Dabartinės lietuvių literatūrinės kalbos būdvardžių laipsniai ir jų reikšmės

LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, IV LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA DEGREES OF ADJECTIVES AND THEIR MEANINGS IN CONTEMPORARY STANDARD LITHUANIAN A. VALECKIENĖ § 1. Individual objects may possess different degrees of a quality. The degree forms show differences in the degree of a quality possessed by the objects being compared. In contemporary standard Lithuanian, we can distinguish two independent degrees: the comparative and the superlative. In addition to these, the so-called elative and absolute superlative are also used. But, as we shall see later, they do not constitute separate degrees; they are variants of the comparative and superlative with a certain nuance of meaning. The positive form of the adjective (geras, -a, senas, -a) does not belong among the degrees; it indicates only the quality of the object itself, not its degree relative to the quality of another object.1 Nor should forms that in fact express some degree of a quality, but describe it subjectively, without a definite comparison with another object, be classified as degrees. In contemporary standard Lithuanian, the following formations with subjective meaning, which do not fall within the category of degree, are considered to be: adjectives with the suffix -okas,-a2, and the prefixes apy-, po- (senókas laikas, apýgilė duobė, pómážis autuvas), which express a generally less-than-complete degree of a quality, as well as diminutive adjectives (mažytis,-ė, jaunūtis,-ė), which usually denote an abundance of the quality. Thus, we consider the comparative element in the expression of a quality’s degree to be the principal feature of the category of degree. § 2. In contemporary standard Lithuanian, suffixal degree forms are customary. The comparative is formed from the positive form with the suffix -esnis,-ė, and the superlative with the suffix -iausias,-ia3, e.g.: geras,-a, geresnis,-ė, geriausias,-ia; žalias,-ia, žalesnis,-ė, žaliausias,-ia; gražus,-i, gražesnis,-ė, gražiausias,-ia. Degree forms are derived only from qualitative adjectives. Separate comparative and 1 Cf. V. V. Vinogradov, Russian Language, 243, Moscow–Leningrad, 1947; Contemporary Russian Language, Morphology, ed. by Acad. V. V. Vinogradov, 142, Moscow, 1952. 2 In Latvian, forms of the comparative are formed with the suffix -okas,-a, corresponding to our suffix, and the suffix -āks,-ā, e.g.: mazāks, -a ‘smaller’, lielāks, -a ‘larger’. 3 Dėl šių priesagų kilmės žr. J. Endzelynas, Baltų kalbų garsai ir formos, 137—138, Vilnius, 1957; J. Otrębski, Gramatyka języka litewskiego, 3, 127, Warszawa, 1956. 4. Kalbotyros klausimai, IV 49 Adjectives in the superlative degree in Lithuanian have no positive form; the corresponding root is shown by a noun, e.g.: vyresnis,-ė, vyriausias, -ia (: vyras), viršesnis,-ė, viršiausias,-ia (: viršus), galiausias,-ia (: galas). They were most likely formed from the aforementioned nouns. When the object being referred to is to be emphasized or distinguished from others in a particular context, clear noun forms with comparative and superlative suffixes are often used, especially in dialects, e.g.: His scythe was more scythe-like than all the other scythes Vkš. They are my relatives; more related ones I do not need Jnšk. He was more of a craftsman than all the other craftsmen Vkš. When she does not work, she is even filthier (dirtier) Skr. He is a big cheat: he is more of a cheat than a cheat, and more dog-like than a dog Jabl R I 207. I went into the forest more forestward, felled a pine most pine-like (from an oration) Jž. Comparative Degree § 3. In contemporary standard Lithuanian, comparative adjectives express a quality that a particular object possesses to a greater extent than another specific object or, in general, other objects of a similar kind; they also express a quality that the same object possesses to a greater extent at the present time or under certain circumstances than it did previously or will do later. Depending on the respect in which the greater amount of the object's quality is indicated, three meanings of the comparative degree can be distinguished: the object-comparative, the subject-comparative, and the indefinite object—elative—meaning4. 1. Object-comparative meaning § 4. Comparative adjectives with an object-comparative meaning show that, of two specific objects, one possesses a greater degree of the quality denoted. In contemporary standard language, comparison of the qualities of two objects is most often expressed in a sentence with the preposition už and the conjunctions kaip, nekaip, negu, nei. The qualities of two objects may also be compared without any connective word—in separate sentences (see the examples below). § 5. Comparison of qualities can be of two kinds: emphatic and relative. a) Emphatic comparison of the qualities of objects. Some qualities are characteristic and customary of certain objects, e.g., sweetness of honey, whiteness of snow, and so on. Here, compared with other objects, these qualities are abundant or great; they can be called full-fledged qualities. When two objects are compared on the basis of one of them possessing a quality of the kind just described, the greater degree of the other object's quality is expressed with emphasis and prominence. In contemporary standard language, comparative adjectives of this type are particularly common in poetry, e.g.: 4 For the terminology, cf. С. Г. Ильенко, О значении простых форм степеней сравнения прилагательных в современном русском литературном языке. — «Ученые записки Ленинградского гос. пед. ин-та им. А. И. Герцена», 130, 60 тт., 1957. 50 Sweetly, the tiny one sleeps in silken swaddling clothes and downy bedding whiter than snow Nėr P I 143. The oak decays, granite crumbles, yet the word remains harder than stone, spoken long ago by the great singer Miež ML 349. — Look, son, listen to everyone there. Be smaller even than a poppy seed; don’t draw anyone’s attention Balt PV 29. O waters of the stream! — An orphan’s tears flow more swiftly even than they do Nėr P I 105. Stronger for the earth than the explosions of bombs, than the roar of cannons are her love and her song Miež ML 354. Truth is dearer than gold Grz. Young people love the Lithuanian woman more than the weaving of roses and tulips Mair R I 58. Agilely, it seems, the slender little doe leaps along the rocky path. But the mountain girl is more agile—she flies and races on the mountain breeze Miež ML 330. b) Relative comparison of the qualities of things. Relative comparison brings out the relation of one thing to another with respect to the degree of a particular quality, without any emphasis. Two abstract things are compared without a specified quality. The thing used as a point of comparison to show that another thing possesses a greater degree of a quality need not itself possess the quality being compared; for example, when we say: Father is better than mother, we may not mean at all that father is good. Adjectives in the comparative degree of this kind are more often found in retelling and colloquial speech, for example: He piled up a stack of hay higher than the barn Kp. Fool the child now!.. In this age you won’t find anyone more foolish than yourself... Žem R I 29. Why, your life is more valuable than Driežas’s, and you’re as naked as a dog because of that damned stench! Žem R I 67. Smaller than a dog, bigger than a horse (a saddle) Lš. Cow and pig manure is stickier than horse manure Vdk. The troughs were longer than a person is tall Myk-Put S 150. Mother and both Balsvytė girls tasted their aunt’s bread and cheese. What delicious bread! Soft, fluffy, full of holes, and how delicious it smells! Well, cheese is cheese—and ours is no worse Myk-Put S 404. When two homogeneous things with qualities of antonymic meaning are compared, the second object may be omitted; it is inferred from the context, for example: Give me back my stick; mine is finer Upt. This eye is lower; it sees less Ut. The second half of winter will probably be harsher (colder) Gs. I wondered why you kept sliding along here, but it turns out one side of the seat is higher Srv. It should be noted that emphatic and relative comparison of the qualities of things are not strictly distinguished from one another. In both cases, the greater degree of a thing’s quality expressed by the comparative is described with reference to the quality of another thing. Moreover, characteristic, full-fledged qualities are not always absolutely identical, nor can everyone perceive them as such. Consequently, contexts occur in which it is difficult to determine whether the comparison of two things’ qualities is relative or emphatic, for example: A foolish friend is more dangerous than an enemy TŽ V 600. Good advice is more precious than money Krt. The proximity of relative and emphatic comparison of the qualities of things suggests that one developed from the other. However, now 51 It is difficult to determine on what basis the greater quantity of a property first came to be expressed and, consequently, what the original function of the comparative degree was—to indicate a degree of a property greater than the full degree, or merely to show a difference in the quantity of a property between individual things. In some languages, comparative forms are formed with the suffix *-tero-/-toro-, e.g.: Greek ὠμό-τερο-ς from ὠμός ‘green, uncooked’, Sanskrit ámā-tara-h from ámāh ‘also’. Originally, this suffix expressed a contrast between two concepts5. Lithuanian, too, preserves individual words with the original (contrasting) meaning of this suffix, e.g.: pastaras (and pasteras), ant(a)ras, kat(a)ras. Relative comparison is closer to the original (contrasting) meaning of the comparative-degree suffix *-tero- / -toro-. § 6. The difference in the quantity of a property between two compared things can be stated in units of measurement, which in contemporary standard Lithuanian are generally expressed by the instrumental of difference, e.g.: He, Antanas, was the eldest; Jokūbas was two years younger, while the youngest, Steponas, after two brothers and three sisters had died, was more than twenty years younger than Antanas Myk-Put S 247. If they had been one size smaller [the shoes], they would have been just right Ign. In some expressions, the measure of the difference in a property can be expressed by the accusative case with the preposition per, e.g.: The son outstripped his father (surpassed him in height): he is already a whole span taller Dr. § 7. In certain cases, comparative adjectives with an object-related meaning have a superlative meaning. This occurs when one thing, with respect to the property being compared, is contrasted with all other things of that kind, often emphasizing that no other thing has such a great quantity of the property. Usually, comparison of the properties of things of this kind is expressed in a sentence with the prepositions už, iš and combinations with the pronouns visas, -a, viskas: už visus, už viską, iš visų, užvis, e.g.: “Now I know why she is always so gloomy. You see, she loved someone else... Why didn’t she offer herself to me?.. She herself, herself is more to blame... No, he is more to blame... he lied, led her on, then was glad to be rid of her... He, Pranukas, is the most to blame of all... Žem R I 198—199. He is braver than all the others Gs. Whoever is the grayest and most handsome of all, I’ll choose that little horse to ride across the field (song) Skp. Health is dearer than anything else Nj.-Who among [all of] you is the fastest? Ėr. And of all of them the biggest mushroom grows Baran AŠ 21. On Sundays the biggest market is held Krtv. Examples of the same kind, but more dialectal, occur with the preposition per: Gaubys is more worthy than all the others Plt. — Whoever is guilty, is guilty, but that gentleman is the most guilty of all Žem R II 108. In Lithuanian, negative statements (or questions that substitute for them) with the comparative degree of adjectives, that is, direct assertions that 5 A. Мейе, Introduction to the Comparative Study of Indo-European Languages, 282, Москва—Ленинград, 1938. 52 The absence of an object with a greater degree of the property than the one singled out is equivalent to affirmative statements using the superlative degree of adjectives, e.g.: There was no one better than him for hard work: whether it was pulling stones or stumps, without Kazys he would not even go (Kazys was the best) LzP I 221. Though you travel across the whole earth, you will find no place dearer than your homeland (the homeland is dearest) Pln. Life! There is nothing stronger than it—no one can conquer life (life is strongest) Miež ML 99. It would be hard to find anyone quieter than him: he hardly spoke at all Balč AŽ 6. — “Oh, father, don’t speak ill of Kazimieras!” his mother defended him. “Tell me, is there a more upright lad than him in our village?..” Žem R I 13. And it seemed to me that there was no greater happiness than growing up to be a strong young man Balt PV 171. Many girls along the banks of the Dubysa, like lilies, white and tall; all bloom in the face like viburnum; you will hear no more beautiful voices Mair R I 79. In some dialects, such negative statements also occur with the preposition per, e.g.: For me, there are no better mushrooms than porcini Alv. I had no prettier kerchiefs than linen ones Rdm. There is no one more hardworking and beautiful than my maiden Rod. Where will you find anyone more flexible than him? Lp.6 Comparative adjectives are also used in place of superlatives in other languages. For example, Russian comparative forms худший, лучший, низший can also express a superlative property; compare: Мы горды страною лучшей в мире7. 2. Comparative meaning of the subject § 8. Comparative-degree adjectives with a comparative meaning of the subject indicate that a particular object has a greater degree of a property at one time or under certain circumstances than at another time or under other circumstances. Since, in describing the degree of a property, the properties of two separate objects are not compared, but rather the properties of one and the same object in different instances, this comparative-degree meaning is called the subject comparative. § 9. Comparative-degree adjectives expressing the subject meaning rarely describe a greater degree of an object's property by means of emphatic comparison, that is, on the basis of the full property expressed by the non-comparative form of the adjective. In this case, the completeness of the property is inferred from the context. E.g.: He went hunting so that his son might learn, and fly about through the forests, but while hunting Ilgis rode out alone, taking no brain in hand and no longer drawing the arrows with the loop, and returned gloomier than when he had ridden from home Krėv DSP 139. More than one crusader who 6 Such constructions also gave rise to expressions like: There is no meat better than pork (better than pork) Jabl R I 658. There is no eating better than fresh potatoes with butter. Ds. There is no wood better than oak (stronger, more beautiful) Er. 7 That the superlative degree is related to the comparative and may even have developed from it is also shown by the formation of these forms in some languages. For example, the old Indo-European superlative suffix *-isto- is simply the comparative suffix *-ies- / -ios- expanded by a new formative element; compare Greek ἡδίων < * ἡδ-ιων ‘sweeter’, ἡδίστο-ς ‘sweetest’. In Latvian, the degree forms are new, but the superlative is likewise formed from the comparative with the emphatic particle vis-, of pronominal origin, e.g.: labāks ‘better’, vislabākais ‘best’. 53 angrier than he himself thinks he is, laid his head down there Krėv DŠP 23. Such comparison of a thing’s property occurs more often only with the emphatic particle *dar* ‘even’, for example: They wash the white wool so that it may become even whiter Tvr. The way you speak, you are clever; when you don’t speak, you are even cleverer Ėr. When I sowed, I was happy; when I weeded, I was happier still StnD 14. The machine would roar even more wildly Balt PV 128. Blown by the wind, white turns red; spoken of by the people, it is redder still JD 234. Without an emphatic word, adjectives of the comparative degree with subject meaning are much more abundant and widespread in Lithuanian literary language, indicating a greater quantity of a property through relative comparison. The points of comparison of a thing’s property may be expressed in various ways. Very often they are expressed by temporal adjuncts or temporal subordinate clauses, for example: Yesterday the horses were fatter: we grazed them in the bushes Trgn. Those who knew him said that he was more cheerful when he was young Krėv DŠP 110. He recovered after his illness too—soon ruddy-cheeked, more handsome Ėr. A heavier load uphill Rz. When he drank, he soon grew plumper; when he ate his fill, my chestnut little horse was soon faster (d.) Šynč. Comparative points of degree of a property also often emerge from sentences that indicate not only temporal relations but conditional ones as well. The quantity of the property of the designated thing will increase after a certain condition has been fulfilled—or, if it is fulfilled—for example: Pour ashes into the lye, and it will be more caustic Lš. Press it down (squeeze it) a little lower, and the bun will be prettier Vlk. Cut off the end of the pole, and it will be shorter DgĮ. Comparative-degree adjectives with subject meaning are almost never used with comparative words, although such expressions are possible in general; compare: Today the road is worse than yesterday Skp. For Morta, such a life seemed ordinary and understandable, far more interesting than those months when her husband spent entire days and nights on the lake, while she strained her eyes waiting for the boats to appear at the bend in the lake, by the forest Vencl R III 207. § 10. The subject and object meanings of comparative adjectives are closely related. The only difference between them is that in one case a greater degree of a thing’s property is expressed by contrasting its property with that of another thing (the object meaning), while in the other case it is expressed by contrasting its property with another state of the same thing (the subject meaning). Transitional cases occur; compare the sentence: Fermented honey is tastier Užp. Here one may understand that two different kinds of honey are being compared; one may also think that the same thing is being compared under different cir-cumstances. 3. Non-comparative degree — elative meaning § 11. With adjectives of the comparative degree, this meaning denotes a greater quantity of a thing’s property in relation to the things of that kind as they usually are. Since the second object or point of comparison is not specified— 54 it cannot, therefore, involve a definite comparison of things either. Thus, adjectives of the comparative degree with this meaning largely lose the characteristic feature of the category of degree proper—the comparative element between things. For this reason, we call their meaning elative. § 12. Adjectives of the comparative degree with an elative meaning may have an indefinite distinguishing function, e.g.: A more perceptive observer would have discerned certain servant-like features in Steponas’s appearance Myk-Put S 106. And for a long time in the evening she dreamed and thought about the lad, about his hard lot. She felt deeply for his poverty-stricken situation... And [...] one afternoon, without her father’s knowledge, she quietly sent him food more savory and drink sweeter from her father’s table... Krėv DŠP 54. We must learn from better, not worse, examples Leninas R XIII 398. The Venta began to swell, and the water had already flooded all the lower-lying places Vks. When it is desired to emphasize the distinguished thing and indicate it as known, a pronominal ending is often added to such a comparative adjective, or it is replaced altogether by the non-comparative pronominal form. In literary language, such emphasis on a thing distinguished by the comparative degree, and, more generally, the replacement of a comparative-degree form by a pronominal form, is possible when the distinguishing property is antonymic in meaning—that is, when the thing possessing this property can be contrasted with another thing possessing the opposite property. For example, the adjectives in the third and fourth sentences can readily be replaced by pronominal forms, namely: We must learn from the good, not the bad, examples. The water had already flooded all the lower-lying places. A pronominal comparative-degree form of this kind is possible in a sentence such as: Not only the nearer neighbors, but also people from neighboring villages, would turn to old Daubara for all sorts of advice Myk-Put S 207. Comparative adjectives with the pronominal particle kur have an even more pronounced distinguishing elative meaning, e.g.: Leave some longer straws for weaving the basket Alv. Jonas plowed the fields, choosing some drier rises in the open ground Balt PV 56. § 13. Adjectives in the comparative degree with an elative meaning can also indicate, without any comparison, a greater amount of a property relative to other things or other states of the same thing. In these cases, what is actually expressed is, in general, an amount of the property that is not quite complete, e.g.: If the threads are deliberately left raised, the cloth will show the pattern more clearly Sts. Even at a more advanced age, a healthy person looks good Gs. When the barn is more spacious, it is better; there is more storage space Nmn. Often during haymaking the water flows quietly through the meadows, but if a heavier rainstorm happens to break, the Venta soon rises Žem R I 91. Only the peasant can win the uprising. [...] And the nobility will not only fail to achieve any political aim, but will be so destroyed that it will scarcely be able to play a more important role in Lithuania’s political life Myk-Put S 486. Cut the rye closer to the ground, so that the stubble will be lower Prng. 55 Formally, the adjectives in the comparative degree with an elative meaning in this case approach the function of adjectives of the type gerókas, -a, apygeris, -ė, which also denote, in general, an amount of a property that is not quite complete. In some contexts, the meanings of these forms coincide; compare: And Staklys began visiting Morta whenever he happened to have more free time at the mill Vencl R III 212. Now the time is somewhat late; I am driving the cattle into the enclosure Skp. In these sentences, the comparative-degree adjectives and those with the prefix apy- can be interchanged without any great difference in meaning. Nevertheless, the amount of the property expressed by adjectives with the prefix apy- or the suffix -okas, -a is more attenuated; when comparative-degree adjectives with an elative meaning denote an indefinite, not quite complete amount of a property, a stronger relation to other things or to other states of the same thing is felt. § 14. As the examples show, the elative meaning has developed from the comparative meanings of the comparative degree. We have more instances involving the comparative meaning of the object. All the examples in § 12 of the comparative degree with an elative meaning show a direct relation to the comparative meaning of the object: an indefinite greater amount of a thing’s property is expressed relative to other things of that kind as they generally are. In the examples in § 13, a relation can be discerned both to the comparative meaning of the subject and to that of the object; that is, in this case, adjectives in the comparative degree with an elative meaning denote, in general, an amount of a property that is not quite complete, relative both to other indefinite things of the same kind and to other indefinite states of the same thing. Transitional cases can be found between the elative and both comparative meanings, e.g.: A sturdier horse is stronger for work (compared with a less sturdy horse, or in general?) Svn. Whoever had the entire homestead on one side of the street, that is, a wider one (compared with other homesteads in the village, or in general?), built the dwelling house and granaries on both sides of the yard Vaižg DD 36. “Bury the slaughtering refuse, Petrelis,” [Gorys] said, “you’ll be stronger” (than you are now, or in general?) Žem R I 185. Adjectives in the comparative degree with an elative meaning differ from adjectives with comparative meanings in their syntactic functions. Adjectives in the comparative degree with object and subject meanings characteristically function as the nominal part of the predicate. Adjectives in the comparative degree with an elative (non-comparative) meaning generally serve as modifiers. The change in syntactic function may well have brought about the weakening of the comparative component in comparative-degree adjectives and, at the same time, the development of the elative meaning from the comparative meanings of the comparative degree. § 15. It should be noted that an adjective in the comparative degree with an elative meaning, when used with the non-comparative form of the same adjective, acquires a meaning close to the superlative, indicating a very large amount of an indefinite property. Such constructions are characteristic of the Samogitian dialect; they were especially abundant in nineteenth-century Samogitian writings, e.g.: Later, those who remained on that hill or dug a deep, deeper, rectangular pit there put in a timber or stone lining Dauk B 195. Here she opened her chests and little chests, filled with pies of every sort, more and more delicious, and with fragrant liver or pâté 56 fragrant with herbs, [...] old beer, older beer, strong beer, stronger beer Dauk B 54. They boil a thick, thicker leaf broth, but the family does not eat it Šts. Comparison of two properties expressed by adjectives in the comparative degree § 16. Comparative adjectives are also used to compare two properties of the same thing, or of things that are related in a particular respect. Both properties are expressed by comparative forms and depend on one another. These comparative adjectives are usually used with correlative conjunctions or emphatic particles, e.g.: The more the large factories and plants develop, the more frequent, stronger, and more persistent workers’ strikes become; thus, the greater the oppression of capitalism, the more significant the workers’ collective retaliation Leninas R II 87. The smaller the seed, the juicier it is Ds. The more voracious the animal, the fatter it is PnmP. The harder the work, the sweeter the sleep Jrb. The denser the tree’s growth, the better it is for construction, because such pines are always straight-grained Pd. That child of ours—the bigger he gets, the sillier he gets Jrb. This use of comparative adjectives combines two comparisons with comparative adjectives bearing an elative meaning. For example, in the sentence: The harder the work, the sweeter the sleep, in fact the difficulty of the work is compared not with sweet sleep, but with other kinds of work in general. Comparative adjectives expanded by certain words § 17. Comparative adjectives are used with adverbs, pronouns, and adverbial and pronominal particles. Some pronouns and emphatic adverbial and pronominal particles that occur with comparative adjectives are characteristic only of particular degrees of comparison and help distinguish and identify them. As mentioned earlier, the particle dar helps identify the emphatic meaning relating to the subject. This particle also intensifies and thereby indicates the emphatic meaning relating to the object, e.g.: Šarūnas was brave, but Šviedrys was even braver; Šarūnas’s sword was sharp, but Šviedrys’s was even sharper; Šarūnas’s horse was swift, but Šviedrys’s was even swifter Krėv DŠP 51. Thus, the particle dar marks an emphatic comparison of things. A comparative adjective used with emphatic particles that reduce the extent of a thing’s property generally has a relative comparative meaning concerning the object, e.g.: He is not much older than I am Jrb. The women’s clothing was only somewhat more varied Dauk B 39. With pronouns that do not specify the referent or the property, comparative adjectives have an elative meaning, e.g.: 57 During such days of waiting for spring warmth, the burdened peasants of Bagynai began visiting one another in the other villages as well, especially if some unusually noteworthy news from more distant places reached their homes Myk-Put S 159—160. That evening the conversation proceeded haltingly; no particularly interesting topic was touched upon Myk-Put S 323. You can’t just give him anything; it always has to be something purer (sour cream, butter) Sml. Indicators of the comparative degree’s subject-related meaning include the adverbial phrase kas kartas (‘each time’), the adverbial emphatic particle vis (‘ever’), for example: It seemed there wasn’t a cloud in the sky, yet rain came from nowhere: at first a light drizzle, gradually, each time heavier, it began to pour in earnest Žem R I 202. Meanwhile, the weather was clearing. The clouds moved northward with ever larger breaks in them Myk-Put S 212. Comparative adjectives without comparative meaning § 18. Some comparative adjectives have an altered meaning in present-day literary language—they no longer indicate a greater degree of a property, for example: paskesnis,-ė ‘following’, vėlesnis ‘coming later’. This adjective has no positive form, which made it harder for it to retain its degree meaning. The comparative adjective tolėsnis, -ė ‘following further on’ has likewise lost its degree meaning in literary language. The strength of the Soviet people is directed toward the further improvement of the well-being of working people tsp. A new altered meaning without a nuance of degree is also found in words used figuratively, for example: mažesnis, -ė ‘yielding’. — Well, she can’t do that. Kafrė had suffered enough and wanted to be more yielding Žem R I 83. There are few comparative adjectives of this kind, which have lost their degree meaning, in present-day literary language. § 19. Periphrastic (analytic) comparative forms made from the positive form with comparative adverbs are, in general, rarely used in present-day Lithuanian literary language. Adjectives that tend not to be graded occur more often in such forms. These forms are also used in expressions with the negative particle ne, for example: He could not have come any dirtier [the child] Skp. My black-haired one is fleet-footed, but the maiden’s eyes are no less bright Šint. The elative degree § 20. The elative degree of adjectives is formed with the compound suffix -ėlesnis,-ė. The formant -ėl- is used in diminutive adjectives, while -esn- is the comparative suffix. Thus, by their formation, elative forms are diminutive comparative adjectives. In meaning, the elative is likewise not a fundamentally new degree. It indicates a somewhat, slightly greater degree of a thing’s property relative to another compared thing, other things as they usually are, and another state of the same thing. Thus, the elative differs from the comparative only in the lesser degree of the property denoted; it does not differ at all 58 ways of defining the properties of things, and for this reason it can be regarded as the first, lesser step of the comparative degree. Like adjectives in the comparative degree, adjectives in the higher comparative degree have three principal meanings: comparative meaning relating to an object, comparative meaning relating to a subject, and elative meaning. Adjectives in the higher comparative degree with an object-related meaning usually express a greater property of an object through comparison of a relative nature, e.g.: Geniulis was a little shorter than the director Dov DĮN 165. Jonas was a little older than me Jabl R I 207. I myself was nothing, and a little shorter [than my husband], so it wouldn’t be fitting for my husband Ds. Examples of the subject-related comparative meaning: If he had been through thick and thin, he would at least have been a little wiser Jabl R I 319. When I took the medicine, I soon felt a little better Rgv. Examples of the elative meaning: Take some of the thinner firewood; it will catch fire more quickly Ds. The meaning of adjectives in the higher comparative degree does not change when they are modified by the word “a little”; cf.: His wife is a little shorter than he is Ds. Today my patient is already a little better Ob. Adjectives in the higher comparative degree are very common in the East Aukštaitian dialects. They must have entered the literary language from these dialects. The superlative § 21. Superlative adjectives indicate that the things they designate possess the greatest degree of a quality compared with all other things. In contemporary standard Lithuanian, two meanings of the superlative can be distinguished: the comparative meaning of the object and the non-comparative—elative—meaning. 1. The comparative meaning of the object § 22. Superlative adjectives with the comparative meaning of the object indicate that, among the things in a certain group, one thing possesses the greatest degree of a quality. By showing the greatest degree of a thing’s quality, the superlative with this meaning places the designated thing first, thereby distinguishing it from all the things being compared or merely held in mind. Superlative adjectives with the comparative meaning of the object are used with phrases containing the prepositions už, iš, tarp and the pronoun visas, -a, with the genitive of exclusion, with the pronouns katras and kuris and the pronominal adverb kur; they are also used without any words of distinction, e.g.: Stašys, who was the most suspicious of them, sensed a threat in Dimšelė’s words Myk-Put S 72. Eglė is the happiest of all the daughters-in-law; she does not shed bitter tears in torrents Ner P I 269. Raibukė is the most broody of all [the hens] Gs. But among all the famous men of that family, among all those who sat in the high castle of Merkinė, the most famous was the old nobleman Mykis Krėv DŠP 24. There, where the swift Merkys, flowing through green meadows, alder groves and bushy slopes, carries its pure wa- 59 ter downstream to the broad Nemunėlis, there stands a high and steep hill, the highest of all hills, and on that hill (stands a castle, famous Merkinė, the strongest of all castles Krėv DŠP 22. — All right, I will spare him revenge, — Saulys replied, — but his people killed the man who was dearest to me Krėv DŠP 125. Where the worst job is, which nobody wants to do, everyone pushes that little drudge toward it Žem R II 374. Whoever is the youngest is the most convenient for everyone—that is my lad (d.) Jrb. Daubaras was indeed a good neighbor. The most industrious and wisest in the whole village Myk-Put S 406. The master of the house took his finest carriage out of the shed, with iron axles and a sprung seat Balt PV 72. Here she is, my land! To me she is the most beautiful. She raised me and comforted me Miež ML 10. The eldest dances merrily out of the waves, the second dances too and hurries to dress. Only Eglė, the youngest, is still in the water: she washes her white face, splashing like a fish Nėr P I 256. 2. The non-comparative—elative—meaning § 23. Superlative adjectives with an elative meaning indicate an intensified, very great, indefinite degree of a thing’s quality. In this case, the comparative aspect can be said to disappear altogether; this meaning also lacks an element of distinction. In this way, superlative adjectives of this type also partly fall outside the boundaries of the category of degree. In function, they come close to diminutive forms with subjective meaning, though, of course, they lack an affectionate nuance, e.g.: And all kinds of specters, like spirits from hell, ran about in the shapes of the most dreadful creatures imaginable, frightening them from every side, howling as wolves, squealing as snakes, barking as dogs Bil R 108. Sonny, I see, you’re turning out to be the very best sort of man; you’ll love your wife and won’t kick me in my old age, and we’ll love you too… endlessly Žem R I 126. It was indescribably beautiful. There was not the tiniest white cloud in the sky Bil R 69. — And how they’d beat you, oh, how they’d beat you! — the grandfather went on, remembering the past, as he nodded his gray head. — For the slightest little thing, blood would flow in torrents Bil R 72. Come tomorrow around cockcrow; I’ll prepare a whole cartload of the finest material, dried hard as horn Žem R I 173. Even the fiercest winter fears spring Rk. When superlative adjectives with an elative meaning express an inherent quality of a thing, they can readily be replaced by definite forms with the corresponding meaning, e.g.: How they howled like whirlwinds, how they roared like a storm, how they thundered like three peals of thunder—as they raced and swept over the highest mountains (=the high mountains), through the darkest forests (=the dark forests), across level fields and broad meadows, like a whirlwind flew the voice: “In thirteen years I’ll remind you of everything!” Krėv DŠP 72. My dearest father (=dear father), what have I done to offend you so that you have thrust me into such a hell?! Žem R I 88. During those loveliest (=lovely) summer days, all the little birds hatch their young BM 431. Run, run, our rivers, into the deepest seas (=the deep seas)! And let our songs ring out across the widest lands (=the wide lands)! Mair R 60 I 124. — My dearest little sister (= darling), did you cook anything today? I’m damn hungry LzP I 97. § 24. In the present literary language, superlative adjectives expressing the subject meaning are rarely used. Only in memorable cases can we say: Today he is the best. Superlative adjectives expanded by other words § 25. Superlative adjectives are often expanded by demonstrative pronouns and their fixed case forms, which have become emphatic particles, as well as by the genitive plural of the positive form of the same adjective. With superlative adjectives expressing an object-oriented comparative meaning, pronouns and their case forms are more commonly used in the present literary language: of all8, oneself, how. Less often, the genitive plural of the positive form or the particle above all occurs. These pronouns and their case forms intensify the superlative degree of adjectives; therefore, when used with these words, it is called the “of all” superlative, for example: He is the best pupil of all Jabl R I 206. And their songs, like those of little warblers, are the most melodious of all Krev LD 165. I pick my way through the stubble as cautiously as possible, like a goose among stones; I tread heel-first, place my foot sideways, toes clenched tight, and always set it down so that the sharpest stubble pierces the sore web between my toes Balt PV 113. Most excellent, most beautiful—this is your little horse JV 198. And this third, the youngest of the young women, opened the gate and saw them off BsO 211. The dearest time is spring Ds. In the dialects, superlative adjectives are further expanded with the particle pervis, and are also used with the emphatic particle per, for example: The very laziest fellow is the Pramėnės lad Kiš. For the clever brothers he gave the best horses, but for the fool—the worst of the worst (ps.) Prng. Superlative adjectives with an elative meaning cannot be expanded by the words oneself, of all, above all, pervis, because these indicate a comparative element. Adjectives of this type may be used with the emphatic particle how and with the genitive plural of the positive form of the same adjective, for example: I wish you the very best of fortune Up. Grow, flax, as tall as can be, bear blossoms as beautiful as can be NS 45. Kazimieras has all sorts of little books; in them are songs—beautiful beyond compare Žem R I 31. § 26. Descriptive (analytic) superlative forms formed from the genitive plural of the pronoun “oneself” and the pronoun “all” of all and a pronominal adjective in contemporary Lithuanian lite- 8 In the Samogitian dialect, the singular instrumental form visu is used instead of visų: Later, sheep were the most useful animals to them, providing not only clothing but also food Dauk B 31. 61 are not very well established in the literary language. In terms of meaning, they are close to combinations of superlative adjectives with the same pronouns9, cf.: And the very best and longest logs are sold to them for large sums of money to build ships Balč HP 203—204. Here are all our poor little rye stalks Jabl R I 213. Lithuanian also has combinations formed from repeated case forms of the positive degree, from the positive degree and diminutive forms, and from adverbial forms. They express an abstractly very great degree of a thing’s quality, without any comparison with other things, e.g.: And surely the day will come when the cannons can no longer be heard. And the world will have had enough of bloody shame. I see the future with a baby in my arms, with bright, bright eyes and a smile of joy Ner P I 113—114. Green little berries Er. The soles are really, really good Pc. The loaf was green as green Grž. Because of their positive-degree meaning, constructions of a similar kind no longer belong to the category of degree. § 27. In contemporary standard Lithuanian, the category of degree is still fairly robust. Characteristically, our suffixal degree forms—both comparative and superlative—are not generally replaced by periphrastic (analytic) comparative forms. In Lithuanian, the category of degree is being deformed from within: the comparative element in the degree forms themselves is weakening, while non-comparative (elative) meanings are coming closer to the meanings of other forms and constructions. § 28. Not all adjectives form degrees. As noted at the outset, only qualitative adjectives can differ in certain degrees of a quality. Adjectives with a relative meaning do not form degrees; for example, in standard Lithuanian, derived ia-stem formations have no degrees: medinis, -ė, pernykštis,-ė, baltakartis,-ė, and so on. An exception is formed by derivatives with the compound suffix -utinis,-ė; their superlative is used, e.g.: The bourgeoisie resorts to the most extreme measures in an attempt to halt the inexorable course of history and postpone its inevitable doom tsp. Not all qualitative adjectives have degrees either. This depends on the meaning of the adjective and on context. For example, some adjectives expressing a position or state cannot be graded: kniūbsčias, -ia, stačias, -ia, gulūs (medis), trakni (šiaudai), gyvas, -á ‘not dead’, išvirkščias, -ia, basas, -à, baluotas, -a, kailinėtas, -a ‘wearing fur clothing’, pėsčias, -ia, baužas, -à, bergždžias, -ia, versinga, nėščia, dvynas, -à, etc. Adjectives with figurative meanings that indicate the state of a thing cannot have degrees, e.g.: juodas, -à meaning ‘unsown’: Juodas pūdymas Skp; juodas, -à meaning ‘not whitened, not dressed’: Juodus grybus (without sour cream) valgiau Šts; apvalūs, -i meaning ‘whole, entire’: Užkaisk apvalių ropių (uncut) Klp. Adjectives with figurative meanings close to certain pronouns likewise have no degree forms, e.g.: apvalūs, -i meaning ‘whole, entire’: Kailinius išdėvėjau 9 For more details, see A. Valeckienė, The Use of Pronominal Adjectives in Contemporary Lithuanian. — “Literatūra ir kalba”, 2, 228—229, Vilnius, 1957. 62 after one year Krkl. Some adjectives denoting color, usually referring to the coat color of animals, are not inflected for degree, e.g.: laukas, širmas (horse), šėmas, žālas (bull), as well as drýžas (fabric), although forms of these adjectives expressing degree do occur in songs. Qualitative adjectives derived from nouns are not always inflected for degree. For example, degrees are not possible for adjectives with the suffix -iškas, -a that denote, like adjectives in -inis, -ė, a type of thing: mėsiškas (eating), pieniška (soup), vyriški (shirt), miliškas (weaving), etc. Nor are such denominal adjectives readily graded when they mean that something is present over the entire surface of an object, e.g.: miltuotas, -a, pūvinas, -a. Abbreviations Alv — Alovė, Daugai district Balč AŽ — J. Verne, Around the World in Eighty Days, translated by J. Balčikonis, Kaunas, 1947. (Skaitmens indicates page numbers). Balč HP — V. Haufas, Pasakos, vertė J. Balčikonis, Vilnius, 1956. (Skaitmens rodo puslapius). Balt PV — J. Baltušis, Parduotos vasaros, Vilnius, 1958. (Skaitmens rodo puslapius). Baran AŠ — A. Baranauskas, Anykščių šilelis, Vilnius, 1949. (Skaitmens rodo puslapius). Bil R — J. Biliūnas, Raštai, Kaunas, 1947. (Skaitmens rodo puslapius). BM — Lithuanian Dialects, collected by A. Baranowski, Volume I: Texts from the Weber estate, edited by F. Specht, Leipzig, 1920. (Skaitmens indicates page numbers). BsO — Ožkabal(ių) dainos, Surinko J. Basanavičius, Shenandoah, Pa. 1902. Du tomai. (Skaitmens rodo dainos numerį). d. — song Dauk B — The Customs of the Ancient Lithuanians and Samogitians, written according to ancient manuscripts by Jokyb's Łaukys, Petropilie, 1845. (Skaitmens indicates page numbers). Dglš — Daugėliškis, Ignalina district Dov DIN — J. Dovydaitis, Dideli įvykiai Naujamiestyje, Vilnius, 1953. (Skaitmens rodo puslapius). Dr — Darbėnai, Kretinga district Ds — Dusetos Ėr — Ėriškiai, Ramygala district gr. — Ancient Greek Grz — Gruzdžiai, Šiauliai district Grž — Grūžiai, Joniškėlis district Gs — Geistarai (Didvyžiai), Vilkaviškis district ide. — Indo-European languages Ign — Ignalina Jabl R I — J. Jablonskis, Rinktiniai raštai, I, Vilnius, 1957. (Skaitmens rodo puslapius). JD — Lithuanian songs recorded by Antanas Juškėvičė, 3 volumes, Kazan, 1880, 1881, 1882. (The number indicates the song number). Jnšk — Joniškėlis Jrb — Jurbarkas 63 JV — Lithuanian wedding songs recorded by Antanas Juškevičė and published by Jónas Juškevičė, Petropylė, 1883. (The number indicates the song number). Jž — Jūžintai, Dusetos district Klp — Klaipėda Kp — Kupiškis Krėv DSP — V. Krėvė, Dainavos šalies senų žmonių padavimai, Vilnius, 1957. (Skaitmens rodo puslapius). Krėv LD — V. Krėvė-Mickevičius, Dainavos krašto liaudies dainos, Kaunas, 1924. (Skaitmens rodo puslapius). Krkl — Karklėnai, Varniai district Krš — Kuršėnai Krt — Kartena, Kretinga district Krtv — Kurtuvėnai, Šiauliai district Leninas R — Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870—1924), translations of his writings. (The number indicates the volumes and pages of the 1950—1955 edition). Lp — Leipalingis, Veisiejai district Lš — Liškiava, Veisiejai district LzP I — Lazdynų Pelėda, Raštai, I, Vilnius, 1954. (Skaitmens rodo puslapius). Mair R I — Maironis, Rinktiniai raštai, I, Vilnius, 1956. (Skaitmens rodo puslapius). Miež ML — E. Mieželaitis, Mano lakštingala, Vilnius, 1956. (Skaitmens rodo puslapius). Myk-Put S — V. Mykolaitis-Putinas, Sukilėliai, Vilnius, 1957. (Skaitmens rodo puslapius). Nėr P I — Salomėja Nėris, Poetry, I, edited by A. Venclova, introduction and notes, Kaunas, 1946. (The number indicates the pages). Nj — Naujamiesčio, Panevėžys district Nmn — Nemunaitis, Alytus district NS — Lithuanian Songs and Hymns in Northeastern Lithuania, collected by A. R. Niemi and A. Sabaliauskas, Annales Akademiae scientiarum Fennicae, Ser. B. Tom VI (1911). (The numeral indicates the song number). Ob — Obeliai Pc — Pociūnėliai, Šeduva district Pd — Padubysys, Kelmė district Pln — Plungė Plt — Plateliai, Salantai district PnmP — Panemunis, Pandėlys district Prng — Paringys, Ignalina district ps. — fairy tale Rdm — Rudamina, Lazdijai district Rgv — Raguva, Troškūnai district Rk — Rokiškis Rod — Ródūnė, Byelorussian SSR, Grodno region Rz — Rozalimas, Pakruojis district Skp — Skapiškis, Pandėlys district Skr — Skišnemunė, Jurbarkas district skr. — Sanskrit Slnt — Salantai Sml — Smilgiai, Šeduva district Srv — Surviliškis, Dotnuva district StnD — Songs of the Samogitians, collected and published by Simonas Stanevičius, scholar of literature and belles-lettres, in Vilnius, at B. Neumann’s printing house, in 1829. (The numeral indicates the song number). Svm — Suvainiškis, Pandėlys district Šts — Šatės, Skuodas district Švnč — Švenčionys and Švenčionėliai 64 Trgn — Taurėgnai, Utena District. tsp. — Soviet press Tvl — Tverėčius, Ignalina District. TŽ — Tauta ir Žodis. Publication of the Faculty of Humanities, books I—VII, Kaunas, 1923—1931. (The numerals indicate books and pages). Up — Upyna, Skaudvilė District. Upt — Upytė, Panevėžys District. Ut — Utena Užp — Užpaliai, Dusetos District. Vaižg DD — Vaižgantas, Dėdės ir dėdienės, Kaunas, 1945. (Skaitmens rodo puslapius). Vdk — Viduklė, Raseiniai District. Vencl R III — A. Venclova, Raštai, III, Vilnius, 1955. (Skaitmens rodo puslapius). Vkš — Viekšniai, Akmenė District. Vlk — Valkininkai, Eišiškės District. Žem R — Žemaitė, Collected Works, six volumes, Vilnius, 1956—1957. (The numerals indicate volumes and pages). DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES IN MODERN LITHUANIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE AND THEIR MEANINGS А. А. ВАЛЯЦКЕНЕ A b s t r a c t In modern Lithuanian literary language, two independent degrees of comparison can be distinguished: the comparative and the superlative. Both degrees of comparison are synthetic forms, formed with the aid of special suffixes. Analytic forms of degrees of comparison occur relatively rarely in modern Lithuanian literary language. There are no sharp boundaries between the meanings of the comparative and superlative degrees: in certain cases, the comparative degree can acquire the meaning of the superlative degree. The comparative degree expresses: 1) a comparison of one object with another or with others that have similar qualities, 2) a comparison of the same object under different circumstances, 3) comparison without a specific reference point (elative meaning). Comparison of concrete objects or of the same object under different circumstances is twofold in nature: in the comparative form, an adjective may name a feature to a greater extent than the full extent of that feature (emphatic comparison); it may also show only the difference between the degree of a feature in two abstract objects or in the same object under different circumstances (relative comparison). An adjective in the superlative form can express both the highest degree of a quality compared with other objects of this 5. Kalbotyros klausimai, IV 65 kind and an absolutely high degree of quality. In modern Lithuanian literary language, the superlative degree rarely indicates the highest degree of quality when comparing the same object under different circumstances. Non-relative, i.e. elative, meanings of both the comparative and superlative degrees developed from meanings that have a relational character. They have already partly moved beyond the category of degrees of comparison and are semantically close to forms of subjective evaluation, and sometimes even to pronominal forms of adjectives. Nevertheless, elative meanings cannot replace the forms mentioned above or fully cover them; only certain instances of their use coincide. The relative meanings of forms of degrees of comparison differ from elative meanings in their syntactic functions: for the former, the function of the nominal part of the predicate is more characteristic, whereas elative meanings most often express an attribute. On the basis of the meanings of degrees of comparison, we consider the defining feature of the category of comparison to be a comparative or relative element in the expression of degree of quality. The comparative degree of an adjective occurs in sentences with the preposition už and the conjunctions kaip, nekaip, negu, nei. The highest degree of quality is expressed by combinations of the prepositions iš, už, tarp and the pronoun visas, -ą, as well as by the genitive case without a preposition, the pronouns kuris, -i, katras, -a, and the adverb kur. Elative meanings of the comparative and superlative degrees have no markers of comparison in the sentence. In modern Lithuanian literary language, relational adjectives do not form degrees of comparison; certain qualitative adjectives also lack forms of degrees of comparison, in particular the figurative meanings of individual adjectives.