, bread was so scarce that even sawdust had to be added to it Bgs (see pielavinos28). 151) Under the Germans there were no mills anymore, nothing; so they ground everything at home Kp (see vokiečiai). 152) In German times, we lit splinters for light Al (see skaldė). 153) We froze while living under the Germans Trš (see apskurti). LKŽe records that German rule was strict (see examples 154–155), particularly in Lithuania Minor (see examples 156–157): 154) Things were still all right until the Germans came and crushed everyone with their iron discipline A. Vien (see prislegti). 26 The examples in this subsection are closely related (and in some places overlap) with the examples in subsection 1.2, but it should be borne in mind that Lithuania Minor was under German rule even in peacetime. 27 ‘beggar’, cf. rinkiukas LKŽe. 28 ‘sawdust’, cf. pielavinos LKŽe. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 22 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 155) The Germans’ rule was strict Trg (rule). 156) In Prussian Lithuania, the administration and courts were in German hands rš (see hand). 157) The German occupation authorities registered every departure of a fisherman rš (see departure). The material under study shows that throughout history the Germans Germanized the lands they conquered (see examples 158–160), while their inhabitants themselves also became Germanized (see examples 161–163). 158) Under German rule, they began to root out Lithuanian identity in the open Pgg (see root out). 159) The Germans renamed all Lithuanian names in East Prussia with German names Plšk (see name). 160) The Germans would again like the Lithuanians to become Germanized as quickly as possible A1884,238 (see Germanize). 161) Now, after several hundred years of being enslaved here and there by the Germans, they lost their sense of unity and abandoned their own language S. Dauk (see abandon). 162) All... estate owners and wealthier farmers had turned into Germans A1885,40 (see estate owner). 163) The young people had already become completely German, while we, the old ones, still held on to our own ways Vlkš (see old). 1.4. German-Lithuanian relations and mutual perceptions in LKŽe LKŽe contains several examples of usage attesting that Germans looked down on Lithuanians and despised them: 164) Germans regard the Lithuanian as a ragamuffin K. Donel (see vokietis 1). 165) Like some German, setting up booths, despises Lithuanians prš (see žūbas). 166) German chroniclers claimed that the Grand Dukes of Lithuania were not really dukes at all, but commoners and usurpers of power rš (see uzurpatorius). BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 23 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 However, Lithuanians’ contemptuous attitude toward Germans is also reflected in mocking comparisons recorded throughout Lithuania (and thus widely spread and established)29, which mention people of this nationality: 167) Why are you whining like a German being milked Gršl (see zyzti). 168) He’s daft like a German after lunch End (see 1 vokietis). 169) He’s reaching for the sky like a German LTR (Vb) (see 1 vokietis). 170) He thinks like a German eating kisielius Zp (see 1 vokietis). 171) He runs around like a wild German Srv (see 1 vokietis). The examples mentioned show clearly that the people of these two nations, who lived together or side by side during certain periods of history, disliked one another, and that this animosity sometimes turned into fights even in times of peace. They were started by both Germans (see examples 172–173) and Lithuanians (see examples 174–175): 172) The German raised his hand to strike; the grey-coated man quickly ducked, and the German’s hand swept through the air I. Simon (see perskristi). 173) The young German struck the old woman across the ear, and she nearly toppled over and fell LTR (see kebevirst). 174) I sure did thrash that German! Krč (see nutašyti). 175) Those farmers gave the German a good beating for it, kicked him several times in the backside, and threw him out through the door LMD (see vanta). The dictionary contains usage examples showing that, nevertheless, some Lithuanians and Germans (more often German women) maintained friendly relations30, though there are not many such examples: 176) And the German girls, having taken to them, would cling to them more and flirt Sln (see lipšniuotis). 177) The German girl was hinting that he should dance with her J (see smaigstyti). 29 These comparisons may be understood as recording foolish, improper behavior, a lack of dignity, and the like; however, specialists in Lithuanian folklore would be better placed to comment on them in greater detail. 30 For examples of somewhat friendlier relations with German men, see also examples 237 and 238. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 24 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 178) A Lithuanian patriot and a German girl, spoiled by her parents, got along beautifully J. Mik (see 1 vokietaitis). The material under study shows that Lithuanians’ ingratiation with Germans and their efforts to please them were regarded as reprehensible31. 179) He had gotten in with those Germans because of the little dog Brž (see šunelis). 180) Having abandoned the Lithuanians, he now limps after the Germans (having become Germanized, he curries favor with the Germanizers) prš (see šlubuo­ti). 181) Now he bows and scrapes before the Germans there, as though it could not be otherwise, and kisses up to them I. Simon (see užpakalis). 182) Those turncoats are even more repulsive than the German himself Smln (see verstaskūris). However, the examples examined show that most Lithuanians did not like Germans (see examples 183–186) and did not want to have anything to do with them, even when the Germans seemingly had done them no harm (see examples 187–18832): 183) They washed the floors of their homes, which had seemed to them defiled by the Christian Germans S. Dauk (see subjauroti). 184) The ancient wise men, with their words of old, will cleanse our land of the spirit of the Ruthenians and Germans A. Baran (see 2 žiniuonis). 185) I am not surprised that the Lithuanian hates the German, for every nation wants to be the best of all in this world Jrk51 (see 1 vokietis). 186) For women to marry a Ruthenian, Pole, or German was considered the greatest shame of all S. Dauk (1 vokytis). 31 The same attitude toward those who ingratiated themselves with the Germans can also be seen in folklore, cf. “Hatred and unwillingness to help the enemy are expressed: if you help a German, you’ll lie in the cold earth” (Anglickienė 2000b: 27). 32 These two sentences also illustrate the positive traits of Germans discussed later in the article. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 25 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 187) That German woman was good, but still did not suit the mother, because she had white nails Ms (see tikti). 188) The German woman wipes the spoons—the old woman finds the food unpleasant to eat P. Cvir (see nuvalyti). The LKŽe contains sentences showing that Lithuanians expected nothing good from the Germans: 189) Can a German give anything to a Lithuanian person I. Simon (see lietuviškas). 190) The Germans publish those writings only so that they can wheedle, extort money from us Žem (see išmiliminti). 1.5. The character and appearance of Germans in the LKŽe From the illustrative examples in the LKŽe, it can be inferred that Lithuanians attributed a wide variety of negative traits to Germans (see example 191). Germans seemed stupid33 to them (see examples 192–193), mean (see examples 194–195), conceited (see examples 196–197), picky (see example 198), and liars (see example 199): 191) With his biting hexameters, Donelaitis scourged the greed, vileness, and dull-wittedness of the German landlords rš (see čaižus). 192) As stupid as a German in the afternoon (after dinner Snt) Vlkv (see 1 vokietis). 193) A blind German (a stupid person who only knows German) B, B270,346, MŽ468, N, Sch113, M (see 1 vokietis). 194) He went mad like a German after dinner Plik, Akm, Sd (see pasiusti). 195) The German curses and swears in all sorts of languages; even the frogs are afraid to appear above the water LzP (see 1 vokietis). 196) Conceited, puffed up, like a true German Lk (see įsireženti). 33 It is worth noting that this was not only how Lithuanians viewed them. In French, Italian, and Danish, the word denoting a German also has the meaning ‘fool’. This shows that the Lithuanian view was not subjective (Anglickienė 2006: 18). BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 26 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 197) Having had a narrow fur coat made from three pelts, the German woman proudly went to the Catholic church Sln (see 1 German). 198) For the German woman, the butter was always either “too old,” or “too sour,” or something else I. Simon (see German woman). 199) The German twists the truth every which way (see twist). The illustrative sentences in LKŽe show that Lithuanians also disliked the Germans’ habit of eating heartily: 200) And he slobbers like a German over bacon Šv (see slobber). 201) Why are you whistling like a German who’s finished his bread? Šts (see 1 German). The corpulence of many Germans is also associated with the aforementioned fondness for eating one’s fill (see examples 202–206). Thin34 Germans are mentioned much less often (see example 207): 202) There was this German staying at our place, as fat as a pumpkin Gs (see pumpkin). 203) The German has grown so fat he can’t carry his backside Kp (see backside). 204) This German is “calved” (jokingly, fat) Skr (see calved). 205) Could those dear little piglets really turn into white geese and end their days ordinarily in some German’s huge belly on St. Martin’s Day? Vaižg (see little piglet). 206) Wow! What a belly—like a German’s! LTR (Grk) (see belly). 207) The German, with skinny legs, goes tip-tip-stamping across the field LzP (see tip). 1.6. Description of the German language in LKŽe Many illustrative examples in LKŽe concern the German language and speech: the language seemed difficult and complex to Lithuanians: 34 Indeed, the only example that could be found mentions only a German’s thin legs. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 27 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 208) The German language is said to be sprangli (difficult to speak, to pronounce) Pln (see spranglus35). 209) The German language is clattering; you can’t make out a single word Šts (see trankus). When it is recounted how the Germans spoke (in German), all the illustrative examples that could be found emphasize that their speech was unclear and incomprehensible: 210) Only the Germans were mumbling there Grk (see štervelioti36). 211) Did you understand what that little German was babbling? Všk (see švataroti37). 212) The German was babbling something, but we didn’t understand Mrj (see varvalioti38). 213) That’s how those Germans chatter, who knows what they’re saying Stl (see nutauškėti39). 214) Oh, that German babbling among themselves—good heavens! Kv (see bliurbėjimas40). The examples from LKŽₑ show that Germans also failed to impress Lithuanians when they tried to speak (or write) Lithuanian: 215) Every German woman can mangle the language in half-Lithuanian, and some cannot speak it at all Skr (see pakrevezoti41). 216) The German could not speak Lithuanian fluently Ėr (see perkalbėti42). 217) The Russians... recorded Lithuanian names—of people and places—quite well, much better than the German chroniclers LTII17 (K. Būg) (see kronistas). 218) Unable to pronounce the name of that castle (Girgždutė), the Germans gave it another name and entered “Surdita” in their books M. Valanč (see išranguoti43). 35 ‘hard to swallow’, cf. spranglus LKŽₑ. 36 ‘to speak, say unclearly and incomprehensibly’, cf. štervelioti LKŽₑ. 37 ‘to speak unclearly and incomprehensibly, mumble’, cf. švataroti LKŽₑ. 38 ‘to speak incomprehensibly and unclearly, mutter’, cf. varvalioti LKŽₑ. 39 ‘to speak, utter words in a choppy manner’, cf. tauškėti LKŽₑ. 40 bliurbėjimas → bliurbėti, and bliurbėti means ‘to speak unclearly and incomprehensibly’, cf. bliurbėjimas LKŽₑ, bliurbėti LKŽₑ. 41 ‘to speak poorly, without knowing how’, cf. krevezoti LKŽₑ. 42 ‘to recount, tell at length; to say, explain’, cf. kalbėti LKŽₑ. 43 ‘to pronounce (a word) fluently’, cf. ranguoti LKŽₑ. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 28 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 The material under study shows that Lithuanians also found it difficult to speak German (or perhaps it simply seemed that way to those who did not know German): 219) The Germans of Tilžė grumble about why those peasants babble so badly in German þřs (see pykestauti). 220) I can somehow or other make myself understood even with Germans Všk (see susišvataroti44). 221) Your children, when they’re German, say something like “shterlekiuoja” Kair (see šterlekiuoti45). 2. THE POSITIVE IMAGE OF A GERMAN IN THE DICTIONARY OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE As the semantic analysis of the material in LKŽe shows, Lithuanians most often viewed Germans negatively. Nevertheless, they understood that a person should not be judged solely by nationality (e.g., There were good people among the Germans Snt (see žmogus)), and they also noticed some positive German traits. There are considerably fewer such illustrative sentences in the dictionary46, but they are present. The illustrative sentences testify that Lithuanians knew Germans not only as soldiers but also as craftsmen, traders, and so on (see examples 222–227). Apparently, Lithuanians learned some things from them, too, since they even named some of these things (crafts and the like) using German words (see example 228)—from this one may infer that these things had not previously existed in Lithuania: 222) The Germans derive great benefit from trading and crafts Bs (see vaisbūnysta). 223) A German craftsman, a goldsmith NdŽ (see 1 vokietis). 224) A German woman, a teacher, a cook NdŽ (see 1 vokietis). 225) There were mostly German sailors Rsn (see šiporius). 226) There was a German; he had a shop: herring, schnapps—he had everything Plt (see 1 vokytis). 227) [At the mill] lived a miller, surname Šaltis, of German stock M. Valanč (see veisle). 44 ‘to make oneself understood somehow or other’, cf. švataroti LKŽe. 45 ‘to speak or say unclearly, incomprehensibly’, cf. šterlekiuoti LKŽe. 46 Of approximately 650 illustrative examples, only slightly more than 60 can be regarded as revealing positive German traits. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 29 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 228) Most Germanisms belong to the language of crafts, especially carpenters and blacksmiths, and were brought to Lithuania by German craftsmen A. Sal (see vokietybė). That the Germans brought innovations previously unknown here to Lithuania is also shown by such LKŽe sentences: 229) The Germans invented sugar, during the previous war Smn (see cukrelis⁴⁷). 230) Among the Germans... there is a custom... to set up in the room a little spruce tree... and decorate it all over with many little pieces of wax or drip wax onto it Kel1865,7 (see apraistyti). 231) Ready-made clothes appeared in the time of the Germans Grš1 (see vokyčiai). 232) In the oldest times our parents knew nothing about playing cards; only recently did they learn such games from the Germans, like šopskupas and ubagas Cp (see ubagas). The LKŽe contains several illustrative examples concerning German diligence and conscientiousness: 233) We have learned to respect the German people for their depth, diligence, love of work, and respect Pt (see vokiečiai). 234) The Germans taught us to work well and cleanly Krž (see 1 vokytis). 235) A German will live better on stone than a Russian on black soil and water J. Mik (see 1 vokietis). 236) If a German’s cow got loose, he would run over at once: perhaps something had happened? But if a Lithuanian’s whole herd came, he would not care Graž (see 1 vokietis). As noted earlier, the LKŽe records that the German conquerors took food and property from the local inhabitants. However, there were also Germans who were hospitable and repaid good with good. Admittedly, the LKŽe contains few sentences illustrating this: 237) The little German gave beans; thank you, little German Ggr (see 1 vokytis). 47 ‘saccharin’, cf. cukrelis LKŽe. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 30 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 238) The Germans treated him to juniper-flavored agnia and smoked prielaidiena at the camp Pč (see prielaidiena48). 239) After the war, a German woman used to hang around our place; now she sends gifts Rdn (see 1 vokytis). 240) After the war, a German woman came running here because of hunger; now she has answered our call Krš (see 1 vokytis). The material under study suggests that Lithuanians also appreciated the fact that Germans were orderly (see examples 241–242) and looked good (see examples 243–244): 241) One must not fall behind a German in cleanliness, and must surpass him in ingenuity rš (see išmonė). 242) The Germans’ farms were like glass49 L dvn (see ūkė). 243) My tall, slender girl, white and beautiful as a German girl (song). Grl (see vokietaitis). 244) The German women dressed beautifully—as if they were dolls DūnŽ (see 1 vokytis). LKŽₑ mentions one more distinctive feature of the Germans: they were a nation of scholars, writers, and musicians. The illustrative examples are mostly recorded in written sources rather than in living speech: 245) Because the learned Germans did not arrive, the king postponed the discussion until the following year M. Valanč (see neatvykimas). 246) This was the question that a German scholar once asked himself J. Jabl (see užduoti). 247) As they busied themselves with all kinds of things, the Germans also turned their attention to Lithuanian songs A1884, 249 (see užkliudinti, triūsinėti). 248) Germans study and study from childhood until old age Pls (see 1 senė). 249) Russian and German literature were the most important mediators through which the voices of distant civilizations reached Lithuania rš (see tarpininkas). 48 ‘meat of a prielaidas’, while prielaid as means ‘a spring piglet fattened until autumn’; compare prielaidiena, prielaid as LKŽₑ. 49 ‘very beautiful, clean’; compare stiklinis LKŽₑ. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 31 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 250) We never equated Hitlerite fascists with the old and talented German people, who have given humanity many remarkable minds rš (see sutapatinti). 251) A carefully shaved50 German plays the violin; Leiba Šepetys accompanies him melodiously on the kimbole Mair (see kimbolai). SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS A semantic analysis of approximately 650 illustrative examples in LKŽe related to the concept GERMAN reveals a very detailed, multifaceted picture of how Lithuanians, according to the dictionary under study, viewed their sometimes nearer, sometimes more distant German neighbors from the earliest times to the end of the 20th century. This picture is formed from information found in written sources and in various dialects throughout Lithuania, from different periods, which made its way into LKŽe. Of course, individual illustrative sentences recorded from living speakers are subjective and often emotional, yet as a whole they form a coherent and accurate picture of the world represented by the dictionary. The fact that Germans were very familiar to Lithuanians is also demonstrated by the large number of headwords in LKŽe related to Germans, cf.: vokietaitis, vokietelka, vokietėlis, vokietis, vokietka, vokietpalaikis, vokietukas, vokietutis, ookytaitis, ookytalis, ookytelis, ookytelka, ookytinas, ookytis, ookytka, ookytikė, ookytpalaikis, vokytukas, vokiečiokas, vokis; vokietauti, vokietėjimas, vokietėti, vokietybė, vokietynė, vokietinimas, vokietininkas, vokietinis, vokietinti, vokietintojas, vokietuoti, vokietmetis, vokietystė, vokietišius, vokietiškai, vokietiškas, vokiečiavimas, vokiečiuoti, vokiečiuotojas, vokiečkapiai, vokiečkapis, vokytauti, vokytėti, vokytinis, vokytinti, vokytkapiai, vokytmetis, vokytumas, vokytuoti, vokyčiuoti, katvokietis, katvokytis. These words not only name things associated with nationality, but have also extended into other areas of life; some can also mean the devil or a mushroom, a dance or a gingerbread cookie, and so on. 50 This sentence also illustrates the orderliness of the Germans mentioned earlier. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 32 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 This is the picture of Germans one can form solely from the illustrative examples in LKŽₑ, even without knowing the historical facts. First of all, Germans were enemies⁵¹. They had been attacking the Lithuanians in large numbers since ancient times and showed no regard for their lives. They did so using a wide variety of weapons—battering rams, bayonets, rifles, grenades, machine guns, mortars, and aircraft. One might cautiously assume that in many cases the Germans may also have been technically superior (in terms of military technology) to their opponents, since LKŽₑ examples mention far fewer Lithuanian weapons. The material under study mentions that the Germans fought not only against the Lithuanians; their enemies also included the Prussians, Latvians, Estonians, Russians, Poles, English, Danes, Norwegians, Belgians, French, and Americans, and Germans also fought one another. Thus, the Germans were a very warlike people. The LKŽₑ examples also record Lithuanian localities whose inhabitants came into contact with the Germans. Initially, these were the inhabitants of Lithuania Minor and Samogitia; later, the Germans spread throughout Lithuania—along the Nevėžis and Nemunas rivers, across Užnemunė, and toward Šiauliai, Pasvalys, Ukmergė, and elsewhere. As the illustrative sentences in LKŽₑ show, whether passing through Lithuania or having settled there for a longer period (and in Lithuania Minor the two peoples lived side by side), the Germans mistreated Lithuanians—they took their livestock, grain, fodder, and food, and transported trees and other property to Germany. And if they did not take it, they destroyed Lithuanian property: they burned houses, bridges, and mills, trampled crops, shot and slaughtered livestock, and spared neither dogs nor bees. They burdened local residents with various obligations and taxes, drove them to Germany for forced labor, and spared neither small children nor infirm people. 51 It is probably worth reminding readers once again that this is a picture recorded in one particular dictionary, which in individual cases does not necessarily coincide with historically documented reality or with the pictures reflected in other sources. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 33 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 For the reasons mentioned, Lithuanians feared the Germans and hid from them. The Germans seemed cruel, wicked, arrogant, fastidious and deceitful to Lithuanians, but sometimes also stupid and unpleasant in appearance, usually obese, with large bellies. The German language, too, seemed ugly and incomprehensible to the Lithuanian ear. The LKŽₑ contains the greatest number of examples illustrating all this. Yet this worldview has another side: it says a great deal about Lithuanians themselves. The material under study shows that, as far as they could, Lithuanians resisted their German conquerors; in earlier times they fought them fiercely, sparing none of their own lives, and later, when they had to yield, they hid their possessions and refused to submit to the occupiers at least in their hearts—they hated and despised the Germans, mocked them, and condemned their compatriots who sided with the enemy. On the other hand, Lithuanians also saw positive traits in the Germans, although the dictionary contains far less material illustrating these (just over 60 illustrative examples). Germans were not only soldiers but also craftsmen and merchants who introduced Lithuanians to some things previously unknown to them—certain crafts, ready-made clothes, saccharin, Christmas trees, and so on. They were industrious and considerate, sometimes hospitable, and repaid good with good; their women were beautiful and well dressed. The written language recorded in the LKŽₑ shows that they were also a nation of scholars, writers and musicians. Thus, the image of the German reflected in the illustrative examples of the LKŽₑ is ambivalent, although it is considerably more often negative than positive. Of course, it should be borne in mind that, when the dictionary was being compiled in Soviet times, censorship may have influenced the selection of some illustrative examples. It is likely that during the period of independence, people of this nationality would more often have been viewed positively than negatively, as is also borne out by other studies of the concept VOKIETIS reviewed in the introductory remarks to this article. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 34 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 SOURCE LKŽe – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas, vols. 1–20, 1941–2002 (electronic version), editor-in-chief G. Naktinienė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2005. Available online: www.lkz.lt. LITERATŪRA Anglickienė Laimutė 2000a: Kitataučiai lietuvių folklore: daktaro disertacijos santrauka, Kaunas. Anglickienė Laimutė 2000b: Vokietis lietuvių tautosakoje. – Liaudies kultūra 2(71), 25–27. Anglickienė Laimutė 2005: Etnonimų vartojimo lietuvių kalboje ir folklore ypatumai. – Vārds un tā pētišanas aspekti 9, 7–17. Anglickienė Laimutė 2006: Kitataučių įvaizdis lietuvių folklore, Vilnius: Versus Aureus. Anglickienė Laimutė 2007: Tautosaka apie kitataučius: etnostereotipų ir siužetų migracija. – Rytų Europos kultūra migracijos kontekste: tarpdiscipliniai tyrimai, Vilnius: Versus aureus, 445–454. Bandoriūtė Salomėja 2015: Tradicinis anekdotas: iš ko juokėsi XIX a. pabaigos–XX a. vidurio lietuvis. – Tautosakos darbai 49, 105–122. Baranauskas Tomas, Zabiela Gintautas 2016: Saulės mūšio pėdsakų paieškos, Vilnius: Lietuvos archeologijos draugija. Butkus Alvydas 1995: The Lithuanian Nicknames of Ethnonymic Origin. – Indogermanische Forschungen, Berlin: Walter De Gruyter & Co, 223–228. Butkus Alvydas 2009: Nominacija ir identitetas: habilitacijos procedūrai teikiamų mokslo darbų apžvalga, Kaunas. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 35 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 Gritenienė Aurelija 2016: Šermukšnio vaizdinys „Lietuvių kalbos žodyne“. – Tautosakos darbai 52, 85–104. Gritenienė Aurelija 2017: Žodyno vaizdinys „Lietuvių kalbos žodyne“. – Bendrinė kalba 90, 1–19. Prieiga internete: http://www.bendrinekalba.lt/?90. Gudavičius Aloyzas 2000: Etnolingvistika, Šiauliai: Šiaulių universiteto leidykla. Gudavičius Aloyzas 2011: Reikšmė – sąvoka – konceptas ir prasmė. – Res humanitariae 10, 108–119. Jasiūnaitė Birutė 2010: Šventieji ir nelabieji frazeologijoje ir liaudies kultūroje, Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. Jasiūnaitė Birutė 2018: Lietuvių velniavardžiai, Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. Kaubrys Saulius 2011: Pasiklydę tarp savęs ir įverčių: 1918–1940 m. Lietuvos vokiečių įvaizdžio klausimu. – Istorija 4(84), 15–25. Kravcova Liudmila 2013: Šiuolaikinės rusų kalbos asmenis įvardijantys daiktavardžiai kaip pasaulėvaizdžio atspindys (pagal „XXI amžiaus aiškinamąjį rusų kalbos žodyną. Aktuali leksika“): daktaro disertacijos santrauka, Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas. LKK: Lietuvių karas su kryžiuočiais, red. J. Jurginis, Vilnius: Mintis, 1964. Lukošiūtė Ieva 2012: Kultūriniai stereotipai Lietuvių pasakojamuose anekdotuose: žydas, čigonas, vokietis. – Jaunųjų mokslininkų darbai 1(34), 160–166. Nikžentaitis Alvydas 1998: Das Bild der Deutschen und Deutschlands in Litauen während der Zwischenkriegszeit. – Die deutsche Volksgruppe in Litauen und im Memelland während der Zwischenkriegszeit und aktuelle Fragen des deutsch-litauischen Verhältnisses, Hamburg, 237–253. Papaurelytė-Klovienė Silvija 2010: Kaimyninių tautų atstovai ir jų nacionalinio charakterio specifika lietuvių kalbos pasaulėvaizdyje. – Lietuvių kalba 4, 1–9. Prieiga internete: http://www.lietuviukalba.lt/index.php/lietuviu-kalba/article/view/27. BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 36 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 Rutkovska Kristina, Smetona Marius, Smetonienė Irena 2017: Vertybės lietuvio pasaulėvaizdyje, Vilnius: Akademinė leidyba. Savukynas Virginijus 2012: Istorija ir mitologijos: tapatybės raiškos XVII–XIX amžiaus Lietuvoje, Vilnius: Idėjos ir komunikacija. Senvaiytytė Dalia 2004: Etninių stereotipų kaita: tautybės studentų akimis. – Tiltai 4 (29), 123–129. Umbrasas Alvydas 2019: Terminologija Lietuvių kalbos žodyne. – Terminologija 26, 162–183. Vėlius Norbertas 1986: Chtoniškasis lietuvių mitologijos pasaulis, Vilnius: Vaga. Vengrytė-Janavičienė Edmunda 2004: Kitataučiai lietuvių liaudies talalinėse. – Tautosakos darbai 27, 57–63. VLE: Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija: elektroninis variantas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos centras, 2018. Prieiga internete: https://www.vle.lt. Zabarskaitė Jolanta 2010: Politinis pasaulėvaizdis didžiajame „Lietuvių kalbos žodyne“ (valstybė, įstatymas, valdžia). – Parlamento studijos 9, 126–143. Prieiga internete: http://www.parlamentostudijos.lt/Nr9/9_kalba_1.htm. Zabarskaitė Jolanta 2012: Kitoks didžiojo „Lietuvių kalbos žodyno“ skaitymas: Adalbertas Bezzenbergeris, marios, pamarys, pamariškis. – Mažoji Lietuva: paribio kultūros tyrimai, sud. G. Blažienė, N. Morozova, J. Zabarskaitė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 239–271. Zybertienė Evelina 2006: Lietuvos vokiečiai lietuvių etninės kultūros erdvėje. – Tiltai 3, 121–137. Gauta 2020 11 20 Priimta 2020 12 21 BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 37 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 GERMAN IN THE WORLDVIEW OF THE DICTIONARY OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE Summary The image of the German in the eyes of a Lithuanian has been scrutinised by ethnologists, folklorists, historians, linguists. However, their studies in that regard have so far omitted our largest linguistic tract, the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, which can be approached as some kind of a chronicle covering material from our first writings dated 1547 until 2001. A semantic analysis of roughly 650 illustrative examples associated with the German has revealed a very thorough, many-sided image of how Lithuanians have looked at Germans – their neighbours, sometimes close, sometimes not so – since ancient times until the end of the 20th century. This image is not just some biased opinion of a group of people: it consists of information that can be found in written texts, various dialects across Lithuania, and at different times. Of course, individual illustrative sentences recorded from the lips of living people are subjective and often emotional; however, taken together, they form an accurate homogeneous worldview. That Lithuanians knew Germans very well, has evidence in the ample quantity of headwords available in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language: with reference to Germans, such words total a massive 52. These words not always have to do with nationality: sometimes they can also refer to the devil or a mushroom, a dance or a gingerbread cookie, and so on. To begin with, according to the Dictionary, Germans were always enemies. Their cohorts would assault Lithuanians since ancient times, sparing no lives. They would do so BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 38 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 with a variety of weapons, from rams to bayonets to rifles, grenades, machineguns, mortars, and airplanes. Germans would not only fight with Lithuanians alone: they also had enemies in Prussians, Latvians, Poles, Englishmen, Norwegians, Belgians, Frenchmen, Americans; Germans were not immune to in-house squabble either. Among the Lithuanian people, it was the residents of Lithuania Minor and Samogitia that first came into contact with Germans; later, Germans spread all over Lithuania. Both as they marched across Lithuania and having settled there for an extended stay, Germans would do Lithuanians harm, taking away their livestock, grain, feed, food, shipping timber and other property off to Germany. What they would not take, they would destroy out of spite: houses, bridges, mills would be burned down, crops trampled, livestock shot or slaughtered; neither dogs nor bees would be spared. The people would be burdened by various obligations, even taken away to work in Germany, sparing neither the children nor the sick. As a result, Lithuanians feared Germans and would try not to attract their unwanted attention. Lithuanians considered Germans a cruel, evil, arrogant, picky, lying bunch, but sometimes they would be regarded as foolish, unsightly, often fat and pot-bellied. The German language would ring foul and incomprehensible to the Lithuanian’s ear as well. Lithuanians would oppose Germans for as much as they could, fighting them ferociously in the old times without sparing their own lives; later, when they were forced to surrender to such power, they would secretly stash their property away, harbouring resistance towards the invaders, if only in their hearts: Germans would be hated, despised, mocked; fellow Lithuanians who made bedfellows with the enemies, frowned upon. On the other hand, Lithuanians saw positive traits in Germans as well, even though material pointing to that is much scarcer. In addition to warriors, Germans were craftsmen, BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204 DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Vokietis Lietuvių kalbos žodyno pasaulėvaizdyje | 39 doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2020.93.09 merchants who introduced Lithuanians to some of the things the country had never known before. They were hard-working, careful, and sometimes welcoming; they would return favours and their women were pretty and well-dressed. The language of texts recorded in DLLe shows that it was a nation of scholars, writers, musicians. KEYWORDS: dictionary, semantics, illustrative example, worldview, German. DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius [email protected] BENDRINĖ KALBA 93 (2020) http://journals.lki.lt/bendrinekalba ISSN 2351-7204