Prielinksnio „į“ reikšmės ir vartojimas dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje

LIETUVIŲ KALBOS MORFOLOGINĖ SANDARA IR JOS RAIDA LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA THE MEANINGS AND USE OF THE PREPOSITION į IN MODERN LITHUANIAN E. VALIULYTĖ The preposition į is one of the most frequently used and semantically richest prepositions in Lithuanian. In the standard language, it is used with the accusative case. As is well known, dialects have numerous variants of the preposition į1. The most widespread variant is in. It is used chiefly in the southern and, in part, eastern Aukštaitian and Dzūkian dialects (Klvr, Lzd, Smn, Prn, An, Ut, Kp, Drsk, Eis, etc.)2. Alongside in, the variants int (An, Ds, Šn, Kš, Grl, Všk, etc.), ing (Lp, Arm, Kč, Pš, Rd, Nm, Klvr, etc.), ingi (Dv, Arm, Asv, etc.), ink (Mrc, Kpč, etc.), and inš (Dv, Tvr, etc.) are also used. As can be seen, all these variants are historically related to in3. The variant in (as well as int, ing, ingi, ink) is used in some dialects alongside į with the same meaning4. In other dialects, in (also int, inš) entirely replaces the preposition į. In the latter case, the variants in, int, inš may also be used with the genitive case and enter the domain of use of the preposition ant5. In the northern part of Eastern Aukštaitia and somewhat farther south, the preposition ant and its variant an are similarly used with the accusative instead of the standard-language preposition į6. 1 И. Эндзелинъ, Латышские предлоги, I, Юрьевъ, 1905, p. 87—89; E. Fraenkel, Syntax der litauische Postpositionen und Präpositionen, Heidelberg, 1929, p. 36—39; J. Jablonskis, Rinktiniai raštai, I, Vilnius, 1957, p. 146—147, 348, 651, 669; P. Būtėnas, Lietuvių kalbos prielinksnių mokslas, Kaunas, 1930, p. 84. 2 Here and below, the dialect areas are indicated according to the dialectological atlas card index held by the Institute of the Lithuanian Language and Literature (hereafter DAK). 3 In individual dialects, the preposition į and its variants are pronounced in other ways as well. This will not be discussed here. 4 See J. Senkus, Use of Prepositions and Their More Important Meanings in the Kapsai and Zanavykai Dialects, “LTSR MA Darbai”, series A, 1(8), Vilnius, 1960, p. 134. 5 The variant in functioning as the prepositions į and ant has been recorded in the following localities: Ut, An, Ig, Kvr, Ukm, Rš, Ker, etc. See DAK. 6 This usage has been observed in Brž, Ps, Pnd, Rk, Kp, Pn, Rm, Ds, Ukm, Švnč, Ker, etc. See DAK. 7. Lietuvių kalbos morfologinė sandara ir jos raida 97 I. THE MEANINGS AND USE OF THE PREPOSITION į IN LITERARY LITHUANIAN The meanings of the preposition į, like those of other prepositions, usually become clear in prepositional phrases, in which the preposition expresses the relationship between what is conveyed by the phrase’s head and dependent constituents. Accordingly, the preposition į will also be examined with regard to the semantics of the constituents of the prepositional phrase. In literary Lithuanian, the preposition į expresses: 1) spatial relations (drive to the city, put into a pocket, turn right, knock on the door); 2) relations of purpose (leave for war, summon to a meeting); 3) relations of transformation (scatter into the water, tear into pieces, elect as chairperson); 4) temporal relations (arrive in the morning, fall ill in spring); 5) relations of comparison (like one’s father). 1. Spatial meanings The preposition į marks spatial relations in phrases whose head is usually a verb of motion, while the dependent constituent is a noun (or another word used in its place) denoting a particular place (or phenomena perceived as a place). The spatial relations expressed by the preposition į are not uniform. 1) Direction inward The preposition į indicates that the movement denoted by the head of the phrase is directed into the interior of what is denoted by the dependent constituent. This is the primary meaning of the preposition į7. a) The preposition į most clearly expresses direction inward in phrases whose dependent constituent is a noun denoting a place or a specific container; in such cases, the head is a verb denoting movement or actions that prompt movement, as well as verbs indicating a change of position in space. They had even agreed to go to Canada as soon as we earned enough money, but nothing came of it. CvR II 308. And Raul set off for Riga. BilR I 35. The mounted farmhand, recently sent to the town, returned with drinks he had bought. CvR V 44. Cold and beautiful, he sails calmly out to sea and wants to know nothing. BilR I 133. Young people, those grown older, and even the elderly make their way along Mykoliukas’s path to the same marshland. VaizgRR I 41. Tired but calm, some head to the barn, others to the granary... Myklūną, near Karkluos. CvR II 299. I returned home by side streets to my little room, but that day neither Chekhov nor Nadson interested me any longer. VienIMA 61. The gentleman, weeping, summoned the commission into the palace. CvR V 42. Roželė led her grandmother into the side room. LzPR I 130. Irena, having put the cigarette butt into a tiny ashtray, 7 See E. Fraenkel, cited work, pp. 40—44; P. Būtenas, cited work, pp. 84—85. 98 took Elena’s hand in his strong hand. VencIGD 151. He led you a little lamb, white as foam—along the road to the carriage; the carriage sways. SNėr R I 408. He loaded the finds into little wagons. CvR II 313. With great pleasure I set about pouring them into bottles. CvR II 274. Having laid the sick woman in a wagon strewn with manure, he took her home. VienIMA 14. He led them many miles, then seated them on a train, and no one knew how many days they had been travelling. CvR II 339. You need only string it onto the warp, know how to tread the treadles, and watch the weft threads. Myk-PutS I 59. Mounting his horse, putting his foot in the stirrup, I shot the little dove. KlpD 102. The preposition į with the same meaning may also be used in word combinations whose dependent member is an abstract noun denoting something that can be conceived of as a kind of indefinite place. Some prepositional combinations of this type tend to become fixed. And a person will never return to the yoke. SNėrR I 483. Why should you get involved? They’ll take you off to hard labor. CvR V 40. Yes, he took her, brought her into misery, into worry, and humiliated her... LzPR I 88. He boasted... of the army being massacred and driven into captivity. VencIGD 114. He cannot ruin his brother’s life, release the children from poverty into real hunger. VaižgRR I 56. I liked that in the faces of those sitting in the hall I could see such strength, such determination, with which people go to their deaths and to victory. VencIGD 248. She awoke suddenly, as if falling into sleep, found the child with her eyes, then her husband. CvR V 29. Is there any reason for me to put my own head in danger? VencIGD 108. Having come to his senses, Kaziukas suffered because of such name-calling, but over time he got used to it and answered when called. CvR V 84. In word combinations where the dependent member is a noun denoting a place or objects that can be conceived of as a surface, the preposition į becomes semantically close to ant8. And when one climbed up the hill, another would soon come along. VienIMA 266. Having climbed the hill in groups of five or six, the soldiers dispersed. CvR II 121. On Sundays all four Kairiūčios would come to Piliakalnis... VienIMA 267. He remembers how she ran up the stairs, rushed into his studio without even greeting him... VencIGD 117. The waves still carry pieces of that manor, splinters and fragments, to the seashore, where people collect them. KrėvAP 57. Lead the bay horse to the fallow field, toss the golden ring into the little ore pit. KlpD 84. And no one from Užuožeriai went out onto the highway, or even looked at it from afar. VienIMA 105. Vaitas, unable to keep his seat in the saddle, fell headlong into the ploughed field. Myk-PutS I 80. (Jurgelis) Ieva, lie down in the meadow... SruogR III 52. Andrius’s mother and Elena began carrying things to the table. VencIGD 505. Exhausted, Bagdonas fell into bed and immediately fell asleep. LzPR I 103. Don’t sit down, don’t sit down, wedding guests, on the rock. JV 749. Cf.: I’ll go up the hill, up that little hill where my parents are buried. Rm. On those highlands, on those grey mountain peaks, neither man climbs up, nor beasts run up, nor birds fly up. KrėvP 247. On Christmas Eve you must sweep the room, gather up the rubbish, and climb up above. Pnd. At once they pulled one roe deer ashore and released it into the wild. T 1962 Nr. 47. Let the little horse loose on the fallow field. NS 1135. I went out onto the highway—already 8 E. Frenkelis identified one instance of the preposition į becoming semantically close to ant. See E. Frenkelis, cited work, p. 40. 7* 99 I won’t come back. Ut. For the third time the little horse stumbled on the green grass... KrėvP 38. He struck the sheaf against the table. Rsn. How he’ll fall onto the bed, grumbling... ŽemR I 12. He dropped the basket onto the bench. VencIGD 48. b) The meaning of direction into something is also clear when the dependent member of the word combination is a noun denoting a mass or substance (sometimes acquiring this meaning in context); in such cases, the main member is usually a verb denoting penetration, sinking, or the like. The plough would not yield to the ploughman: here it sank too deep into the earth, there it slid along the surface. CvR II 137. He himself did not feel his sharp nails sinking into the girl’s hands... LzPR I 119. Beyond the hill, in the spruce grove, they buried weaving beams, yarn, iron objects, grain, and clothes in the ground. CvR II 122. The shards of the bottle lodged in the fence, and I escaped being hit by a hair’s breadth. VienIMa 201. Over time, the house foundations sank ever deeper into the earth, while the ceiling drew ever closer to the floor. CvR II 280. Sink your nails into the bare chest. SNėrR I 233. Stick the needle into the ball of yarn. Ėr. Stab the mare with that knife and you’ll slaughter her at once. Btg. After the verbs kibti, kabintis, the preposition į has a very faint meaning of direction inward, and in this use it becomes semantically close to the preposition už. Tarutienė saw how their Naras bit the policeman’s horse on the legs... CvR V 216. Stepukas tied a skate to his right foot and a push-off blade to his left so it would grip the ice better, then set off. CvR II 207. Thus encouraged by their guardian, the quick and cheerful peasants of Palienė now set to work. LzPR II 93. The little child clings to its mother’s apron. Kps. He still clung to life, unwilling to lose his connection with it. VencIGD 15. Cf.: When drowning, one will even clutch at a razor. SInt. Don’t grab hold of the iron nettle—or you’ll burn your fingers. Vvr. Today the cold is nipping (someone) by the ears. C. c) Finally, the preposition į also has the meaning discussed in word combinations whose dependent member is a noun denoting flexible, pliable objects, while the main members are verbs meaning surrounding, covering, or the like (wrap the cheese in paper cf. put the cheese on the paper). The shepherds found a dead child in the graves, wrapped in rags and buried. ŽemR III 144. He tied them up in a bundle of canvas and hid them deep where no one would find them. CvR II 325. And she wraps me in a veil of snowflakes. SNėrR I 150. The women of Vanagai village, especially the younger ones, if they had to walk to town, now wrapped themselves in shawls, hid their faces, and stooped... CvR II 226. Monika wrapped her even more tightly in a thick woollen shawl. CvR V 187. The preposition į’s meaning of direction inward can, in all its uses, be reinforced and emphasized by the related verbal prefix į-9. A guest dressed in black entered the yard. LzPR I 112. Toward evening we entered the forest. CvR II 358. Having entered the little granary, 9See J. Paulauskas, Functions of verb prefixes in contemporary Lithuanian literary language, “Literature and Language,” vol. 3, Vilnius, 1958, p. 345. 100 still would not let [him] into the cottage. VaižgRR I 122. A man carrying papers climbed into the sleigh so that everyone could see and hear him. Myk-PutS I 12. Kindhearted Ulijona put some cherries into a little plate... CvR V 30. Put an apple or something into your pocket. Kps. She was only waiting for her husband to go inside. CvR II 383. Leaning with all his weight on his stick, his head drawn deep into the padded collar, Prakapas walked on, distressed and downcast. CvR II 52. He suffered and suffered—he got stuck somewhere in a bog... CvR II 310. With the tusks of her several ploughs she immediately furrowed into the soil... CvR II 414. The enemy has fastened itself like a tick onto the body of the homeland. SNerR I 298. He was not there; only a pitchfork stuck out, thrust into the hay. CvR V 106. When Rymeikait heard it, something seemed to stab her in the heart... LzPR II 54. Mother got a splinter into her palm... CvR II 144. As if I were the living, sentient support of an old bridge, driven deep into the riverbed... CvR II 394. Elena held on, firmly clutching her brother’s sleeve of a broad brown jacket. VenclGD 119. She took out the ringlet wrapped in pinkish paper. CvR V 80. Often his mother would give him eggs in a kerchief... CvR II 135. Father snatched the cap from the thief, wrapped himself more warmly in his fur coat, and crunched through the snow to the day barn... VienIMA 67. At Juras’s instruction, mother clenched the large [item] in the patient’s hand, but the sign did not change. CvR V 174. People hurried along the streets with their collars turned up, wrapped tightly in their coats. T 1962 No. 37. 2) Meaning of direction toward one side. The preposition į indicates that the action expressed by the head word of the phrase takes place in the direction specified by the dependent word. According to the dependent word, several uses of the preposition į can be distinguished in this meaning. a) The preposition į most clearly expresses direction toward one side in phrases whose dependent word is a more general noun denoting certain spatial landmarks. From the manor, a road lined with tall, densely branched crops runs to the right. Myk-PutS I 54. We gaze farther to the left—the canvas of white sand. SNėr I 279. It is close to noon; the sun is moving southward. KrèvAP 72. A long shadow stretched westward and dimmed only the reddened mountain range. VienIMA 198. The western glow has already moved far north. Myk-PutS I 36. Thread by thread, the pattern grew and advanced forward. Myk-PutS I 60. Once again, a bright flame leapt upward. LzPR I 118. From a large, dark mass of trees, a white turret of the manor shoots upward... Myk-PutS I 54. The serfs’ hearts begin to beat faster, their eyes look more boldly into the distance. Myk-PutS I 47. He would run aside. CvR V 142. The storm turns sideways with mountains of clouds. SNėrR I 256. b) The meaning of direction toward something is also clear in phrases whose dependent word denotes people, or less often things, which are likewise perceived as certain spatial landmarks. 101 He turned around and began running toward the enemy. Lk. They stretched out their hands toward the tank men as if toward their rescuers. VencIGD 186. Severja, having no friends with her this time, walked straight toward the one playing the accordion. VajžgRR I 60. She walked straight toward me, leaning on her cane and groaning. BilR I 219. I had only shown affection, we had only begun to talk—and they hurled spiteful words at us. GirRP 32. The farmhands saw that the soldier, moving faster and faster, almost at a run, set off toward them. CvR V 13. Pulling one after another toward him by the sleeves, the old man begged them to say who this fellow talking here was and what had happened. CvR V 46. The little flower of hope stretched toward the sun; the autumn frosts did not nip it. SNėr R I 318. And the birches stretched their arms toward the sky to greet the returning cranes and swans. SNėrR I 176. The guest praises Vaiya, admires her, devours her with his eyes, while she edges ever closer to the door... KrėvAP 48. The wild apple and pear trees, as if snow-laden, bend toward the ground. SNėrR I 235. They began running toward that voice. LzPR I 116. Take the calf across the bridge and tie it up. Pc. The meaning of direction toward something may be emphasized by the noun pusė, “side, direction,” which is always used with a agreeing or non-agreeing genitive modifier. That modifier states or indicates the place toward which the action is directed. In this way, the preposition į can express movement in the direction of any place or object. Two men waited by the windows, talking, then strode off, tall as if on stilts, toward the fire. CvR V 202. For several years a group of friends had been pushing toward Vilnius. MiežBP 13. He swore and went in the direction of his brother Jonas. VienR V 99. We turned in the direction from which the cry had come. Gl. We too are going in the same direction. Vlk. It should be noted that the preposition į is used with the meaning under discussion also after verbs (and, less often, adjectives) denoting a state or position10. Beyond the Višinskūnas estate, toward the alder grove, groups of men and women stood black in the fields. CvR V 45. Only green branches jut upward like arms. KrėvAP 83. Lying in bed, with his face toward the wall, he raised himself... CvR II 107. One slept toward the head end, the other toward the foot end. CvR V 117. It is warmer to the south, colder to the north. Here the potatoes are larger on the uphill side. Pc. Where are the windows facing the wind frosted over? Užv. The preposition į can have the same meaning after nouns denoting concrete objects. A new sitting room was added to the old house, with blue windows overlooking the broad expanse of fields. CvR II 327. — In my cozy room with a balcony facing the northern mountains, fourteen volumes of Chekhov’s writings lay on the table... VienIMMA 59. As can be seen from the examples given, this meaning of the preposition į is very close to its basic meaning: both indicate approach, but the meaning under discussion has already 10 See E. Fraenkel, cited work, p. 50. 102 does not mean ‘interior’. Therefore, in such cases, verbs with the prefix į- are not used as the main component of prepositional phrases. 3) Direction toward an object touched by an action. The use of the preposition į in the meaning under discussion is more restricted by the lexical meaning of the main component of the phrase. The verbs used are those denoting contact—striking or pushing away. In such cases, the dependent component consists of nouns denoting concrete objects. At midnight someone again began pounding hard on the door of our vestibule. VienIMA 78. The little chair, on which her hands kept rising and falling, thudded softly against the floor. CvR II 240. The heads of the battered and overripe biruli berries knocked against the window like an unfamiliar, lost traveler... CvR V 179. The roaring waves only crash and splash against the sandy shore of the dunes. GirRP 108. Rapolas, hungry too, had nothing to say in reply, so he merely drummed his fingers on the table. VaižgRR I 48. The calf could surely have banged its leg against the wall and injured itself... CvR II 204. Vincukas wept for joy and kissed his father on the hand. SRagR IV 7. He leaned his head against the shaft of the cross. LzPR II 11. They were surrounded by the enemy, pressed against the cold river... SNėrR I 382. He continued along the border; ahead, he found himself once more against the cold masonry. ŽemR III 154. — One or two small-flowered blossoms bounced off his helmet. CvR II 401. At last, his whole body struck against a hard object, and he fell to the ground. BilR I 111. Blažys was sprawled on his back and hit the back of his head against the bench so hard that spittle even flew from his mouth... VienIMA 86. The river’s broad, cold waters lap against rows of dark logs. CvR II 99. After verbs that generally mean striking (or receiving a blow), the preposition į is entirely synonymous with the preposition per. But I managed, just in time, to hit him hard in the head with my fist—and he let go. CvR II 80. A little pot-bellied soldier with crooked legs ran up to the wall and struck him in the ear. CvR II 123. If I hit you in the ear, you’ll turn red at once! Skr. He struck the wolf on the skull with his horns. PP 28. The thunderbolt struck the house and set it on fire. Ds. When I smack you in the snout, you’ll be quiet. Jrb. Frits, fending off flies, lashed Mikutis in the face with his tail. CvR II 137. Strimas was beaten—in the face, in the chest, in the back. VencIGD 160. He strolled through the park of his palace, occasionally swishing a reed against the pilot’s boot. Myk-PutS I 83. He struck the water three times and ordered the dragon, as he had the first time, to appear (ps.). Tt. The stone rolled down from the tree with a crash and hit the old man on the head. Rk. You might get a smack in the snout. CvR II 310. Cf.: Stonslovas struck him across his broad belly with a large brick, while Laurinaitukė whacked him on the head with a hefty poker and collapsed in the doorway at the threshold. LzPR II 112. The captain hit the table with his fist so hard that the whole room shook. BalčHP 30. Before I could recover, he knocked me to the ground, pinned me down, and began thrashing me across the shoulders, waist, and legs, then across the shoulders again—until I was completely dazed. CvR II 119. He struck him across the ear so hard that he even toppled over. Dgl. I hit him across the face so hard that he was left all dewy-eyed. Trgn. Pulling the ruler from his clutches, she struck Jonelis across the back of the head and threw it into the chest. ŽemR III 224. Give him a good whack across the shoul- 11 Cf. P. Būtenas, op. cit., pp. 85—86. 103 nus, so that he would remember for a long time. Užv. She beat with ropes and switches, kicked with her boots, threshed the chaff from the flax further, again rubbing her hands raw and slapping her thighs with her palms... BaltPV I 35. Then the prince came closer to the lake and struck the water crosswise with a stick. Tt. The stone hit the cow on the horns. Ktk. He got a smack on the ear for his curiosity. Brž. Cases of the preposition į following certain verbs that express a reaction or response are also associated with the meaning “direction toward an object touched by an action” (cf.: to bump into a tree and to answer a question). The parishioners answered the monk’s words with groaning. CvR V 196. None of the men responded to Antanas Puodžiūnas’s final words. VienR V 106. All the workers looked angry and sullen, and answered Puodžiūnas’s reproaches without holding back. VienR V 62. The men laughed loudly at those words, but the stranger did not understand. Myk-PutS I 45. 2. The meaning of purpose relations The directional meaning of the preposition į readily shifts into a meaning of purpose12. (Cf.: to leave for a city and to leave for war). In the first phrase, the preposition together with the case indicates the place the agent must reach, while in the second it indicates what the agent will do after travelling a certain distance, and with what purpose or aim the agent set out (cf.: to leave for war and to leave to fight). The preposition į marks the purpose of an action in phrases whose dependent member is a noun denoting actions, processes, events, occasions, and the like. In such cases, the head is generally a verb denoting motion or an action that prompts motion. Doctor Priebulė is no longer here—he left for the war; the city is far away. SimonP 96. Wave after wave keeps rolling and rolling, as if calling the unbroken one to battle. Hey, sea, tell me: once fallen, can one still set out on a campaign?! GirRP 108. At daybreak the old man set off on a journey that was quite an undertaking at his age. CvR II 282. He came to such a cursed manor and asked for a night’s lodging. BsMt I 36. ...the father-in-law rode to the inspections. KrėvP 67. Both Liogė parents, father and mother, came to the little sister’s funeral... VienIMA 124. He softened so much that just before the distribution of Pamituvys he ordered the farmhands and landless peasants to be called to an important meeting. CvR V 42. There seemed to be a certain lightness in everyone’s faces, as if they had gathered for a May festival. CvR V 46. Even today Reišelis cannot forgive his wife for having lured her to the song festival last year. CvR II 372. People ran from the neighboring streets and the edges of the market, splashing mud, as though that drum had summoned them to some extraordinary celebration. Myk-PutS I 112. Later it became clear that this was merely a pretext for those two “friends” not to attend the literary evening. VienIMA 211. A couple of days before the performance, the actors gathered for the general rehear- 12E. Fraenkel, cited work, p. 48. 104 sal. CvR II 84. In late autumn, the Sarmantai sent Divonyzas to the third Seimas with high hopes. CvR V 140. For the first time, something happened at Sabalis’s sawmill: the workers did not go to work. VienR V 123. They do not send her to the corvée, because her mother demanded this from her father. Myk-PutS I 20. A shrewd lawyer of dubious reputation hurried to his aid... Myk-PutS I 86. 3. Meaning of change relations13 The preposition į can express relations of change involving things. In this sense, it is used in constructions whose head is a word denoting the alteration of one thing (or things), its transformation into another thing (or things), or a state; the dependent member consists of words denoting the result of the change. According to the main member of prepositional constructions, we distinguish several cases in which the preposition is used with the meaning under discussion. a) The preposition į has its clearest meaning of change relations in word combinations whose main member is a verb such as virsti, keistis ‘to turn into, to change’ and others.14 A little carelessness was enough, and the unfortunate ones slid down the steep mountain and turned into stones. BilR I 147. He reflected that they were still luckier than those whose unripe harvest had not only been threshed, but whose homes had also been turned to ashes. CvR V 111. Every year Jonas kept changing for the better. TilyU 129. While living with my parents, Antanukas even grew into a farmhand. VienMIA 146. From a shepherdess she became a girl, and from a girl she turned into a woman. CvR II 30. In vivid speech, the result of a change in things is often described metaphorically. This does not alter the meaning of the preposition į. He lies curled up into a hedgehog. Als. I felted the wool into bark. Varn. They did not take the loaf out of the oven, so it dried into a bone. Pc. For ages the German trampled that land and trod it firmly into a threshing floor. SNėrR I 371. His hands are frozen into little icicles. Šts. Alongside the prepositional construction, the instrumental case is also used in parallel after the verb virsti ‘to turn into’15. Once again they all turned into crosses and disappeared from sight. CvR V 201. He thought of turning into a little needle. Pšl. The son turned into a fly (in a fairy tale). Ck. b) The preposition į also expresses change relations when the main word in the construction is a verb denoting gathering, assembling, joining, and the like. All morning Jokūbas walked around the house, gathering the wood chips into piles... CvR II 408. Everyone was in the fields: 13 In linguistic literature, the term transgressive relations is used for the same purpose. See B. B. Виноградов, Русский язык, Москва, 1947, p. 688. For the sake of consistency, this term is replaced in the article with its Lithuanian equivalent. 14 E. Fraenkel, cited work, p. 47; P. Būtėnas, cited work, p. 87. 15 J. Jablonskis, cited work, p. 654; P. Būtėnas, ibid., p. 87. 105 Here they piled the hay into stacks, there into carts; a third, empty cart rattled along, raising clouds of dust. CvR V 105. She is still beautiful, and her hair is braided into plaits. CvR II 296. Then Mikas ordered all the robbers to strip bark from the birch and tie themselves together in one chain. Graž. The two Cossacks could not get the old woman’s hair untangled, for it was all matted into one huge knot. LzPR II 113. As he walked through the forest, he still pinched handfuls of seed pods, studying them in the moonlight, and kept squeezing them into a ball. LzPR II 103. They set guards on the roads and highways, occupied the district offices, and gathered into regiments to march on Kaunas. CvR V 240—241. c) The preposition į has the same meaning of a change in relations in word combinations whose head is a verb denoting division, splitting, disintegration, and the like. Therefore, in this case the dependent constituent is used only in the plural form16. They would have torn him beautifully into pieces if some stableman or lackey had not happened by. LzPR II 79. All the phantoms vanished, and the lamp that had been touched crumbled into an innumerable multitude of little lamps... BilR I 148. That cheese crumbled into bits. Pc. I picked up a bow and arrows from the ground, broke them into splinters, and threw them far across the field. BilR I 151. At the end of the village, where the road turns toward a nearby looming forest, branching into three barely traveled lanes, the officer halted the group. CvR II 220. The belt seemed about to split in two—it was because Gumelis was so thin. CvR II 172—173. Yet Saldiškės remained in people’s memory until Užuožeriai split up into individual farmsteads... VienIMA 178. d) The preposition į is also used to describe changes in a person’s social status. In such cases, the head of the word combination is a verb of appointment, election, recruitment, or another verb of similar meaning; the dependent constituent is a noun denoting a person by profession, occupation, position, and the like. When used for this purpose, these nouns are likewise expressed in the plural form17. How loyal a man he is—if only they would elect him village head... ŽemR III 26. Lis decided to go to the king and ask him to raise him to the rank of kings. Pn. They took him on as a woodcarver in the workshop. VienR V 119. The eldest was taken as a recruit, but, they say, he fled and settled somewhere in Žemaitija. Myk-PutS I 27. Then he began asking for Marelė as a sister and for everyone to come to the wedding. ŽemR III 36. She married off her little daughter. BsO 76. In return for seed and money, some promised the landlord help with construction and summer work in advance, while others agreed to give their daughters as maids and their sons as farmhands. CvR V 115. Soon, spitting as he spoke, he said that so many had come forward to become dogcatchers that there might not even be enough dogs in the whole city. CvR II 21. Those who were fit to be shepherds were once again scampering about free—there was no one to tend the flock. CvR 16 E. Fraenkel, min. veik., p. 47. 17 E. Fraenkel, min. veik., p. 41. 106 V 83. And having joined the ranks of the new settlers, happily gathered into one village, they did not disband their orchestra. CvR V 136. e) When the head of a word combination is one of the verbs mainyti ‘exchange’ or keisti ‘change’, the preposition į acquires a somewhat different shade of meaning in expressing change. Here the matter is no longer a single thing changing or passing into another state, but rather one thing being exchanged for another18. Grandfather, and later Father too, exchanged more than one serf for a dog. CvR V 130. No one would trade a cow for a goat. RŽ 89. After the verbs mentioned above, the instrumental case19 may also be used with the same meaning, and less often the accusative. They are used, however, when the exchange involves things of the same kind. Let’s swap hats—you’ll lose nothing. Ut. Give me your white little hand, and I’ll trade you gold rings. LB 40. I’ll put out my little hands; let’s exchange the rings. JV 462. 4. Meaning of temporal relations The preposition į also has a temporal meaning, which is similar to the meaning “direction toward something.” In its temporal meaning, the preposition į is used when it is necessary to indicate that the action expressed by the main constituent of the phrase takes place at a time close to the time expressed by the dependent constituent20. In such phrases, nouns denoting imprecisely defined periods of time may serve as the dependent constituent. By morning, a thought had stuck in my mind: how to find out from my father or mother where Onutė’s father was now and what he had written back to his wife. VienIMa 94. And indeed, by evening Lapinas had grown quite weak. KrėvAP 94. The day before yesterday, well, toward evening, while dancing and singing, suddenly— the police. CvR II 260. Of course, by spring the clover shrivels and crumbles, and the mice gnaw it up. VienR V 38. It was toward autumn. KrėvAP 174. He had once been accompanied and supported by his wife, but in old age she too sided with the children. CvR II 406. Toward the beginning of July, the crop surged up in dense waves of harvest, looming like a cloud. CvR V 102. Toward the end of his life, all his wisdom vanished. ŽemR III 56. The rye must be sown toward the end of the month. Sts. Only the Dalba-Dalbaitis son, a high-school student, grew quite bored toward the end... VendGD 106. 5. Meaning of comparison relations The preposition į is used with a comparative meaning when it is necessary to say that one thing resembles another, that is, has the characteristics of the other thing expressed by the dependent constituent of the phrase21. 18 E. Fraenkel, cited work, p. 47; P. Būtėnas, cited work, p. 86. 19 P. Būtėnas, cited work, p. 86–87. 20 E. Fraenkel, cited work, p. 52–53; P. Būtėnas, cited work, p. 85; J. Kruopas, Expression of temporal circumstances in Lithuanian. “Tarybinė mokykla,” 1953, No. 7, p. 24. 21 E. Fraenkel, cited work, p. 46; P. Būtėnas, cited work, p. 85. 107 The preposition į has a meaning of ‘resemblance’ in word combinations whose head is an adjective similar and, occasionally, a verb—to take after, to resemble, and the like. This time the lightning resembled a many-branched tree of fire. CvR V 105. Roželė resembled her mother; only she was fairer, since she had not yet seen so much hardship. LzPR I 117. In the mountains one could already make out glaciers,... the shadows of jagged peaks, which from afar looked like spots on the moon. VienIMA 195. And what did she take after to be so beautiful and lively in this family of slovenly, foolish women! Myk-PutS I 66. He took after his father in both appearance and character (he was born resembling his father). J. May you take after your father like that! Skr. What did the son-in-law take after to be such an ugly brute! J. He takes after his uncle. Mrk. He takes after his father. Plng. He takes after his uncles. Šts. One child takes after his father. Gs. At least one daughter took after her grandmother. Skp. Sometimes the adjective (or verb) mentioned above may be left unsaid, as if implied. The kittens are just like the cat. Kps. Exactly like his father—as if cut from the same cloth! Kt. All our chicks are like the rooster—white. Gs. My name is the same as my uncle’s (I have my uncle’s name). Šts. After the same adjective, the preposition į is also used in the word combination one like another. In this way, the mutual resemblance of like objects is expressed. They were not at all alike, either in character or in outward appearance. VienIMA 5. They were alike... CvR II 321. The preposition į is also used in fixed expressions consisting of the nominative and accusative forms of the same word. In such cases, the sameness of like objects in some respect is expressed. What beautiful, big peas—one grain just like another (they are all alike)! Pc. What beautiful firewood—one stick just like the next (not a bad stick among them)! Er. All three daughters are exactly alike (equal in size and beauty) of his. BsMt I 12. II. DIALECTAL USES OF THE PREPOSITION į In dialects, the preposition į—or, more precisely, its variants in, int, ing, ingi, inš, inč—are used differently from in the standard language. The use of the preposition į and its variants differs more markedly in the dialects of eastern Lithuania. There, first of all, some of the semantic functions of this preposition are performed by the internal illative case—the illative22. Second, the variants of the preposition į also have meanings different from those in the standard language23. 22 For the geographical distribution and meanings of this case, see A. Laigonaitė, Vietininkų reikšmė ir vartosena dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje, Vilnius, 1957, pp. 4, 35—53. 23 See J. Jablonskis, cited work, pp. 146, 348, 669; P. Būtėnas, cited work, pp. 87—88. 108 In dialects, the preposition į, its variants, and its substitute express relations characteristic of the standard language somewhat differently: 1) spatial (come to one’s father, cf. come to one’s father’s place; go into the forest, cf. go toward the forest; approach the cart, cf. approach the cart; tie to a tree, cf. tie to the tree; live in a town, cf. live in town; grow into the river, cf. grow in the river); 2) temporal (come on the third day, cf. come on the third day; cry out in the blink of an eye, cf. cry out in a blink; recover in four weeks, cf. recover within four weeks; eat twice in a day, cf. eat twice a day); 3) purpose (give a cow for meat, cf. give a cow for meat). It can also express quite different relations, for example, quantity (pay up to three hundred rubles, cf. pay about three hundred rubles; drink to the bottom, cf. drink until the bottom), separation (better than one’s brothers, cf. better among the brothers), and so on. 1. Meanings expressing spatial relations In dialects, in addition to the relations mentioned on pp. 98—104, the preposition į can also express several kinds of direction of action and even location. 1) Meanings expressing direction of movement. In dialects, the preposition į and its variants or substitute have several such directional meanings that correspond to the meanings of other prepositions in the standard language. a) The use of the preposition į and its variants with words denoting living beings is characteristic of the eastern Highland Lithuanian and Dzūkian dialects. In this case, the meaning of the preposition in question corresponds exactly to that of the preposition pas in the standard language. He is going to his uncle. Dkšt. I went to my brother to stay for a while. Ut. Go to your brothers. Vvr. Come to me. Trak. I don’t know the way to my mother-in-law. Mrk. I’ll go into the yard to my daughter. Tvr. Oats don’t go into the horse, but the horse goes into the oats. Ds. The matchmakers are already visiting Oniotė. Ds. One must go to the child. Dv. He went visiting to his sister’s. Kš. They sent a messenger to his dear father, to his own dear mother. Dv. The preposition į with the meaning described is also used in works of fiction by speakers of the aforementioned dialects (and occasionally by other writers). As soon as Dundulis realized that he would not see Vaiva or receive the sash from her until he rode over to her, as young men ride to visit a girl, he… KrėvAP 47. Grasping her in both hands, without even rolling up his trousers, he ran to his mother to share his joy. VaižgRR I 123. He brought only a small table, a few books, and a cow to our place—nothing more. BilR I 177. After those trials, Cecilija Kairiūčia became even better known, and people from other parishes also began coming to her to ask for advice. VienIMA 265. After running to Taručiai, the neighbor asked Jura several times to come over to their place in the evenings, sit with her husband, and smoke. CvR V 225. If need be, we’ll go to the minister. CvR V 129. He went straight across the field along the path to Stankus, for he was eager to tell his neighbor the good news. LzPR I 99. 109 J. Jablonskis recommended this use of the preposition į in the literary language, but it did not take hold24, b) In the Eastern Aukštaitian and Dzūkian dialects, variants of the preposition į also have the meaning of the literary-language preposition link. The machine rattled off in the direction of the forest (toward the forest, in the direction of the forest). Ut. He dashed off toward Ginučiai (in the direction of Ginučiai, toward Ginučiai). Dkšt. Perhaps [he] will reach the station (toward the station). An. Drive on to Kaunas — the land there is already different. Pbs. He raced off toward the forest. Al. In the literary language, in such cases of use, the preposition į has a quite different meaning—it denotes movement inward. In the dialects under discussion, however, the inward direction is expressed only by the illative case25. c) In those same dialects, variants of the preposition į may also have the meaning of the literary-language preposition prie. This colloquial meaning is most evident after verbs with the prefix pri-. The tractor comes up against a huge stone, gives it a thump, and keeps going straight ahead. Ktk. We came up to the bushes. Pbs. That person is welcome among us (good-natured, affable). Prng. The kittens are like little beasts—you can’t get near them. Ut. I tied the cow to an alder—it can turn around. Ktk. When I snuggled up against the feathers, I got all puffed up. Dglš. I nailed a barometer to the window in the attic. Ktk. The poor piglet—its skin has shrunk tight over its bones. Ut. The young man had not yet dismounted from his grey horse, had not yet drawn near to the blazing fire,... when Grandfather Gūžčius began to speak... KrėvAP 35. My sister embraced me and drew me close to her... BilR I 170. In those days Joniukas could not stay afloat; he would get down from the bench, press his little finger against the wet glass, and rub, rub... BilR I 157. She put her arms around his head and pressed him to her breast. BilR I 239. Whoever climbs that mountain and touches that light will make all people happy... BilR I 145. It is likewise uncontroversial when the preposition under consideration is used after verbs denoting contact. The lamp shines the paper into [his] fingers. Ktk. Don’t poke your dirty fingers into your eyes. Ut. Juozapota presses the baby to her happy breast and hurries, hurries. BilR I 228. Learn to sing beautifully, and they’ll stick to you like flies. KrėvAP 49. She took the child gently, womanly, speaking kind, pleasing words, and held him close with both arms, as large as winnowing fans... VaižgRR I 39. The aforementioned meaning of the preposition į is harder to pin down after other verbs of motion. Without broader context, it can sometimes be difficult to distinguish from the meaning of link. I’m going to the well (near the well). Eiš. He went to the well and is washing clothes. Ktk. They drive the cows to drink at the trough. Ut. He went toward 24 See J. Jablonskis, cited work, pp. 146, 349, 669. 25 For this, see A. Laigonaitė, cited work, p. 47. 110 the barn and chops firewood. Ktk. I had run to the car—it didn’t come. Ds. Come to the first little hillock. Ktk. Let me into the head (of the child). Ut. The child is climbing into the cart, onto the horse—watch out. Ktk. That one attacks him. Kvr. After wiping the little hands, grandmother covered the bread again with a towel and went to the oven. KrėvAP 126. The fox immediately lunged at the bucket, which stood filled with water on the little stool under the shelf, and looked around at it. KrėvAP 87. Razbonas cheerfully rushed at him in the yard. BiiR I 196. An elderly woman, dressed in white, was speaking kindly to someone, leaning toward her. BiiR I 242. Thus the women calmed the old man, while at that time they were pressing in on the men... KrėvAP 92. In the northern part of Eastern Lithuania and somewhat farther south, the preposition ant and its variant an, besides the genitive, is also used with the accusative and has the same spatial meanings as the aforementioned variants of the preposition į. a) Today we’ll go to Petronė for an evening visit. Kp. Are you going for the horses? Rk. Mother went to the war. Kvr. We’re going out for the horses. Rm. In the old days, they wouldn’t let the bride go. Rk. Go to mother. Pnd. I used to go to my aunt. Ob. I’m going for the sheep. Mlt. They took [him] to the doctor(s). Šr. We need to get ready for the horses. Svnč. She ran off to that king (in a folktale). Brž. b) He went to town. Slm. The two of them went to Zarasai. Krns. He went to Ukmergė—go on, you’ll catch up with us. Kvr. Give way here toward Vepriai, toward Siesikai—they speak differently there already. Ukm. The road goes toward Inturkė. Sug. I turned off again toward Purvėnai. Mlt. It began to rain while [we were] driving toward Dusetos. Dr. c) On a single attached iron axle Skp. Tie the horse to the wheels. Glv. They sewed a cradle on for you too, Trgn. The dog is tied to a stick. Svnč. Lean against me; it’ll be warmer. Kp. Don’t lean against the wall—you’ll get dirty. Mžš. I paid a litas and am carrying [it] on the wheels. Rk. He went out to the river. Ppl. Nowadays the women have stopped going out—not to the stream in spring, nor in autumn. Rz. He went out to the lake. Skp. It’s stifling—the ground is muggy. Svnč. 2) Locative meaning. In the speech of people in the Klaipėda region and some other places, the construction of the preposition į with the accusative is used with the meaning of the internal locative (inessive)26. The stork nests in the cottages. Prk. The man stands in the sea. Krg. The mole makes burrows in the ground. Krg. The hens sit in the fence corner. Plk. I’m growing such a lump on the back of my head. Plk. They catch cod in the sea with a fishing rod. Plk. Pike grow in rivers, but in shallow water they can’t survive. Plk. And the maiden stands in the little corner, wiping away her tears with a kerchief. KlpD 26. He lives in the city (in the city) . K. I helped mother get dressed in the cowshed. Pš. Beyond seas and oceans, in the green forest (in the green forest) the maiden gathers, the young bride gathers red berries. 26 See A. Laigonaitė, cited work, pp. 32–33; cf. E. Fraenkel, cited work, pp. 51–52. 111 TDr VII 64. In one hand (in one hand) he has a stick, in the other hand (in the other hand) he has a long staff. PP 29. It is thought that the establishment of the preposition į with the accusative in the inessive sense was caused by the influence of the German language27. 2. Meanings expressing temporal relations Among Samogitians, western and central Highlanders, and partly in the west of the western Dzūkians, the preposition į and its variants are very widely used to express various temporal relations, some of which are rendered in the literary language by the preposition per with the accusative, and others by the temporal accusative or instrumental. 1) The preposition į and its variants are used with the same meanings as the preposition per. Two cases of this usage may be distinguished. a) The preposition į and its variants with the accusative are used to indicate the duration of an action or the period of time in which an action takes place. In a week I eat the bread too. In one month we’ll harvest enough hay for one cow. Ktč. They pulled it out in a couple of days. Šlu. What got done in that short time? Pgg. They’ll get it done in two or three days. Šlu. The German took Poland in four weeks. Plik. It was supposed to be over in three weeks. Sg. That grass dries in a single night. Krg. Then they let the devil go, and he got home in a month. Tt. We haven’t planted potatoes here in ages. Snt. How much do you dig up in a day? Skd. The queen lays a thousand eggs a day. Yl. How much do you plow in a day? Mžk. Two or three glasses is better a day. Žg. He used to smoke ten packs of cigars a week. Rd. How much do you mow in a day? Rs. How much hay did they bring in in a day? Jrb. And I missed my grandmother for two, three little days. Rdm. We would grind a hundredweight in a couple of hours, if it was dried well. Alvt. The Šukliai collective farm brought such a heap together in two hours. Žal. Forty horses were stolen in our village in a month. Nm. Now she lays seventy eggs a day. Grl. It won’t rain during the fodder gathering. Plv. The wheels broke right in the middle of hauling the rye. Gs. They haul away two cartloads of manure a day. Pun. Ah, my sad little heart will ache all autumn long. JD 183. I’ll find that money in three days. BsP I 89. Then, brothers, in a couple of weeks, and it’s all done! LzPR II 35. b) The preposition į and its variants with the accusative are used to express a period of time during which an action is repeated a specified number of times. She gets beaten a few times a day. Pln. I’ll shear them twice a year, three kilograms each time. Rt. The weather changes several times a day. Užv. Gluodena once a year. Pp. A cow has to be milked three times a day, Klm. We get it three times a month. Kdn. When mother was still alive, then 27See A. Laigonaitė, same source, p. 33. 112 They would fly home several times a day. Rs. The saint sins seven times a day. Skr. Most importantly, he could celebrate two days a week. Lk. He did corvée labor three days a week. Nm. I used to work twenty hours a day. Šl. The medicine must be taken three times a day. Mrk. Simša gets up twice a day with his stumbling mare before the clay hill... CvR II 327. There was a lot of work, and it had to be done 14 hours a day. VienIMA 197. The preposition į is also used after the verbs earn, pay, receive, take, give, and others. Father earns twenty rubles a day. Jrb. How much do you earn a year? Kps. He earns many workdays a day. Skdv. They pay him seventy-five rubles a month in cash. Vnd. They paid three rubles an hour. Šll. I used to get nine litas a day. Žg. How much do they pay you a day? Al. He gets three hundred rubles a month. Mžk. How much did the shepherd get a year? Lnkv. How much did you take in a day? Dt. We used to give eighty kilograms a day. Rz. They used to give fifty a day. Rs. They offered sixty rubles a month. Pln. A person costs three rubles a day. Žg. It costs him thirty rubles a day. Slv. It should be noted that in these uses the meaning of the preposition į (like that of per) approaches the meaning of the preposition už. Compare: Does he pay a lot for a day? Sd. How much will you take for one day? Rk. How much do you get for a day? Ob. On the other hand, occasionally the preposition į is also used instead of the preposition už. They paid ten kopecks per workday. Slnt. A ruble per workday. Klk. I paid a ruble per measure. Šts. They will take potatoes in exchange for that money. Gs. I will settle that debt with milk. Šts. J. Jablonskis considered all such uses of the preposition į unacceptable in literary language and corrected them in two ways: in some instances he replaced them with the locative case, and in others—with a construction using the preposition per and the accusative28. In literary language, the preposition per with the accusative became more widely established. 2) The preposition į and its variants are used with a temporal meaning, sometimes in a way similar to the cases used in literary language. a) Like the accusative. My pickled cucumber is tastiest on the third day. Skr. At that moment he was right there. Vlkv. They are performing the operation on the fourth day. Kps. On which day will you be able to go? Grš. I got a job on the third day. Vlkv. The fox will bring it on the third day. Užv. On the fourth day that young man and that young woman took the witness- 28 J. Jablonskis, cited work, p. 671; II, Vilnius, 1959, pp. 38, 69, 74. 8. Lietuvių kalbos morfologinė sandara ir jos raida 113 … went to the priest. Tt. We bake on the third day. Pc. But on the third day the bandits attacked him, killed him, and stole the money. Auk. But then—in three days Stočkaus’s son-in-law, the one who stood by the weigher and the cashier, told us that the wages had been cut. CvR II 301. I no longer remember what happened to me afterward; I only got the damage back on the third day. CvR II 119. b) As an instrumental (less often, locative). He came back in that interval. VIkv. The messengers were there in the blink of an eye. Rmč. That was just in time. Šlu. My little horse will come back in its seventh year. Rdm. Hey, your little daughter will come back, will come back in her ninth year. JD 340. I am six years after Antanas (born six years later). Skr. He stumbled in that interval and fell. LzPR I 85. — Well, well, you got back just in time... ŽemR III 362. Only when Sakalauskas’s wife grew fat in the third year after a more comfortable life—she grew fat in an unbelievable way. CvR II 328. 3. Meaning of purpose relations In the dialects of western Lithuania, the preposition į is occasionally used to express purpose (intended-use) relations somewhat different from those in the literary language. Unlike in the literary language, this meaning of purpose relations has no connection whatsoever with the meaning of direction. In such cases, the prepositional construction indicates the thing to which something is assigned or for which it is used. I poured all the papers into pepper (I shredded them for wrapping pepper). Dr. I bought up the money for kerosene. Šts. The German will take the flour from the mills as a levy. Šts. I gave the cow over for meat to the soldiers. Šts. Today is a better day for drying. VIkv. They processed the hide into moccasins. Grž. They turned many trees into bricks. JablRR I 653. Also worth noting are cases in which the preposition į marks the same purpose relations as in the literary language, but is used in different circumstances—with nouns denoting concrete objects. The women go gathering brooms, gathering berries (to gather broom twigs, to pick berries). Šts. Once the rye has been cut, we’ll soon have to go to the wheat harvest. Skr. 4. Meaning of quantitative relations In Western Aukštaitian dialects (less often in others), the preposition į is also used to express quantitative relations. Two cases of this usage can be distinguished. 1) The preposition į is used with the same meaning as the standard-language preposition apie (‘about’). There gathered in the thousands (about a thousand, close to a thousand) people. JablRR I 653. I have up to four hundred workdays. Jrb. My sister had given me forty. VIkv. I paid three hundred rubles. Rmš. He is already around thirty years old. Gs. Sian- 114 day I came within five kilometers. Nm. I paid three hundred rubles. Rmš. He is neither old nor young—he must be about fifty. Alv. In Rudžiai village there have been such wide meadows since ancient times, about 300 margas in area. BsMt II 64. 2) The preposition į is used with the same meaning as the standard-language preposition iki (‘up to’). Her blond braid is plaited halfway. Mrk. And I haven’t ridden halfway along the road yet. JD 57. He drank half of it and left. KzR. Drink, my sister, drink, my guest, the whole glassful, right down to the bottom. JD 1328. The currant bushes have grown up to the top of the head. Skr. Svirmelis’s little doors are half open. LB 115. 5. Meaning of separative relations In certain dialects, the preposition į is used instead of the standard-language preposition iš to express separative relations. He is the better one among the brothers (of the brothers). J. Oh, clear, clear is this little summer compared with all summers. JD 569. That one is the surest of them all. Skr. ABBREVIATIONS29 BalčHP — V. Haufas, Tales, translated by J. Balčikonis, Vilnius, 1956 (Numbers indicate pages). BaltPV — J. Baltušis, Sold Summers, I, Vilnius, 1957 (Numbers indicate volumes and pages). BĮR — J. Biliūnas, Writings, I, Vilnius, 1954 (Numbers indicate volumes and pages). BsMt — J. Basanavičius, Lithuanian Tales, Materials for Lithuanian Mythology, Shenandoah, Pa. Part I, 1898, Part II, 1902 (Numbers indicate parts and pages). BsO — Ožkabalijų dainos, surinko J. Basanavičius, Shenandoah, Pa. 1902, du tomai (Skaitmens rodo dainos numerį). CvR — P. Cvirka, Writings, I, II, V, Vilnius, 1959 (Numbers indicate volumes and pages). GirRP — L. Gira, Rinktinė poezija, Kaunas, 1945. J — A. Juškevičius’s Lithuanian Dictionary with explanations of words in Russian and Polish, first issue, volume I, Saint Petersburg, 1904. JablRR — J. Jablonskis, Selected Writings, I, Vilnius, 1957 (Numbers indicate volumes and pages). JD — Lietuviškos dainos užrašytos par Antaną Juškevičę. Казань, I — 1880, II — 1881, III — 1882 (Skaitmens rodo dainos numerį). JV — Lithuanian Wedding Songs, recorded by Antanas Juškevičė and published by Jānas Juškevičė, Petropylė, 1883 (Numbers indicate song numbers). KlpD — Songs of the Klaipėda Region, collected by Jonas Pakalniškis, published by A. Bruožis, Vilnius, 1908 (Numbers indicate song numbers). KrèvAP — Vincas Krèvė, Stories and Legends, Vilnius, 1955 (Numbers indicate pages). KrèvP — Vincas Krèvė, Legends of the Old People of Dainava, Vilnius, 1957 (Numbers indicate pages). 29 Place names are abbreviated in the same way as in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language. 8* 115 LB — Lithuanian Folk Songs and Tales from Prussian and Russian Lithuania, collected by A. Leskien and K. Brugman, Strasbourg, 1882 (Figures indicate pages). LzPR — Lazdynų Pelėda, Writings, I, II, Vilnius, 1954 (Figures indicate volumes and pages). MiežBP — Eduardas Mieželaitis, Fraternal Poem, Vilnius, 1954 (Figures indicate pages). Myk-PutS — V. Mykolaitis-Putinas, The Rebels, I, Vilnius, 1957 (Figures indicate volumes and pages). NS — Lithuanian Songs and Hymns in Northeastern Lithuania. Collected by A. R. Niemi and A. Sabaliauskas, Annales Academiae scientiarum Fennicae, Ser. B., Volume VI, 1911 (Figures indicate song numbers). PP — Tales about Birds, Žemaitische Tierfabeln, Text, Wörterverzeichnis und Übersetzung herausgegeben von Hugo Scheu... und Alexander Kurschat..., Heidelberg, 1913 (Figures indicate pages). RŽ — Lithuanian Spelling Dictionary, Kaunas, 1948 (Figures indicate pages). SimonP — I. Simonait y tė, Pikčiurnienė, Vilnius, 1955 (Figures indicate pages). SNėrR — Salomėja Nėris, Writings, I, Vilnius, 1957 (Figures indicate volumes and pages). SruogR — B. Sruoga, Writings, III, Vilnius, 1957 (Figures indicate volumes and pages). ŠRagR — Šatrijos Ragana, Writings, IV, Kaunas, 1928 (Figures indicate volumes and pages). T — Tiesa, organ of the Central Committee of the Lithuanian Communist Party, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR, and the Council of Ministers (Figures indicate years and issue numbers). TDr — Folklore Studies, VII, Kaunas, 1940 (Figures indicate volumes and pages). TilvU — Teofilis Tilvytis, Usnynė, Vilnius, 1949 (Figures indicate pages). VaižgRR — Vaižgantas, Selected Writings, I, Vilnius, 1957 (Figures indicate volumes and pages). VenclGD — A. Venclova, Birthday, Vilnius, 1959 (Figures indicate pages). VienIMA — A. Vienuolis, From My Recollections, Vilnius, 1957 (Numerals indicate pages). VienR — A. Vienuolis, Writings, V, Vilnius, 1954 (Numerals indicate volumes and pages). ŽemR — Žemaitė, Writings, III, Vilnius, 1956 (Numerals indicate volumes and pages). MEANINGS AND USE OF THE PREPOSITION į IN CONTEMPORARY LITHUANIAN E. VALIULYTĖ Abstract The preposition į of the Lithuanian literary language has the following variants in dialects: įn, int, ing(i), ink, inš. The preposition ant, with its variant an, is also used with the meaning of the preposition į. In the Lithuanian literary language, the preposition į expresses various relations: spatial, purposive, transgressive, temporal, and comparative. 116 Within spatial relations, three meanings are distinguished: 1) the meaning of direction into something is revealed in phrases in which the dependent constituent is a word denoting a place or a specific object, while the main constituent is a word denoting movement, e.g.: bėgti į mišką — run into the forest, įkalti į sieną — drive into the wall, stūgnioti į popierių — wrap in paper; 2) the meaning of direction toward some side is revealed in phrases in which the dependent constituent is a word denoting a generalized spatial concept or some landmark in space, while the main constituent is a word denoting movement, e.g.: eiti į pietus — go south, pasukti į kairę — turn left, žingsniuoti į priešą — march toward the enemy, važiuoti į miško pusę — travel in the direction of the forest; 3) the meaning of direction toward an object as far as contact with it is revealed in phrases in which the main constituent is a word denoting a blow or contact, and the dependent constituent is a word denoting a specific object, e.g.: belsti į langą — knock on the window, šerti į galvą — strike on the head, atsimušti į sieną — bump into the wall. The preposition į expresses purposive relations in phrases in which the dependent constituent is a word denoting an action, event, or occasion, while the main constituent is a word denoting movement, e.g.: ateiti į susirinkimą — arrive at a meeting, pakviesti į koncertą — invite to a concert. Translative relations are expressed in phrases in which the main constituent is a word denoting some change of state, while the dependent constituent is a word denoting the result of that change, e.g.: sudraskyti į gabalus — tear into pieces, surinkti į krūvą — gather into a pile, išrinkti į pirmininkus — elect as chairperson. The preposition į expresses temporal relations in phrases in which the dependent constituent is a word naming a specific period of time, e.g., seasons or parts of the day: ateiti į vakarą — arrive toward evening, susirgti į rudenį — fall ill by autumn. The preposition į denotes comparative relations in phrases in which the main constituent is a word denoting likeness or similarity: panašus į tėvą — like his father. In some dialects, the preposition į and its variants express relations that differ from those in the literary language. This preposition is used to express spatial relations that are usually expressed in the literary language by the prepositions pas, e.g.: ateiti į tėvą — come to one’s father; by the preposition link, e.g.: eiti į mišką — go toward the forest; by the preposition prie, e.g.: prieiti į langą — come up to the window, glaustis į sieną — lean against the wall; or by the inessive, the local case, e.g.: gyventi į miestą — live in the city. The preposition į denoting time is used in dialects in the following cases: with the meaning of the literary-language preposition per, e.g.: padaryti į keturias savaites — do in four weeks, ateiti du kartus į dieną — come twice a day; with the meaning of the accusative and instrumental of time in the literary language, e.g.: ateiti į trečią dieną — come on the third day, pavāžiuoti į pat laiką — arrive on time. The preposition į is used to express purpose, e.g.: atidūoti karvę į mėsą — send a cow for meat. The preposition į is used with a quantitative meaning corresponding to the literary-language prepositions apie and iki, e.g.: sumokėti į tris šimtus rublių — pay about three hundred rubles, išgerti į dugną — drink to the bottom (of the glass). Occasionally, the preposition į is used to express partitive relations and corresponds to the literary-language preposition iš: geresis į brolius — the best of the brothers. 117