Dėl esamojo laiko neveikiamųjų dalyvių vartojimo

LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, IV LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA ON THE USE OF PRESENT PASSIVE PARTICIPLES V. AMBRAZAS Present passive participles exhibit almost all the main types of participle usage in Lithuanian. Used with inflected forms of the verb to be, these participles can form compound passive tenses, e.g.: the book is being written, the road was being repaired, the houses were being built, and so on. They can denote a secondary action and function in a sentence as temporal, manner, and other adverbials, e.g.: when praised, don't get puffed up; when criticized, don't be sad, Švnč; while still being under fire, we walked for many hours Cv R III 232. With noun and pronoun nominatives and reflexive verbs, they often form the so-called nominative-with-participle (nominativus cum participio) construction and enter into the compound predicate, e.g.: he himself was getting ready, having been allowed to lead the unit into the attack Vencl R III 443; a person does not realize that he is being mocked Šts. In all these cases, present passive participles have a passive meaning, that is, they denote an action whose direct object is the subject of the sentence. Attributive present passive participles are particularly varied in their usage. They denote properties of things and phenomena resulting from the action expressed by the verbal stem of the participle, e.g.: food being cooked, a letter being written, a book being read, and so on. Attributive present passive participles have specific features that distinguish them from other passive participles. Although this was noted by the authors of the most important Lithuanian grammars of the nineteenth century¹, and J. Jablonskis and K. Būga illustrated the variety of meanings of present passive participles with numerous examples from colloquial speech and old writings², the usage of these participles has not been examined in greater detail. This article seeks to identify and explain the more characteristic cases of attributive present passive participle usage. § 1. Attributive present passive participles can have a specific passive (passive-voice) meaning. In such cases, they denote properties of things resulting from the action occurring at the time indicated by the predicate (or by the entire sentence situation and con- 1 See A. Schleicher, Litauische Grammatik, 319—320, Prag, 1856; F. Kurschat, Grammatik des Littauischen Sprache, 413, Halle, 1876. 2 See J. Jablonskis, Rinktiniai raštai, 1, 301—302, 304—308, Vilnius, 1957; K. Būga, Rinktiniai raštai, 1, 531—536, 543, Vilnius, 1958; 2, 117—118, Vilnius, 1959. 93 text) of the action taking place at the time indicated. The word modified by the participle is the direct object of this action, e.g.: It is still dark in the hut; only the glow of the burning stove flickers on the opposite wall Balt PV I 9. The room fills with the aroma of smoked meat being roasted Sim R VI 150. He keeps bleating like a goat, being driven to market Krk. The loaded rifles clattered, but no one believed that the general would order them to fire into the unarmed crowd Myk-Put S 340. For several years during the war, untilled fallow fields had become overgrown with thistles and wormwood Vencl R II 49. One by one, little lights were lit in the cottages, smoke rose from the chimneys, and the opening and closing doors creaked Baltr PS 44. What did the hop plant say, as it was being laid on the shroud? DŽ II 513. In my uncle's homestead, farther back by the boundary, stood a bed with a sheet that was very seldom changed Vaižg RR I 103. The horned ram drives away the unweaned lambs Dr. Present passive participles with a specific passive meaning, like the corresponding verbs, can be combined with adverbs and oblique cases that specify various circumstances of the action denoted by the participle's verbal stem. When the agent of this action is specified, it is expressed in the genitive case (the so-called genetivus auctoris), e.g.: The doors, creaking in the wind, kept us from sleeping ŽR (DŽ III 338). The wagon stirred again, pulled by a squealing, and quickly disappeared behind the burnt masonry Vencl R II 56. How could the herdsman know that the property being loaded by us would really fall to Elena's children? Krv R 56. Mykoliukas is immersed in his own musical tones Vaižg RR I 43. Constructions of present passive participles with an agent in the genitive are not very common. Present passive participles with a passive meaning are generally used when, for the speaker, the agent of the action denoted by their stem is irrelevant or unclear, or is generic, or is self-evident from the context and need not be mentioned for stylistic reasons. Present passive participles with a specific passive meaning are formed from transitive verbs. In addition, they may also be formed from verbs (to wait, to want, to desire, and the like) that govern the genitive case with the meaning of a direct object, e.g.: Keep your daughter for yourself until the young men come... desired bridegrooms JV 256. Uninvited guests are dearer the next time than expected Dov. Everywhere he was a welcome guest Krv R 87. The guests arrive, the awaited and the scolded Mrc. These participles can also be combined with an agent in the genitive (cf.: the day awaited by us, the guest desired by the parents, and so on); in grammatical meaning, they do not differ from participles formed from verbs that govern the accusative case. In general, attributive present passive participles denoting a specific passive action that coincides in time with the main action of the sentence are used relatively rarely in contemporary Lithuanian. They are formed only from imperfective verbs and are most characteristic of literary written language. § 2. Most often, present passive participles denote properties arising from constant actions (states), or from actions (states) that always occur under certain circumstances, e.g.: 94 How is mother living there, beloved friend, sister? There’s no one. R I 332. Rapolas walks along, hurrying down the familiar bog paths and wondering. Vaižg RR I 54. Unable to find the familiar road, in the pitch-dark, I had a very hard time. IM 1862 18. Beyond the road, in the shadows, lay unknown fields. Myk-Put S 270. Past the end of the garden, unknown people went by shouting and grumbling. Ds. Quite a few acquainted journalists gathered on the station platform. Vencl GD 446. Who was he: his mother’s or father’s hired hand, a grandfather, or a nursed farmhand? Cv R III 7. At the aunt’s house, among the books were also forbidden publications from Tilsit, alongside the aunt’s calm, even-tempered husband. Vaižg RR I 270. A petted child goes out to cut hay for the dogs. Grž. Unlike the examples mentioned in the preceding section, these participles denote more or less permanent properties of things and have a pronounced qualitative meaning. A familiar person is not merely someone familiar now or at the time indicated by the verb, just as a known road is not merely a road known only at the moment of speaking; rather, these expressions denote properties characteristic of the things under discussion. Lacking a specific temporal meaning, these participles retain the category of voice and verbal constructions with adverbs, cf.: my acquaintance or a well-known road. However, in more fixed combinations with nouns, present passive participles with generalized meaning lack these verbal features and are used as certain kinds of attributive modifiers, e.g.: A petite girl with sloping shoulders came in, wearing high-heeled shoes with lace-up fastenings. Balt PV I 181. Where is my well-worn (that is, Sunday-best, but already worn) kerchief? Rdm. He lay in a folding chair after lunch. Vencl R II 58. For instance, Karpis... now at least has hired, though cheap, labor. Myk-Put S 85 (cf. also: infectious disease, incoming and outgoing correspondence, etc.). § 3. Present passive participles often have a meaning of p o s s i b i l i t y, i.e. they denote a property arising from a possible action, e.g.: Spring is approaching. The roads are becoming increasingly difficult to walked and driven on. Vencl R III 455. In the depths of the porch, Kazimieras was polishing the stove, the candlesticks, and other things that could be polished. Ciurl R III 101. Yes, it was the book of life—revealed, though difficult to understand. Bil R I 220. Nowadays you can get a tolerable little horse for thirty. Kp. There, on the square, the roof and little tower of the church are barely visible. Myk-Put S 590. This year the oats are very threshable. Mrs. I have a river that can be forded and a hill that can be climbed; I will not ford that river or climb that hill. End (cf. also: affordable prices, an passable ‘small’ pine grove, a removable table, transparent mist, Balt PV I 269, etc.). Negative forms of present passive participles very often have a meaning of possibility. It should be noted that most present passive participles with the negative prefix ne- used in contemporary Lithuanian denote the impossibility of the action expressed by the verbal root, e.g.: Uncountable herds of animals are grazing in new pastures. Vencl TB 187. On both the right and left sides of the highway, immeasurable fields stretch out. Sim R VI 325. The words of the offended woman flowed in an unstoppable stream. Vaižg RR I 132. From that day on, Poviliokas became almost unrecognizable. Balt PV I 257. And where the grass ends, there begins an unfordable 95 blueberry, cowberry, and blackberry bushes Balt Pv I 57. Death gave both of them irreconcilable enemies Myk-Put S 588. The feeling that I am alive... gave me indescribable joy Cv R III 234. She will bring the loom, unliftable, and weave cloth, unweavable Rš. The great dowry chests are impossible to carry, the fine horses impossible to restrain JV 72. A young woman’s days are irrecoverable, the rue wreath unwearable Skp. Present passive participles expressing possibility do not have a clear passive-voice meaning. This also affects their syntactic relations with other words. These participles are linked not with an agent in the genitive, but, as with adjectives, with a dative, for example: In feudal times, the Lithuanian book was almost unacceptable to ordinary people Kors LKr 38. Peas-and-oil stew, sealed up, is not accessible to everyone Myk-Put S 69. Mykoliukas smiled at another world, with which he communicates in a way invisible to others Vaižg RR I 39. The words happiness and equality were understandable to him and precious Bil R 224. The doors are passable to everyone (everyone can go through) Pc. In the first two sentences, a construction with the genitive is entirely impossible. In the other examples, replacing the dative with the genitive would change the meaning: the present passive participles would lose their meaning of possibility and describe properties arising from a passive action (e.g., doors used by everyone are doors through which everyone goes, whereas doors passable to everyone are doors through which everyone can go, but does not necessarily go). The dative construction shows that present passive participles expressing possibility are close to adjectives (cf. doors open to everyone, he is pleasant to everyone, and so on). It should be noted that some present passive participles with the generalized meaning discussed in § 2 may also be linked with a dative, for example: All these things are unknown and unseen to Joniukas Bil R I 160. Many present passive participles used in old Lithuanian texts have a meaning of possibility (especially with negation), for example: He gave... five unwearable garments (=odmien­ne szaty) ChB I Moz 45, 22. Ispeiemas is laid out here by the Manicheans MT 11₁₁. Thus, seeing little hope for the pupils’ answer, he ordered the people to sit down DP 125₁₈. The word... is harmonious /understandable by reason to people SE 104₂₂. Szodeis ischmanomais... kalbėia BrP I 244₃. You will find here... things impossible to unlock MT XIX₁₉. There uncountable are the warriors of those who endured suffering (=niezliczone Wojska) DP 543₃₇. True and unassailable truth MT 36₁₂. Suffering is =unbearable) Dp 310₂₆. The Lord had incurred an unpayable debt MK 150₁₉ (cf. also: plauk iama ‘navigable river, navigabile flumen’ 350; išmanomas ‘intelligible, comprehensible, easy to understand’ SD 268; perpučiamas ‘open to the wind, perflabilis’ SD 395; negeriamas ‘not drinkable, non potabilis’ SD 180). § 4. Occasionally, present passive participles may also have a meaning of necessity, that is, they may describe an action that must be performed on the entity denoted by the modified word, for example: 96 Why praise an unpraiseworthy (i.e., unpraisable) thing? Pg. Aren’t you punishable (i.e., to be punished) for such work? Skn. In our brigade, the rye is already to be cut (i.e., ready for reaping). Skn. In one bin the mouse is being fed, in another the rat is being raised. JV 589. So much hay to rake and haul, and the clover, too, is already ready to be cut. ŽR II 329. Similar cases also occur in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century writings, for example: Reykia ne pápeykemo giwenimo SP II 136₁₇. Kiti wel... bilo | iog yra daiktas abéioiamas DP 193₃₇. Compare also these parallels by K. Sirvydas: Niepewny Incertus, dubius, ambiguus Abeioiamas, abeioitinas SD 180. Przedayny. Vendibilis venalis. Parduotimas (sic!) parduodamas SD 293. In meaning, such present-tense passive participles are close to necessity participles. Therefore, in dialects where necessity participles are not used, they often serve as substitutes for them. It should be noted that in Latvian, where necessity participles with the suffix -tins have already fallen into disuse, present-tense passive participles express necessity much more frequently³. In the Lithuanian literary language, present-tense passive participles do not tend to displace necessity participles. § 5. The present-tense passive participle often denotes an object’s purpose or suitability for performing a particular action, for example: Soon the whole area between the forest and the ploughed fields turned white like some lake. Myk-Put S 277. How much arable land do you have on your collective farm? Rgv. Fodder turnips are much more bitter than those for eating. Dsm. Go on, fool, go and sow every seedable thing. Dn R 38. Zosikė... often went out wearing clothes meant to be worn. Žem R II 215. In denoting the purpose of things, participles with this meaning also distinguish them from other similar things and indicate their type. Like most type-denoting modifiers in the literary language, they are usually pronominal forms and are used to coin terms in various fields, for example: edible beet, drinking water, fattening pig, dairy cow, weaving wool, feed forks (for hay, grain), grazing meadows, haymaking meadows, arable land, and so on. With present-tense passive participles denoting purpose, the genitive case of a noun or pronoun is understood not as an agent genitive (genetivus auctoris), but as a possessive genitive (genetivus possessivus), for example: Our beets for eating have all frozen. Plm. This year our hayfield is small. Skp. § 6. Present-tense passive participles expressing possibility, necessity, and purpose are used as a particular kind of adjective derived from verbs. They denote permanent properties of things and at the same time express the relation of the modified word to the action denoted by the participle’s root. In the examples given above, this relation is objective: the modified noun denotes the direct object of the action expressed by the participle (cf. understand a book — an understandable book; drink water — drinking water; work the land — worked land, and so on). Their objective relation to the modified word connects these participles with the present-tense passive participles of passive meaning mentioned in § 1. However ³ See J. Endzelīns, Latviešu valodas gramatika, 999, Rīgā, 1951; Latvijas PSR ZA Valodas un literatūras institūts, Mūsdienu latviešu literārās valodas gramatika, 1, 646, Rīgā, 1959. 7. Kalbotyros klausimai, IV 97 Present-tense passive participles expressing possibility, necessity, and purpose have no tense meaning or other verbal features and cannot form syntactic constructions characteristic of the passive voice. Between attributive present-tense passive participles and the nouns they modify, in addition to an object relation, there are often other types of logical and modal relations. a) The noun modified is the means by which the action denoted by the participle’s stem is performed, e.g.: They did not want to believe me when I said that I had printed the newspaper on wrapping paper! Gud-Guz KIT 206. The word is his attacking weapon today. Myk-Put S 505. The giving forks (for hay, grain) had three prongs. Sts. They still call a drinking glass a goblet, following an old custom. Dauk R 179. And there the cutting machine, perhaps one of the first, is already beginning to harvest the spring crops. Sim R VI 363. Present-tense passive participles defining the notion of an instrument are formed somewhat less often from intransitive verbs, e.g.: There was a whole flock of sheep here, and several horses, and a driving-out stallion. Balt PV I 186. He has riding and driving horses. K II 129. Cut an exit hole at the bottom (i.e. a hole for the bees to fly out through). BK 21. In these sentences, as in the examples mentioned in § 5, the present-tense passive participle indicates the action for which the means denoted by the noun is intended; however, there is no direct object relation between the concepts expressed by the participle and the noun. Such present-tense passive participles, which denote the purpose of the means expressed by the noun, are highly productive in modern Lithuanian and widely used to form names of various tools and devices, e.g.: sewing, cutting, printing machine, ploughing harness, carving, weaving, turning lathes, firearm, cutting knife, incendiary ammunition, shears, drafting board, typewriter, percussion, wind instruments (music), baking oven, and so on. In literary language, the definite forms of these participles are incorporated into the terminology of many scientific and craft fields. In colloquial speech, and sometimes in writing, indefinite participles are also used to define an instrument, e.g.: weaving shuttle, Lš; harrowing whip, Ds; harrowing harness, Pl; magnifying glass, Ds; working horse, Pnd; drinking cup, Lš; grazing kerchief, Sim R; traveling (i.e. money intended for travel), Nm; traveling, riding horse, Ds, N 39, 74; riding trousers, K II 129, and so on. The use of present-tense passive participles to define the means denoted by nouns is an old feature of the Lithuanian language. Quite a number of such present-tense passive participles occur in older written sources, e.g.: Rodžeme tatái... ispeiemais logs DP 260₄₈. You shall make... a copper washing vessel (=a copper tub) ChB II Moz 30, 18. A copper washing vessel ChB II Moz 30,17. With lakiojemoiseis wings VEE 150₁₆. Cf. also these examples from Milke’s dictionary: Méžemojį szákė 'Mistgabel' II 207; Rászoma szilksna 'Pergamen' II 369; Popėrus raszomas 'Schreibpapier' II 424; plunksna iászoma 'Schreibfeder' II 424; giérams rykas 'Trinkgefäss' II 476; jautis árams 'Zugochse' II 561. 98 b) The modified noun indicates the time or place of the action denoted by the participle’s root, e.g.: α) Treji gaideliai yra tai anstybiausias rising time in autumn and winter Stn D 26. When the frightening time came, it made my hair stand on end Lnk. They sense the time for rising and wake up Užv. Yesterday was a day when we were quite busy grazing Rm. The time for dying came, and the mole is dying Jabl RR I 304—305. Then it was the receiving day Šrv. The worker works in the working days JŽ (DŽ II 390). On the fasting day I looked around after eating porridge Ss. Now, in these two years, these transitional years, we must make proper use of them Myk-Put S 87. It was already time to lie down when they arrived JŽ I 488. That stormy and weeping day remained DD 77. Why did those fools linger until the submission period had passed! (i.e. the time during which documents could be submitted) See II 90. Cf. also examples from old writings: Atejs wel dirbana (i.e. dirbama — V.A.) diena BrP I 97₁₄. Ant Vžgavimõsios Seredõs. Sakimas DP 111₃₉. Sėjams cziesas 'Saatzeit' MŽ II 398. β) Andrius sees the red roof of Tutkus’s dwelling house protruding from the depths of the garden between the trees Vencl R II 69. The bear had run off beyond the well-ploughed field BM 69. We usually call grazing places pastures Jabl RR I 305. There are many grazing meadows OG 408. Standing places in the theater are always cheaper Jabl. A terribly bumpy road Trs. Where two benches in the cottage meet behind the table, it is called a krikštsuolis, that is, the weeping corner JŽ (see “krikštsuolis”). Similarly in old writings, e.g.: He lay on his bed in his lying-chamber ChB II Sam 4,7. Kamara gulima 'bedroom, sleeping chamber, dormitory' SD 136. Mėgamoji kammara 'Schlafkammer' MŽ II 414. Wissi mes turime buti apreiǯkchti pokimis sudijemoia sosta MT 247 b. Sedose ant sudijemoia sosta VEE 172₂₁₃. Ant threshing floor ChB Rut 3,2. To define the time and place indicated by nouns, present passive participles are now most often used in fixed word combinations, e.g.: living moment; receiving hours (days); period of prohibition (when the press was prohibited); smoking car; bedroom, workroom, reception room, dining room, and so on. They are formed from both transitive and intransitive verbs. c) The relationships between the present passive participle and the modified noun may be even less direct. Sometimes the participle denotes an action with which the concept expressed by the noun is indirectly associated, e.g.: fatal disease Nm, i.e. a disease from which one dies (cf. deadly, faint-inducing poison DŽ I 89); seizure (epileptic) disease ‘epilepsy’ Mos, Kv, N 296; sowing wind ‘a mild warm wind suitable for sowing’ Tv; lying-down bread ‘bread obtained by lying down, for free’ Prng; urgent work ‘work that must be done urgently’ PT 38; compulsory duties ‘duties performed under compulsion’ Vaižg RR I 43; hymn books ‘books from which hymns are sung’ KGr 413; concluding remarks ‘remarks that conclude a work or speech’, and so forth. Such present passive participles with modified words also often form fairly fixed word combinations that serve as terms of a certain kind. This includes many linguistic terms, e.g.: optative, imperative, subjunctive mood, active voice, present tense, written and spoken language, etc. 99 The freedom and variety of the relationships between a participle and the noun it modifies are clearly evident in monuments from the 16th–17th centuries as well; cf.: nusidėjimas mirsztamas DP 510₁₁; waystą ir gedigą /ir sópamą prieme DP 55₂ (similarly 421₄₃); apie grieką bluszniema MT 60a₁₄; tatái tad’ žėklas tikras/ o ne apsirikamas DP 458₇; wadina mus/ ant’ didės ir smurtūiemes kowós DP 107₂₆, and so on. § 7. Present passive participles expressing means, time, and place relations, formed from transitive verbs, are sometimes combined with a noun in the genitive, which makes it possible to define the modified word more precisely, e.g.: earth-turning work Vaižg RR I 156, tree-planting day Slnt, manure-spreading fork Jabl RR I 305, water-straining vessel Jabl RR I 305, sheep-shearing shears Grž, needle for harness sewing JŽ I 3, rye-sowing field Jabl R IV 90, beer-making vat Jnšk, kalvaratas-greasing fat Slnt, potato-planting sky (clear, with scattered or feather-shaped clouds) Grž, flax-breaking time Jabl RR I 306, flax-breaking machine Jabl RR I 306, research work tsp., and so on. Cf. examples from old writings: pluszūkum as... God-offending ’Bogu brzydliwa’ DP 224₄₆; gėl mė s jėszkomas Szwin nas ’ein Blew wurf’ MŽ I 81; knife... Galwiju pja u jams MŽ II 413; little hole prákaitų iszejemoji ’Schweißloch’ MŽ II 430; peg struną taisoms ’Stimmhammer’ MŽ II 457; needle lászinių jwárstoma ’Spicknadel’ MŽ II 445; cloth prákaitų szlóstoma ’Schweißtuch’ MŽ II 430. In these examples, the noun’s genitive has a meaning quite different from that of the agent genitive (genetivus auctoris), which accompanies passive participles expressing a passive action (cf. § 1). Here it stands for the accusative of the direct object in the corresponding verbal construction and is used as a kind of non-agreeing modifier. § 8. The relationships between the present passive participle and the noun it modifies can also be quite the opposite of those found in passive constructions. In contemporary Lithuanian, word combinations are often encountered in which the modified noun denotes the logical subject of the action expressed by the participle’s root. In such cases, the participles denote properties arising from the action or state of the modified entity itself. They may be formed from transitive and intransitive verbs, e.g.: Then (Meškausis) applied healing water to the cut place VoL 335. Pranas went to Papilė and brought back healing ointment LM 1959.XI.14. He could not be addressed in any other way than by the affectionate form of address: Mykoliuk Vaižg RR I 37. Seeing Andrius, she gave him an angry look with an inquiring gaze Vencl R II 44. His letter was sent to the executive committee tsp. Legislative and executive power were in the same hands there tsp. The entire collective farm works on construction during its free hour, but you don’t show your face Avyž P 100. Don’t you have any spare books? Ds. Suddenly, unceasing streams of water poured down from the sky Myk-Put S 401. He drew the necessary conclusions Gud-Guz KIT 613. Anelė, with her aching back, will grab the rye and tie it into heavy 100 footprints Vencl R II 71. I struck my aching finger. Nm. The wedding time turned out to be very suitable Myk-Put S 562. A person who is answerable for it Rm. Properties arising from the action or state expressed by the modified noun are often conveyed by present passive participles in old written monuments of the language as well, e.g.: Idant mūs išmokitų... nė nuplėšt ne vienam prideramos garbės jo DP 2028. O paskui to wel’ klausit balso prideramojo piemenės savo DP 24750. Nei kokių kitų ne prideramu keliu DP 24712. Reikia... šaukt su šitaije minia /per karštą ir nė paldūiamą maldą DP 523. Teypag ir rąstlas szwėtas... tikimėmus katholikámus/ yra ant prikelimo DP 5054. Eimi ir atwadinu Ebraischka Moteri... szindamą BrB II Moz 2, 7. O toksai lobis kuris mumus neteip nūdemais iau priwalams/ bet kaip ir atliekams ira BrP II 3263. Kiek wel yra nusideimu šaukiamu paklupdymo? AK 8316. Neabejagjhimu weru reikia tiketi WP 28824. Twanas prasideda... nelaujamu dyzdziu lietumi ChB I Moz 7,1. Afierawojo degamas afieras ChB I Moz 13,20. Naturai pritinkama daikta sant saka MT 227 b. Sėjamas ira kunas pagendamas, o bus prikelts ne pagendamas NT Kor 15,424. On the basis of data from old texts and related languages, K. Būga established that present passive participles with these meanings were used as early as the Proto-Baltic period and are appropriate for the literary language⁵. We find many examples of such present passive participles from colloquial speech in J. Jablonskis’s 1922 grammar⁶. Since corresponding active participles are sometimes used alongside these passive participles, the question of the relationship between their meanings was also considered. J. Jablonskis insisted that in such word combinations as answering work, squealing, squeaking, weeping, crying voice, singing countryside, stirring article, and the like, active participles should be replaced by passive ones (answerable work, squealed, squeaked, wept, cried voice, sung countryside, stirred article)⁷. Later, after comparing more present active and passive participles used in various dialects, it was concluded that both types of participles in the cases mentioned are supported by dialect evidence and may be used for the same purpose—to express properties arising from the action (state) of the modified object⁸. However, parallel use of present active and passive participles is observed only in certain, rather rare cases. The principal tendencies in the use of present active participles and passive participles with an “active” meaning in contemporary Lithuanian are different. Present p a s s i v e participles tend to express more permanent properties that characterize the modified nouns, e.g.: lim- ⁴ For examples from later eighteenth- and nineteenth-century texts, see K. Būga, Rinktiniai raštai, 1, 533 ff., Vilnius, 1958. ⁵ K. Būga, Selected Writings 2, 117, Vilnius, 1959. ⁶ See J. Jablonskis, Rinktiniai raštai, 1, 304 ff., Vilnius, 1957. ⁷ See J. Jablonskis, Rinktiniai raštai 2, 71, 76, 153—154, 307, 327 and editor J. Paionis’s note on p. 520. ⁸ See “Švietimo darbas”, 1926, No. 396—400; 1927, No. 11, 1237—1239. 101 a disease Sv, money in circulation Kp, Rm, combustible gas Jabl, immovable property Al, suckling calf Prn, and so on. In addition, present-tense passive participles, when expressing a property deriving from the action (state) of the noun they modify, often also have a meaning of possibility or purpose (suitability), for example: mortal 'mortal' heart JD 1142, burnable 'that can burn' bogs Ds, uncrumbling hills, non-drying birch trees Jabl, non-combustible roof Jabl, irretrievable past T 1953 49, unbreakable object, not greying person Ds, suitable foods Up, suitable soil Nm, unsuitable phenomena Vd, and so on. The adjectival forms of present-tense active participles with an active meaning, denoting permanent properties of things, are widely used to form new concepts and terms, for example: relapsing fever, responding editor, executive committee, transitional Red Banner, and so on.9 These meanings are not characteristic of present-tense a c t i v e participles. They most often denote properties arising from a specific or generalized action (state) that occurs simultaneously with the main action of the sentence. a) The action is conceived of as specific: Sometimes in the evening, sitting on the hill, Andrius would gaze at flying clouds Vencl R II 21. Algirdas Boreika stood leaning against the loom and followed the engineer with his gaze as she was walking away, Baltr PS 142. A timid and falling leaf frightens Rt. No one grabs the burning end Vžns. Lukošiūnas pushed aside the sitting men Krv R 214. The Lithuanian units of the Red Army Corps fought day and night against the attacking Germans Cv R III 231. Barefoot, Tomas would run across the threatening ploughed field, carrying a bundle in his hands Avyž P 32. b) The action is conceived of in generalized terms: From the hillock the view opens out as far as the pine forest turning blue on the right, at the edge Myk-Put S 18. Still quite a child, Ona ended up in a wealthy household with gleaming porches Cv R II 29. Petras swung his scythe,... laying down a perfectly even row of crisp, fragrant grain Balt PV I 94. Neither harsh weather nor fierce beasts deterred them from settling in crackling forests Dauk. A sick person should be comforted Sg. Only when they have completely lost their temporal meaning and other verbal features can present-tense active participles become semantic equivalents of the corresponding present-tense passive participles, for example: burning work Slnt, answering work Skp, piercing voice Kp, well-to-do person and, cf.: burnable, answerable work, pierceable voice, well-to-do person. In these word combinations, both the active and passive participles denote permanent properties characteristic of the respective things. Thus, alongside present-tense passive participles with an “active” meaning, only a small number of adjectivized present-tense active participles are used in literary language (present-tense active participles become adjectives relatively rarely in literary language). In other cases, the usage of these participles differs: present-tense passive participles denote 9 Old texts show that the participle faithful, too, could be used with an “active” meaning, for example: Povilas s. perlaidžia giwent wirui ištikimam (i.e. believing — A. V.) su neiszilikima DP 97¹⁹. However, already in the 16th century this participle was most often used as an ordinary adjective, detached from the verb ištikėti (for examples, see DŽ IV 245). In terms of meaning, the adjectives tariamas, galimas, teigiamas, neigiamas are similarly isolated from their verbs (cf. taremoghi jednones affiera MT(PM)₅₂₃). 102 permanent properties that describe the nature of the things in question, whereas present-tense active participles denote properties arising from actions or states continuing in the present or at the time indicated by the predicate of the sentence. Some present-tense passive participles formed from transitive verbs may be understood ambiguously, with either an active or a passive meaning, for example: a knowing person10 'one who knows, is knowledgeable' Ds, an understanding person 'one who understands' Pn, a destructive wind 'one that destroys people' Trk, biting flies 'flies that bite' Ds, a thieving family (cf.: I am drinkable, but not a stealable family Sv), and so on. This circumstance narrows the scope for using present-tense passive participles with an “active” meaning. In literary language, present-tense active participles are most often used in such cases (an understanding, knowledgeable person, a destructive wind, biting flies, and so on). It should be said that dialects contain expressions in which present-tense passive participles with an “active” meaning denote properties associated also with specific actions (states) occurring at the time indicated by the predicate, e.g.: A burning fire ‘one that is still burning’ is difficult to extinguish Ds; There were two girls growing up Vb; They gathered and picked for themselves likable things Grdn; Do not heed, young lad, the blowing wind and the barking dogs of the neighbors JD 465. Such expressions are not characteristic of literary language and occur only with the present-tense passive participle of one or another verb (e.g.: She has almost no one to whom she could confide her present and absent troubles Sim VK I 158—159). § 9. Many attributive present passive participles not only have an adjectival meaning but also display morphological features characteristic of adjectives. a) They can have comparative and superlative forms, e.g.: In the yard, sheltered by the houses and trees, in the sunny spots along the boundaries and fences, spring seemed more visible than in the open field Myk-Put S 95. In more accessible places there is also another end of the house, called the parlour LT II 426. An insult from one’s own is more hurtful than one from a stranger rš (DŽ III 185). He is loved, but this one is more beloved still Jabl RR I 306. They went to look for a better, more habitable place Sim (DŽ III 374). Father will now be even less amenable than before Myk-Put S 549. The hay here is not very palatable; the sheep need more edible hay Š (DŽ II 838). Over time, Vitkus’s well became not only the girls’ but also the village boys’ most favorite place Cv R III 223. The next morning he tried to make fun of his most beloved child Gud-Guz KIT 198. Asia is the most inhabited part of the world DŽ III 374. On your estate, Mr Skrodskis, their (i.e. the peasants’ — V.A.) life is the most unbearable Myk-Put S 294. At Doctor Mastaitis’s, there was the quietest, most suitable little corner for Karolis Gud-Guz KIT 183. Only a few of the most trustworthy people in town knew about Uršulė’s kind of secret Cv R III 159. b) Manner adverbs ending in -ai are formed from them in abundance, e.g.: Slowly descending from the platform, Ignotas examiningly surveyed the hall Gud-Guz KIT 799. Vanagėlis merely spat contemptuously Gud-Guz KIT 228. 10 Cf. also the meaning of the participle nežinomas in these sentences: Nežinomam (i.e. one who does not know) galima apsikaliecyt Sn. Bile kam, nežinomam (i.e. one who is not known) neduos Sn. 103 Martai is so inexpressibly calm here Sim R VI 79. It is essential for us to cultivate criticism and self-criticism indefatigably Šimk Al 53. I have already worn my legs out enough on the stubble field Gs. Adomas began to giggle barely audibly Vencl R (DŽ III 330). There will be enough warp Brs. Everything is arranged mortally boringly, uniformly Vaižg RR I 70. The women turned away from Anė in an outright insulting manner Sim VK I 29. Mažrimas nodded his head approvingly Avyž P 45. “What does the crook need?” he said knowingly Dn D 90. They will tell him what the forests were like memorably even 60 or 70 years ago in Žemaitija Dauk R 166. They cut down the forest here memorably for me JŽ I 136. The horses had run into the meadows unstoppably BsV 184. I ploughed the beets for sowing (i.e. I sowed and ploughed them) JŽ I 106. Likewise in old writings, e.g.: Tatai pirmai visibly ira parodita MT (PM) 23₁₄. Teuždega unexpectedly lompas ChB II Moz 27,20. Stiprey o unchangeably tiekiek MP 135 b₁₅. Unutterably daug skarba WP 221₁₂. Garas ne unbearably smirdus SP 256. These adverbs, in turn, are sometimes graded, e.g.: One must write more accessibly so that it would be more comprehensible (DŽ II 786). c) In literary language, derived nouns can also be formed from present passive participles. Most often they are formed with the suffix -umas, e.g.: tinkamas — tinkamumas, regimas — regimumas, skaitomas — skaitomumas, girdimas — girdimumas, paperkamas — paperkamumas, nenugalimas — nenugalimumas, and so on; compare: gražus — gražumas, baltas — baltumas. It should be noted that these derived nouns often retain the meaning of possibility found in many present passive participles. Nouns with the suffix -ybė are also formed from present passive participles, e.g.: galimas — galimybė, nežinomas — nežinomybė, tikimas — tikimybė. Nominal derivatives from present passive participles have an abstract meaning and are characteristic of literary written language, especially publicistic and scholarly works. § 10. Present passive participles can also be used without a modified noun, e.g.: Keep some beer for both the feared and the loved Jabl (DŽ I 93). And if I don’t get the desired one, I’ll wait for the one that is growing Sch 43. In such cases, pronominal present passive participles sometimes become n o u n s. It should be noted that present passive participles, being closest to adjectives, are more prone to becoming nouns than all other Lithuanian participles. Pronominal present passive participles with a noun meaning most often designate names of machines (reaper, thresher, mower), rooms (dining room, bedroom, reception room), and sometimes other things and persons (the accused, the defendant, the beloved, etc.), e.g.: Motiejus, having shaken off his laziness, had been busy since early morning in the dining room by the buffet Myk-Put S 319. Soon strangers entered the roadside fields Cv R III 123. The washerwoman visited the Vengrė valley for the first time that autumn Cv R III 34. When I scrape my bottom raw, I’ll remember it for a long time Ds. And do you have many paying customers? Balt PV I 262. Pranaitis is a passionate hunter and a firearm enthusiast Myk-Put S 6. You won’t buy much for long; before you know it, the goods for sale will be gone ŽR II 406. The king’s living quarters are not so enormous that they could accommodate such a multitude of people Sim VK I 12. 104 Among non-pronominal participles in the literary language, only the participle pažįstamas has the meaning of a noun, e.g.: We talked about our mutual pažįstamus left far away, in our homeland occupied by the enemy Cv R III 257. The maid now greeted him in a friendly manner, as an old pažįstamą Vencl R II 57. In dialects and old writings, other non-pronominal participles that have become nouns are also occasionally found, e.g.: kándamas ‘a piece of bread to be eaten’ Švn, Lp, Rdm, Iš; pakabinamas ‘a clothes hanger’ Rm; vėldamas ‘subject, vassal’ DP 49, 8542, 48444, 49713, 49844, 4991, cf.: Kiti karalus pralobsta /ižg grįnumo savūiu wėldamu ‘swych poddanych’ DP 49. Wieszpatauia... ant’ wėldamų sawųių ‘nad poddanymi swymi’ DP 49713. Iemus iu wėldamiei... tur padėti WP 2699. § 11. A review of the meanings of attributive present passive participles reveals two distinct tendencies in their use. Some present passive participles have passive voice meaning and denote properties arising from a passive action. They are formed from transitive verbs or from verbs that govern the genitive with the meaning of a direct object. Other present passive participles, identical in form to those mentioned above, are used as adjectives. They denote permanent properties of things that are related to an action in various ways, and may be formed from both transitive and intransitive verbs. These present passive participles have neither voice nor tense meaning. Although it is sometimes difficult to draw a precise line between participles with one meaning and those with the other, the distinction is clearly felt in Lithuanian. Present passive participles used adjectivally are often quite far removed in meaning from the corresponding participles that have voice and tense categories. For example, in the sentence “This field, ariama by a tractor, will soon turn green,” the participle ariama denotes a concrete passive action taking place in the present, whereas in the sentence “In our village, hundreds of hectares of ariamos land,” it is already used as an adjective defining the type of land. The same participle with adjectival meaning can express various relations to the word it modifies, e.g.: Where have the plowing traces gone? Er. Pasogelis gave [them] pale little oxen for plowing, spotted pigeons for release Vrn. By the barn there will be a plowing harrow Kp. It was already the time for plowing Jabl (cf. also: water drunk every day and a glass drunk, a day for drinking). Only present passive participles formed from transitive verbs (or verbs that govern the genitive with the meaning of a direct object) can have equivalents with a concrete passive meaning. § 12. The duality of usage of attributive present passive participles is the result of a long historical development. Lithuanian present passive participles are formed from the present-tense stem of verbs with the suffix -mo- and have unmistakable counterparts in Latvian and the Slavic language family; cf. Lithuanian vėdamas, Latvian vedams, Old Church Slavonic vedomъ; Lithuanian nešamas, Latvian nesams, Old Church Slavonic nesomъ. In Old Prussian, in the 1545 Enchiridion, we find a participle of similar meaning, poklausimans (stawīdas madlas | ast... enimmewingi bhe poklausimans ‘such requests are... pleasant and heard’ ASpr 3919), which is often compared with Greek 105 and Indo-Iranian middle participles, which had the suffix -m(e)no-, cf. Gk. φερόμενος, Skt. bháramāṇaḥ ‘being carried’, Av. barəmna — ‘being carried, riding’. Since the sound cluster mn before vowels has in certain cases become m¹¹, the present-tense passive participles of Lithuanian, Latvian, and Slavic were also derived from the above-mentioned middle participles with the suffix -m(e)no- (-mo-<*-mno-), whose meaning in Greek and Indo-Iranian was considered the oldest, characteristic of Proto-Indo-European¹². Thus, the suffix -mo- of Lithuanian present-tense passive participles was regarded as being of a different origin from that of nouns such as dūmas, kiemas, šėmas, and the like¹³. In discussing the present-tense passive participles of the Baltic and Slavic languages, efforts were made to establish their “middle” and passive meaning as primary, while other nominal meanings were explained as resulting from the substantivization of the aforementioned participles¹⁴. This hypothesis, however, requires a rather artificial division of participles and nouns with the same suffix into two groups of forms of different origin and is not sufficiently supported by morphological and semantic evidence. First, Old Prussian texts contain only one example (mentioned above) of a participle with the suffix -mano-. Other Old Prussian nominal forms that are sometimes derived from middle participles may also be interpreted differently. Of J. Endzelīns’s proposed emendations of the adjective enimumne ‘angenehme’ ASpr 57₃₂ (*enimāmne, *enimamnē, and *enimamen)¹⁵, the third may also be explained as a change of the ending *-men to -mne- under the influence of the similar-sounding German word angenehme; in this case, we would have here a present-tense passive participle with the suffix -mo. The noun schumeno ‘drot’ (shoemaker’s thread) ASpr V 507 (root siū-)¹⁶ is most likely a noun with a consonantal -men- stem (cf. Skt. syū́man ‘cord, seam’) and an -o-stem ending; cf. Lithuanian akmuo Rm, Kv, máumenas Rdd, stúomenas Srv. The noun poadamynan ‘sußemilch’ ASpr V 695, in which a variant of the suffix -m(e)no- was also conjectured to occur¹⁷, may have been formed with the suffix -in-, like Lithuanian ariaminis ‘used for ploughing’ DŽ I 242 and Latvian (dial.) aramine ‘field’¹⁸. Moreover, if all the forms mentioned above were regarded as having originated from participles with the suffix -m(e)no-, it would have to be acknowledged that these participles in Old Prussian had no fewer than four different suffix vocalisms: -mano-, -meno-, -mino-, and mno-, which is difficult to believe. Doubts were also expressed about the participle poklausimanas. ¹¹ See J. Schmidt, Kritik der Sonantentheorie, 87 ff., 93 ff. 151, Weimar, 1895; K. Brugmann, Vergleichende Laut-, Stammbildungs- und Flexionslehre der indogermanischen Sprachen, 1, 347, Strassburg, 1897; 2. 1, 230, Strassburg, 1906. ¹² See J. Schmidt, op. cit., 101, 142–143; K. Brugmann, op. cit., 2. 1, 230 ff.; A. Мейе, Общеславянский язык, 269, Москва, 1951. ¹³ Cf. K. Brugmann, op. cit., 2. 1, 230 ff., 245 ff. ¹⁴ Cf. W. Vondrák, Vergleichende slavische Grammatik, 2, 139–140, 400, Göttingen, 1928; A. Мейе, op. cit., 268–269. ¹⁵ See J. Endzelīns, Senprūšu valoda, 128, 168, Rīgā, 1943; Altpreussische Grammatik, 195, Riga, 1944. ¹⁶ He links it with participles bearing the suffix *-m(e)no; see J. Endzelīns, Senprūšu valoda, 128; ZfslPh 18, 107. ¹⁷ See J. J. Mikkola, AfslPh 39, 12 ff.; J. Endzelīn, St. balt. 4, 139 ff.; E. Fraenkel, Die baltischen Sprachen, 37, Heidelberg, 1950. ¹⁸ See J. Endzelīns, Senprūšu valoda, 228–229; Altpreussische Grammatik, 195. 106 E. Benveniste regarded it as a neuter present passive participle with the suffix -mo- (poklausiman), to which the ending -as had been erroneously added through agreement with the noun madlas19. Although this conjecture was later criticized20, the mixture of forms of different genders (enimmewingi and poklausimanas) in the sentence mentioned above, together with the absence of corresponding participles in the other Baltic languages and in the Slavic language family, may continue to cast doubt on the authenticity of the Prussian suffix -mano-. On the other hand, even if participles with the suffix -mano- did in fact once exist in Proto-Baltic, there is still no reason to regard them as prototypes of the Lithuanian and Latvian present passive participles with the suffix -mo-. Derivatives of these two suffixes in the Indo-European languages do not derive from one another, but can be used within the same chronological period. For example, in the Tocharian languages, which share many features with the Baltic and Slavic languages, we find participial forms with the suffixes Tocharian A -mām and Tocharian B -mane, corresponding to Greek and Indo-Iranian middle participles and having the same degree of suffix vocalism as Old Prussian poklausimanas, e.g.: Tocharian A kālpnāmām, Tocharian B kalpaskemane from the verb kālp- ‘reach’, Tocharian B klyausemame from klyaus- ‘hear’, and so on.21 Alongside these participial forms, verbal adjectives with the suffixes Tocharian A -mo, -m and Tocharian B -mo were also used in the Tocharian languages, e.g.: Tocharian A pākṇāmo, Tocharian B pākṇamo ‘intending’, Tocharian A kuypam ‘wishing’22. It is noteworthy that many of these verbal adjectives correspond approximately, both in formation and meaning, to Lithuanian present passive participles; cf. Tocharian B wāskamo ‘movable, agile’ from the root wāsk- ‘move’, ynamo ‘going, passable’ from i- ‘go’, Tocharian A cāmpam, cāmpamo, Tocharian B cāmpamo ‘well-off, wealthy’ from cāmp- ‘be able’. New Indo-European language data (especially Anatolian and Tocharian) have substantially changed the traditional view of the archaic nature of the meanings of Greek and Old Indian participles. The middle meaning of derivatives in -m(e)no- also appears not to be the most ancient. For example, it is entirely uncharacteristic of the Tocharian participles with the suffix -mane- (-mām-) mentioned above23. Derivatives in -m(e)no- most likely originated from consonant-stem nouns in -men-, expanded by the formant -o-24, and acquired the meaning of middle participles in separate Indo-European dialect groups. Verbal adjectives with the suffix -nt-, 19 See E. Benveniste, Le participe indo-européen en -mno-, BSL 34, 5 ff. A. Meillet shared this view (see A. Meillet, cited work, 269), as did E. Fraenkel initially (see E. Fraenkel, Die baltische Sprachwissenschaft in den Jahren 1938—1940, 18, Helsinki, 1941), but he later abandoned it (see E. Fraenkel, Die baltischen Sprachen, 34, Heidelberg, 1950). 20 See J. Endzelin, St. balt. 4, 140 ff.; Altpreussische Grammatik, 195; Ch. Stang, Das slavische und baltische Verbum, 207, Oslo, 1942. 21 See B. Krause, Tocharian. — The Tocharian Languages, collection of articles (hereafter — TY), 68, Moscow, 1959; I. A. Melchuk, A Brief Outline of the Morphology of the Tocharian Languages, TY 171, 178, 193, 200, 201. 22 See B. Krause, cited work, 70; I. A. Melchuk, cited work, 194. 23 See É. Benveniste, Tocharian and Indo-European, TY 97. 24 Cf. E. Benveniste, Le participe indo-européen en -mno-, BSL 34, 14; É. Benveniste, Indo-European Nominal Derivation, 146, 149, Moscow, 1955. 107 formed from transitive verbs, the passive meaning in Anatolian languages25, their relationship to nouns with the same suffix26, the aspectual neutrality of Tocharian participles with the suffix -u27, as well as other similar facts, lead us to believe that the active participles attributed to the Proto-Indo-European language (like verbal adjectives with the suffixes -to and -no-) likewise once lacked the category of voice28. The further back into antiquity we go, the closer the genetic ties we see between participles and nouns. It is therefore most likely that Lithuanian present passive participles, too, are primarily connected not with medial participles bearing the suffix -m(e)no-, but with nouns bearing the suffix -mo-, which were once formed not only from the present-tense stem but (in even earlier times) also from verbal roots, e.g.: Lithuanian dūmai (noun), dūmas (adjective), Latvian dūmi, Old Church Slavonic dymъ, Sanskrit dhūmāḥ, Greek θυμός ‘spirit, desire’, cf. Old Church Slavonic dujo ‘I blow’, Greek φύω ‘I blow, smoke’29; Sanskrit gharmāḥ ‘heat’, Greek θερμός ‘hot’, Latin formus ‘warm’, cf. Old Church Slavonic gorěti ‘to burn’30; Sanskrit bhīmāḥ ‘terrible’, cf. Latvian bitìes, Lithuanian bijótis31; Sanskrit pra-stīmāḥ ‘compressed, crushed’, cf. Lithuanian styroti (root sti-)32, and so on. In time, the formation of these nouns from the present-tense stem became generalized. The present passive participles of Lithuanian, Latvian, and Slavic were probably initially verbal adjectives as well, which later drew closer to the verbal system and acquired the voice and tense meanings characteristic of participles33. § 13. The use of present passive participles also confirms this assumption. We have seen that in Lithuanian present passive participles are most often used as 25 See J. Friedrich, Hethitisch und „kleinasiatische“ Sprachen, 32, Berlin—Leipzig, 1931; И. Фридрих, Краткая грамматика хеттского языка, 146—147, Москва, 1952; H. Kronasser, Vergleichende Laut- und Formenlehre des Hethitischen, 210, Heidelberg, 1956. 26 See Э. Бенвенист, Индоевропейское именное словообразование, 157 ff.; G. R. Solta, Gedanken über das nt- Suffix, Wien, 1958; B. B. Иванов, О значении хеттского языка для сравнительно-исторического исследования славянских языков. — «Вопросы славянского языкознания», 2, 17, Москва, 1957. 27 See B. Krause, Тохарский язык, ТЯ 68; Э. Бенвенист, Тохарский и индоевропейский, ТЯ 97. 28 Cf. Э. Бенвенист, Индоевропейское именное словообразование, 156—157; Тохарский и индоевропейский, ТЯ 97. 29 See A. Walde, J. Pokorny, Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der indogermanischen Sprachen, 1, 835 ff., Berlin und Leipzig, 1930; E. Fraenkel, Litauisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, 110, Heidelberg, 1955 ff. 30 See K. Brugmann, op. cit., 2. 1, 246; A. Walde, J. Pokorny, op. cit., 1, 687—688. 31 See A. Walde, J. Pokorny, op. cit., 2, 125; E. Fraenkel, op. cit., 43. 32 See A. Walde, J. Pokorny, op. cit., 2, 125. For other similar examples, see K. Brugmann, op. cit., 2. 1, 246 ff.; W. Vondrák, Vergleichende slavische Grammatik, 1, 552 ff., Göttingen, 1924; A. Meillet, Общеславянский язык, 285, Москва, 1951. 33 B. Havranek also connects the present passive participles of Slavic and Baltic with nouns bearing the suffix -mo- in his book „Genera verbi v slovanských jazycích“, 1937 (see E. Fraenkel, Die baltische Sprachwissenschaft in den Jahren 1938—1940, 16, Helsinki, 1941; the said book by B. Havranek was unavailable to the author of this article); cf. also T. Lehr-Splawinski, Cz. Bartula, Zarys gramatyki języka staro-cerkiewno-słowiańskiego na tle porównawczym, 89, Wrocław—Kraków, 1959. 108 adjectives denoting possibility, purpose, and necessity, and expressing relations of means, time, and place. They may be formed from intransitive verbs, and even when formed from transitive verbs, they often lack voice and tense meanings. Such use of present passive participles cannot be explained by adjectivization or by the loss of the grammatical categories mentioned above. It is characteristic not only of the oldest monuments of the Lithuanian language, but also of related languages. In Latvian, present passive participles may likewise be formed from intransitive verbs and denote a property arising from the action (or state) of the referent, e.g.: lipama sērga ‘a contagious disease’ mirstams cilvēks ‘a dying, mortal person’ plīstamas lietas ‘breakable things’, etc.34 With meanings of possibility and purpose, Latvian present passive participles also often denote relations of means, time, and place, e.g.: skutamais nazis ‘razor’, šaujams pulveris ‘gunpowder’, jājams kumeliņš ‘riding horse’, šujama adata ‘sewing needle’, sējams laiks ‘sowing time’, mirstamā diena ‘day of death’; dzīvojama vieta ‘place to live, dwelling’, guļama istaba ‘bedroom’, etc.35 In Old Church Slavonic, participles with the suffix *-mo- may also be used not only to form the passive voice, but as adjectives, e.g.: vъsi znъemii ego Luk 23,49 ‘all his acquaintances’, učenikъ... taimъ Jon 19,38 ‘the disciple... concealed (=secret)’36; some of them are independent of the present-tense stem of the corresponding verbs, cf.: питомъ ‘fattened, fat’ and питаје, питѣје (infinitive питати, питѣти ‘to feed’)37. Present passive participles in Old Church Slavonic, as in Lithuanian and Latvian, very often have meanings of possibility and suitability (especially with negation), e.g.: видимъ ‘visibilis, visible’, неразлѫчимъ ‘inseparable’, непобѣдимъ ‘invincible’, etc. (cf. Russian verbal adjectives with the suffix -м-: незримый, непобедимый, etc.). In addition, these participles may also have an “active” meaning (e.g., vědomъ ‘knowing, learned’, cf. Lith. žinomas žmogus ‘a well-known person’) and may be formed from intransitive verbs, e.g.: dvizimъ ‘movable’, visimъ ‘hanging’ (cf. Russian зависимый), ležimъ ‘lying down’. The correspondence of the principal meanings in Lithuanian, Latvian, and Old Church Slavonic shows that the adjectival use of present passive participles, indifferent to voice, is primary38, and makes it possible to provide a semantic basis for their connection with the Indo-European adjectives mentioned above, which have the suffix -mo-. These adjectives denoted properties of things associated with an action but lacked verbal categories. It seems that some of these adjectives, formed from transitive verbs, were later incorporated into the verb’s system of tense and voice... 34 For other examples, see K. Būga, Rinktiniai raštai, 1, 535—536; J. Endzelīns, Latviešu valodas gramatika, 999—1000, Rīgā, 1951. 35 See J. Endzelīns, op. cit., 998—999, and K. Būga’s manuscript “Medžiaga neveikiamiesiems dalyviams”, VVU Manuscripts Department, No. D 464 (RŠ 773). 36 See А. Вайан, Руководство по старославянскому языку, 273, Москва, 1952. 37 See А. Вайан, op. cit., 273; A. Meillet, op. cit., 269; W. Vondrák, Vergleichende slavische Grammatik, 2, 140, Göttingen, 1928. 38 The archaic character of the adjectival use of present passive participles is also indicated by comparison with Old Russian data; see Б. А. Ларин, Из заметок о русско-литовских соответствиях. — «Научный бюллетень Ленинградского гос. университета», 11—12, 30—31, Ленинград, 1946. 109 tense and voice meanings. However, many of them continued to be formed from intransitive verbs and used as adjectives. This explains the duality in the use of present passive participles, observable in Lithuanian as well as Latvian and Old Church Slavonic. CONCLUSIONS 1. Only some Lithuanian attributive present passive participles denote properties arising from a passive action and carry tense meaning. The other present passive participles express neither voice nor tense. These participles may be formed from both transitive and intransitive verbs. They are used as a particular kind of adjective and denote permanent properties of things. 2. Present passive participles most often have meanings of possibility and purpose (suitability). 3. Attributive present passive participles denoting permanent properties of things are used to express relations of means, time, place, and other kinds. They are productive and suitable for forming new concepts and terms. 4. Some present passive participles denote properties arising from the action (or state) of the referent. In certain cases, these participles may be used interchangeably with present active participles. However, the general usage tendencies of present passive and active participles differ. Present passive participles generally express permanent characteristic properties of things that distinguish the referents from other similar things. On the other hand, the corresponding present active participles most often denote properties arising from actions (or states) taking place in the present or at the time indicated by the predicate of the sentence, and only rarely acquire adjectival meaning. 5. The morphological features of present passive participles also indicate their affinity with adjectives. They can be compared, and adverbs and nouns can be derived from them. In rare cases, they become nouns. 6. The adjectival use of present passive participles in Lithuanian is ancient and probably inherited from a time when nominal forms derived from verbs with the suffix -mo- had not yet been incorporated into the system of verbal voice and tense categories. Abbreviations A — Auszra. Tilsit, 1883—1886. AfslPh — Archive for Slavic Philology. Berlin (since 1876). AK — Catechism or instruction necessary for every Christian... Printed for the second time in WILNIVY... (Anonymous 1605 catechism, cited according to the edition: Der polnische Katechismus des Ledesma und die litauischen Katechismen des Daugsa und des Anonymus vom Jahre 1605... interlinear herausgegeben von Ernst Sittig. Göttingen, 1929). 110 Al — Alytus. ASpr — The Old Prussian language monuments. Introduction, texts, grammar, dictionary by Dr. Reinhold Trautmann. Göttingen, 1910. ASpr V — The Elbing glossary, cited according to ASpr. Avyž P — J. Avyžius, Palikimas, Vilnius, 1951. Balt PV — J. Baltušis, Parduotos vasaros, I, Vilnius, 1957. Baltr PS — A. Baltrūnas, Pavasario srautas. Vilnius, 1953. Bil R — J. Biliūnas, Raštai, I—II, Vilnius, 1954. BK — Naudinga bitių knygele... paraszyta par G. D. Settegast, Petropilie 1848. BM — Lithuanian dialects, collected by A. Baranowski, Volume I: Texts from the Weber estate, edited by Dr. Franz Specht... Leipzig, 1920. BrB — Biblia tatai esti Wissas Schwentas Raschtas Lietuwischkai perguldytas per Jana Bretkuna. Lietuvos Plebona Karaliaucziuie (1579—1590. Cituojama iš Vilniaus valst. universiteto fotokopijos). BrP — Postilla tatai esti Trumpas ir Prastas Ischguldimas Euangelu... Per Jana Bretkuna... Karaliaucziuie... 1591. Brs — Barstyčiai, Seda district. Brt — Batnininkai, Vilkaviškis district. BSL — Bulletin of the Linguistic Society of Paris (since 1869). BsP — Various Lithuanian tales. Collected by Dr. J. Basanavičius, I—IV, Chicago, 1903—1905. BsV — Iš gyvenimo vėlių bei velnių. Surinko Dr. J. Basanavičius, Chicago, 1903. ChB — Biblia tatey ira Rasztas Szwętas... perguldytas Lietuwiszkai liežūwin užmariose nog Samuelies Bagusławo CHylinska (1660 m. Chilinskio biblija). Cv R — P. Cvirka, Collected Works, I—XI, Vilnius, 1949—1953. Čiurl R — S. Čiurlionienė-Kymantaitė, Rinktiniai raštai, I—III, Vilnius, 1956. Dauk R — S. Daukantas, Rinktiniai raštai, Vilnius, 1955. DD — S. Daukantas, Darbay senuju Lietuwiu yr Žemaycziu, 1882, Kaunas, 1929. DnD — Christian Donalitius. Lithuanian Poems.... edited by G. H. F. Nesselmann, Königsberg, 1869. DnR — K. Donelaitis, Raštai, Vilnius, 1950. Dov — Dovilai, Klaipėda district. DP — Catholic Postilla... translated from Polish by the priest Mikalojus Daukša, canon of Medininkai... in Vilnius... 1599. Dr — Darbėnai, Kretinga district. Ds — Dusėtos. Dsm — Dūsmenys, Daugai district. DŽ — Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, I—V. Institute of the Lithuanian Language and Literature of the Lithuanian SSR Academy of Sciences, Vilnius, 1941—1959. End — Endriejavas, Rietavas district. Er — Eriškiai, Ramygala district. gr. — Ancient Greek. Grdm — Gardamas, Šilutė district. Grg — Gargždai, Klaipėda district. Grž — Grūžiai, Joniškėlis district. Gs — Geistarai (Didvyžiai), Vilkaviškis district. Gud-Guz KIT — A. Gudaitis-Guzevičius, Kalvio Ignoto teisybė, Vilnius, 1952. IM — L. Ivinskis, Calendar or yearbook (1846—1877). Jabl — J. Jablonskis’s slips in the DŽ card file, in which the source is not indicated. Jabl RR — J. Jablonskis, Selected Writings, I—II, Vilnius, 1957—1959. Jabl R — Jablonskis’s writings, I—V, edited by J. Balčikonis, Kaunas, 1932—1936. 111 JD — Lithuanian songs recorded by Antanas Juškevičė, 3 volumes, Kazan, 1880—1882. Jnšk — Joniškėlis. JV — Lietuviškos svotbinės dainos, užrašytos par Antaną Juškevičę... Petropylė, 1883. JŽ — Литовский словарь А. Юшкевича с толкованием слов на русскомъ и польскомъ языкахъ, I—III, Петропрадъ, 1897—1922. Words from the unpublished part of A. Juška’s dictionary are also marked with the same symbol. K — F. Kurschat, Littauisch-deutsches Wörterbuch, Halle a. S., 1883. K I—II — F. Kurschat, German-Lithuanian Dictionary, I—II, Halle a. S., 1870—1874. KGt — F. Kurschat, Grammatik der littauischen Sprache, Halle a. S., 1876. Klp — Klaipėda. Kors LKr — K. Korsakas, Literatūra ir kritika, Vilnius, 1949. Kp — Kupiškis. Krv R — V. Krėvė, Raganius, Vilnius, 1958. Kv — Kvėdarna, Šilalė district. KZ — Journal of Comparative Linguistic Research in the Field of Indo-European Languages, founded by A. Kuhn (since 1852). Latv. — Latvian language. LCh — E. Volteris, Lithuanian Chrestomathy, I—II, Санктпетербург, 1903—1904. Lith. — Lithuanian language. LM — Literature and Art. Published by the Writers’ Union of the Lithuanian SSR. Lnk — Lenkimai, Skuodas district. Lat. — Latin language. Lš — Liškiava, Veisiejai district. LT — Lithuanian Nation. Publications of the Lithuanian Scientific Society, I—V, Vilnius, 1907—1936. Myk-Put S — V. Mykolaitis-Putinas, Sukilėliai, I, Vilnius, 1957. MK — New very necessary and useful prayer books for the common people... published by M. Daniel Klein in Königsberg... MDCLXVI. MLLG — Mitteilungen der Litauischen Litterarischen Gesellschaft, I—VI, Heidelberg, 1883—1912. Mos — Mósėdis, Skuodas district. MP — Postilla Lietuwiszka... iżduota... Wihniwy per Iokubą Morkuną... Metuose... 1600. Mrc — Marcinkónys, Varėna district. Mrs — Miroslavas, Alytus district. MT — Margarita Theologica, compiled and written by M. Adam Francisci... and now translated into Lithuanian by Simona Waischnota... printed in Königsberg, Prussia, by Jurgis Osterbergera, in the year... 1600. MT(PM) — On the papist mass (bound together with MT). MŽ — Lithuanian-German and German-Lithuanian Dictionary... by Christian Gottlieb Mielcke... Königsberg, 1800. N — Wörterbuch der Littauischen Sprache von G. H. F. Nesselmann, Königsberg, 1851. Nér R — S. Nėris, Raštai, I—III. Vilnius, 1957. Nm — Kudirkos Naumiestis. NTS — Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap. Oslo (since 1928). OG — Jan Otrębski, The Eastern Lithuanian Twerec dialect, I, Grammar, Kraków, 1934. Pc — Pociūnėliai, Šeduva district. Pg — Pagiriai, Ramygala district. Pl — Palėvenė, Kupiškis district. Plm — Palomenė, Kaišiadorys district Pn — Panevėžys. 112 Pnd — Pandėlys Prn — Prienai. Png — Paringys, Ignalina district PT — Instruction on the cultivation of tobacco, which was written in Russian by D. Strukov and translated into Žemaitian by Jonas Girdenis. Petropilis, 1847. R — Littauisch-Deutsches und Deutsch-Littauisches Lexicon... von Philipp Ruhig... Königsberg... 1747. RD — Liudas Rėza’s songs. Third edition of the first Lithuanian songbook, I—II, Kaunas, 1935—1937. Rd — Radviliškis. Rdd — Raudondvaris, Kaunas district. Rdm — Rudaminà, Lazdijai district. Rg — Ragainė. Rgv — Raguva, Troškūnai district. Rk — Rokiškis. Rm — Ramýgala. Rš — Rimšė, Dūkštas district. Sch — Lithuanian Reader and Glossary by August Schleicher, Prague, 1857. SD — Dictionarium trium linguarum, In usum Studiosae Iuventutis, Avctore... Constantino Szyrwid... Quinta editio... Vilnae... M.DCC.XIII. SE — Summa Abā Trumpas iszguldimas Ewangeliu... Kiedaynize... 1653. Sim R — I. Simonaitýtė, Writings, I—VI, Vilnius, 1957—1958. Sim VK — I. Simonaitýtė, Vilius Karalius, I—II, Vilnius, 1956. s. ind. — Old Indian language. Skp — Skapiškis, Pandėlys district. Slnt — Salantai. Sn — Seinai. SP — Punkty Kazań... Przez... Konstantego Szyrwida... w Wilnie... (I—1629, II—1644). Srv — Surviliškis, Dotnuva district. Ss — Siesikai, Ukmergė district. s. sl. — Old Church Slavonic language. St. balt. — Studi baltici. Rome (since 1931). StnD — Daynas Žemaycziu surynktas yr yšzdutas par Symona Stanewicze... Wylniuje... Metuose 1829 (cited from J. Lebedys’s 1954 photographic edition). Sub — Subačius, Kupiškis district. Sv — Svėdasai, Anykščiai district. Š — Lietuvių ir rusų kalbų žodynas. Sudarė D-ras J. Šlapelis, Vilnius, 1921. Šimk AL — J. Šimkus, Apie literatūrą, Vilnius, 1956. Škn — Šakyna, Žagarė district. Šts — Šatės, Skuodas district. Svn — Šventežeris, Lazdijai district. Švnč — Švenčionys. T — Tiesa [Truth]. An organ of the Central Committee of the Lithuanian Communist Party, the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian SSR, and the Council of Ministers of the Lithuanian SSR. Trk — Tirkšliai, Mažeikiai district. Trs — Truskava, Ramygala district. tsp — Soviet press. Tv — Tvėrai, Rietavas district. Up — Upyna, Skaudvilė district. Užv — Užventis. Vaižg RR — Vaižgantas, Selected Writings, I—II, Vilnius, 1957. Vb — Vabalninkas. Vd — Vydūnas (Vilius Storasta, 1868—1953), his writings. VEE — Evangelies bei Epistolas... perguldytas ant Lietuwischka Szdodzia per Baltramieju Willenta... Ischspaustas Karalauczui... Metu M.D.LXXIX. 8. Kalbotyros klausimai, IV 113 Vencl GD — A. Venclova, Gimimo diena, I, Vilnius, 1959. Vencl — A. Venclova, Raštai, I—III, Vilnius, 1955. Vencl TB — A. Venclova, Taikos balandžiai. Vilnius, 1952. WP — Exposition of the Gospels throughout all the Years, compiled in sections from the Many Postils... (Anonymous 1573 postil, held in the Wolfenbüttel Library). Vm — Varėna. ZfslPh — Journal of Slavic Philology (since 1925). ŽR — Žemaitė, Writings, I—VI, Vilnius, 1956—1957. ON THE USE OF PRESENT-TENSE PASSIVE PARTICIPLES В. И. АМБРАЗАС Summary In Lithuanian, only some attributive present-tense participles have a passive meaning. In such cases, they are formed from imperfective transitive verbs and may occur in constructions with a genitive agent (genetivus auctoris). Attributive participles with a specific passive meaning are more characteristic of literary written language; they are comparatively rare in dialects. Most attributive present-tense participles express neither tense nor voice and are used as deverbal adjectives denoting permanent qualities of the entities they modify. They often have meanings of possibility (e.g., suprantama knyga ‘an understandable book’, neapsakomas džiaugsmas ‘indescribable joy’) and purpose or suitability (e.g., geriamas vanduo ‘drinking water’). Instrumental (e.g., jojamas arklys ‘riding horse’), locative (e.g., gyvenamas namas ‘dwelling house’), temporal (e.g., priimama diena ‘reception day’), and often even looser relations (e.g., puolamoji liga ‘falling sickness’, skubinamas darbas ‘urgent work’) are observed between these participles with a qualitative meaning and the nouns they modify. Present-tense passive participles may also express a quality associated with an action or state of the entity itself, e.g., gydomas vanduo ‘healing water’, spiegiamas balsas ‘shrill voice’, pasiturimas žmogus ‘well-off person’. These passive participles differ from present-tense active participles in their qualitative meaning and lack of tense and voice categories. Many present-tense passive participles are also morphologically related to adjectives: they may have degrees- 114 Without comparison, adverbs and nouns are derived from them, and sometimes they themselves become substantivized. The use of passive participles as deverbal adjectives is an ancient feature of Lithuanian and cannot be explained by a process of adjectivization of these participles. The coincidence of the principal adjectival meanings of present-tense passive participles in Lithuanian, Latvian, Old Church Slavonic, and Old Russian, as well as their morphological and semantic connection with corresponding forms in other Indo-European languages (in particular, Tocharian), point to the primacy of the qualitative meaning of these participles and their connection with Indo-European names in -to- (cf. Sanskrit bhīmaḥ ‘terrible’).