Lietuvių kalbos dalyvių atributyvinė‑predikatyvinė vartosena

LIETUVIŲ KALBOS MORFOLOGINĖ SANDARA IR JOS RAIDA LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA ATTRIBUTIVE-PREDICATIVE USE OF PARTICIPLES IN LITHUANIAN V. AMBRAZAS Of all living Indo-European languages, Lithuanian has best preserved the varied and complex system of participial meanings and usage types. This diversity of use is grounded in the dual morphological nature of participles, their intermediate position between verb and adjective, which in turn is the result of a development spanning entire millennia. Participles, originally nominal forms, were gradually incorporated in part into the system of verbal categories of tense, voice, and aspect. Thus, depending on syntactic function, position, stress, degree of expansion, and other circumstances, verbal features of participles are more prominent in some cases, while nominal features stand out in others. Because of the great variety of usage and the many transitional cases, it is difficult to define clearly the syntactic function of a participle in every sentence. However, taking into account syntactic relations with other words and the predominant meanings, the following main types of participial use can be distinguished: attributive, attributive-predicative, and predicative. The same morphological form of a participle, when used in different circumstances, may belong to different usage types. A t t r i b u t i v e p a r t i c i p l e s are associated with nouns and denote properties of things and phenomena arising from an action, e.g.: Hail is snow that has frozen, round like peas. Plv. The hilly slopes, overgrown with bushes, shimmered beautifully in lighter and darker shades of green. ŽemR I 132. A t t r i b u t i v e-p r e d i c a t i v e participles are associated both with nouns or pronouns and with verbs. They denote a secondary action in the sentence or a state resulting from that secondary action, e.g.: He got up, looked to see what kind of firewood was there, and lay down again. BsP IV 115. P r e d i c a t i v e participles function as the predicate in a sentence and are associated with nouns and pronouns serving as the subject. In expressing the main action of the sentence, some differ from the corresponding finite verb forms only in certain modal nuances and form the so-called indirect mood (modus relativus), e.g.: N e š ė s 47 the devil [carried] a stone as big as a turnip. BaranAS 20. Others are part of compound verb tenses. These types of participial use are not sharply differentiated. In many constructions, participles may have features of both types. Moreover, the usage types listed here are not equally characteristic of all participles. For example, the active participle of the past frequentative tense is almost always predicative only, whereas the passive participle of the future tense is attributive only. The present active participle has retained attributive-predicative use only in certain constructions. Because of differences in meaning and conditions of use, complex correlations have developed within the participial system, as well as between participles and other closely related verbal forms (e.g., half-participles); these have scarcely been studied. To date, particularly little attention has been paid to the attributive-predicative use of participles. Attributive-predicative use is complex and heterogeneous, and encompasses many different cases of participial usage. It includes first of all the so-called appositional participles, which denote a secondary action and are often linked by various adverbial relations to the finite verb forms functioning as the sentence predicate (e.g.: The wolf, having come upon them, scattered the sheep. Er). Attributive-predicative participles may also express the subject’s state at the time of the action denoted by the predicate and be even more closely attached to finite verb forms (e.g.: The master went aside, enraged. BaltPV I 99). In grammars to date, such participles are considered parts of a compound predicate. Also classified as attributive-predicative are participles denoting a secondary action in constructions with the accusative or genitive of a noun or pronoun (e.g.: [He] heard the little bee buzzing. JD II 1203), and so on. These participles can be grouped together on the basis of their dual syntactic relations and their meaning of a secondary action or a resulting state brought about by it. The aim of this article is to describe the attributive-predicative use of the nominative forms of Lithuanian participles. Other participial cases (besides the nominative) most often express a secondary action only in certain constructions with nouns or pronouns, especially after verbs denoting speech, perception, or a mental state (accusativus, genetivus cum participio). These constructions have specific features and constitute a subject for separate study. Also closely related to them are the very tight combinations of participial nominatives with reflexive verbs (nominativus cum participio), which will likewise not be discussed in this article. Without going into a detailed analysis of individual constructions, this article presents the main cases of attributive-predicative use of participial nominative forms and provides examples from contemporary literary language and colloquial folk speech. Data from old language monuments and dialects not characteristic of literary language are used primarily where attention is to be drawn to the relation between the contemporary system of participial meanings and the earlier system1. 1 Examples from nineteenth- and twentieth-century writings and dialects are presented according to the norms of contemporary literary language. The spelling and punctuation of examples taken from old writings are retained; only the “Gothic” letters are replaced with their corresponding Latin letters. 48 I § 1. In contemporary Lithuanian literary language, attributive-predicative usage is characteristic of nominative forms of active past frequentative participles, present passive participles, and past passive participles. Nominatives of attributive-predicative participles are often used to distinguish the main and secondary actions performed by the same agent in a sentence. The action that is to be foregrounded is expressed by a finite verb form, while the less emphasized action, related to the main action by temporal, causal, or other relations, is expressed by a participial nominative. For example: Kurmelis, having woken, rolled his pale eyes. ŽemR I 207. Julė Stočkaus, having crept closer, chirped sweetly. Gud-GuzKIT 264—265. Vilius, being mocked, was silent. SimonVK I 79. The plowed, cloddy earth crumbles. Tl. The frightened wolf does not return to the same place. Val (DŽ I 457). The released stone went bouncing across the roof. Rm. In these sentences, we clearly see the participants’ two-level syntactic relations. They are linked both to nouns functioning as subjects and to verbs functioning as predicates. Nominatives of attributive-predicative participles occupy an intermediate position between the corresponding attributive and predicative participle forms. The semantic relations between attributive-predicative participles and attributive participles are particularly evident. Even with active past frequentative participles, whose meanings are the most highly differentiated, attributive-predicative and attributive usage can be difficult to distinguish in a given context. When these participles are unexpanded and precede the word they modify, it is sometimes almost impossible, without intonation and a broader context, to say clearly whether they should be regarded as attributive or attributive-predicative. For example: The stopped bus rattles, while the horses back away and will not move, even if you beat them to death. An. The frightened gray colt ran to its mother. CvR II 61. Nevertheless, mature Darata felt that doing no harm to anyone was a small thing. VaižgR VII 41. The excited children no longer even want to sleep S (DŽ II 570). When the old folks gathered and got chattering, there was no shortage of jokes. Sss. The angry girl struck the calf with a flail so hard that it fell to pieces into coins. BsP II 201. Occasionally, active past frequentative participles also have such a less clearly differentiated meaning (alone or expanded by other words) when they follow the sentence subject. For example: Potatoes, not fully cooked, crunch when eaten. J I 478. The cheese, having become porous, has many little holes. Er. The ducks, starving, gobble up the feed quickly. J (DŽ I 87). A baby, once burned, will fear fire. B (DŽ I 665). He runs like a horse, even after being hit under the tail. Žvr. She rejoices like a hen after hatching ducklings. Mrk. Why are you crying like a woman who has lost a tooth? Vlk. The boundary is sometimes even harder to pin down between passive participles denoting a quality and those denoting a secondary action; in general, the latter have more nominal properties. Therefore, when denoting a secondary action, 4. Lietuvių kalbos morfologinė sandara ir jos raida 49 they very often also retain a certain shade of attributive meaning. Such passive participles can occur in a sentence both before and after the subject. E.g.: Uncared-for strawberries have gone wild. Alk. The little loaf weeps, eaten by the lazy. BaltPV I 265. It whines like a cat with its tail twisted. Als. The driven-off wolf returns to the forest. Šim (DŽ III 324). The wounded soldier did not have time even to cry out. LzP (DŽ I 31). He grumbles like a bear that has been beaten. Šim (DŽ I 566). A stone, launched from a sling, flies whistling. J (DŽ I 67). Although the boundary between attributive and attributive-predicative participles is sometimes indistinct, the essential difference between these types, based on the syntactic relations and meanings mentioned above, is indisputable. It is especially clear in sentences in which attributive and attributive-predicative participles of the same tense and voice occur side by side. E.g.: His pensive, deep eyes, suddenly becoming interested in something, would soon grow dim again. CvR III 257. Having lost its everyday, familiar sound, the valley fell silent, like an apparently deserted beehive. CvR III 44. § 2. When expressing a secondary action, attributive-predicative participles can sometimes play a role in the sentence similar to that of finite verb forms. Take, for example, the following sentence: And at that moment the old man, having pondered and thought it over, returned to the woodshed. KrėvR 93. Here the past-tense active participles could be replaced by past-tense verbs without distorting the meaning of the sentence (cf.: And at that moment the old man pondered, thought it over, and returned to the woodshed. Nevertheless, the function of the past-tense active participles and the verbs in these sentences is not the same. In the first sentence, the very juxtaposition of participles with verbs shows which action is considered primary and which actions are secondary, whereas in the second sentence all three actions are presented as equivalent. Present- and past-tense passive participles expressing a secondary action relate similarly to the corresponding compound passive-voice tense forms, e.g.: The merchant’s son, well cared for, grew up well and after a few years was already a clever child. LTR (Cf.: The merchant’s son was well cared for and grew up well...). The roads, pelted by rain, rumbled with carts, but held them as if in bowls, themselves not soaked through. VaižgRR I 277 (Cf.: The roads were pelted by rain and rumbled with carts...). Another stone, crushed, exploded, and sparks flew out. ŽemR I 145 (Cf.: Another stone was crushed and exploded...) The branch, cut down, grew back. Lp (Cf.: The branch was cut down and grew back). In these cases, attributive-predicative participles are also clearly distinguished from finite verb forms functioning as coordinated predicates by their meaning of secondary action. § 3. However, only a small proportion of attributive-predicative participles relate in this way to finite verb forms. In particular, the non- 50 passive participles can have verbal correlates only relatively rarely. This is primarily explained by the closeness of the attributive and attributive-predicative participles mentioned above, owing to which the latter sometimes also have a certain shade of attributive meaning. In addition, participles denoting a secondary action are often linked to the verbs serving as predicates by causal, conditional, manner, and other adverbial relations. Take, for example, the sentence The strangers, having stabbed the dog, left it in the corner by the benches and themselves went away, with their poles slung over their shoulders. SimonOBT 42. Here the first participle, denoting a secondary action, indicates only a certain temporal relation to the main action of the sentence, arising from the participle’s own tense meaning. The second participle, however (slung over their shoulders), together with its dependent words, also explains the manner of the main action2. As we can see, attributive-predicative participles are characterized by a certain syncretism of meaning: they often bear shades of attributive, predicative, and adverbial meaning3. Depending on various syntactic conditions (position, separation, sentence structure, etc.), sometimes one, sometimes another of their semantic properties comes more to the fore. In certain constructions (see §§ 26—27), they also approach predicative participles that form the indirect mood (modus relativus). In distinguishing attributive-predicative participles from the other two principal types of usage, we rely on the two most important criteria mentioned above: the duality of syntactic relations and the meaning of a secondary action or of a state resulting from it. II § 4. Attributive-predicative use is especially characteristic of past active participles, which are by far the most widely used participles in contemporary Lithuanian. It should be noted that past active participles denote a secondary action several times more often than they denote a property. The meaning of a secondary action may be regarded as the primary, predominant meaning of these participles. Past active participles formed from intransitive inchoative verbs are most often used attributively. By contrast, the secondary 2Because of the various circumstantial meanings that are not more firmly supported by formal features (see §§ 24—25), some attributive-predicative participles have, in Lithuanian grammars to date, been classified as adverbials; cf. J. Jablonskis, Rinktiniai raštai, I, Vilnius, 1957, p. 478 ff.; J. Žiugžda, Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, II, Sintaksė, Kaunas, 1961, p. 33 ff.; J. Balkevičius, Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos sintaksė, Vilnius, 1963, p. 205, 212, 223, 230 ff. The term “circumstantial attribute” (przydawka okolicznikowa) is also applied to participles denoting a secondary action; see T. Buch, Użycie participiów w utworach Ch. Donelaitisa, „Biuletyn Polskiego towarzystwa językoznawczego“, 21, Wrocław—Warszawa—Kraków, 148 ff., 157; the same work critically assesses the view of gerunds and participles as adverbials. 3Their links with attributive participles and their frequent circumstantial meanings make it difficult to regard participles denoting a secondary action as simply secondary predicates, as proposed by some representatives of the Russian grammatical school; cf. С. И. Груздева, Атрибутивные и предикативные функции причастия на -ęs в литовском языке в сравнении с русскими конструкциями, «Исследования по грамматике русского языка», I, Л., 1958, p. 242—245. 4* 51 participles denoting a secondary action, by contrast, tend to be formed from transitive or intransitive non-inchoative verbs. Such participles denote a secondary action that took place before the action expressed by the finite verb began, and are usually perfective. Having entered, the nobleman found the girl soundly asleep on the largest pile of yarn. CvR III 231. The billy goat, having gathered speed, [struck] his mother-in-law against the fence with its horned forehead. Db. Don’t despair, brother! When things go badly for you, I’ll come running and save you. CvR V 124. Romas untied the mill sails and, having gained momentum, set them turning. CvR V 89. The lark jumped up, fluttered about, fluttered about, and fell back to the ground. ŽemR I 407. Rukinas was the first to wake; having jumped up, he looked toward the window, threw a fur coat over his back, and ran out to the horses. ŽemR II 145. Go and stir him up; he’s sleeping in the little barn. Jnšk. Now the twelve brothers returned, while the young king stayed behind and went alone. BsMt II 89. The old man turned around and ran again. BsMt II 85. The dog went over, approached that princess, and laid its head on her knees. BsP I 7. A dog barked in the yard and, falling silent, lay down. Brt. Then Grigas too got up, came over, bowed, and kissed Žemaitukas’s hand. KrèvR 52. Don’t waste time at the market—once you’ve sold it, turn around and go. Svn. The ducks, having become tame, went into the shop. Svnč. Having plucked up courage, I went to one of the gates and knocked. BaltPV I 156. He came, sat for a while, and then vanished as if by magic. Gs. The little bird flew down, chirped a little, then took off with a flutter. Gs. I too jumped up and landed a couple of slaps. Gs. In the examples cited, unexpanded participles formed from intransitive verbs denote a completed prior action. Participles formed from transitive verbs most often occur with a noun or pronoun in the accusative. Unexpanded participles of transitive verbs are used with this meaning rather rarely. For example: No one brings him any more pretzels or sweets from the town after buying them. BilR I 158. The king lured them into the living room and left them locked in there. CvR V 34. Marcelle and I had some bread here; take a bite, and afterward you can help with the building. ŽemR I 150. When they have dependents, past active participles expressing a secondary action form detached participial constructions in the sentence. a) Expanded participles formed from transitive verbs: The master was so enraged by those words that, grabbing an axe, he hurled it with all his might at the farmhand. CvR V 31. The old woman shifted her gaze and looked around the cottage. ŽemR II 145. Janulis was frightened when, having walked around the orchard, he looked at the barns, stables, and threshing barn and saw nothing but bare walls and leaky roofs. VienR I 152. Janulis went to the window, sighed deeply and, drawing the fragrant orchard air into his unhealthy lungs, listened to the silence of the night. VienR I 148. Look, Enskys is already taking out a large knife and beginning to slice the boiled and roasted meats. DonR 129. Tušė promptly brought the tablecloths and, neatly, as was proper, laid them out on the large table. DonR 67. The fox, having caught the woman’s hen, ran to the ice-hole and 52 says. Švnč. Simukas, having scratched his shin, says. The old mare, having swum around the lake’s far shore a couple of times, climbed onto the bank and went to roll in the sand. CvR II 15. Having gathered the stones from the field, put them on the ant-hill. Rt. Once again, having looked over the fields, the woman went into the house. CvR III 105. b) Expanded participles formed from intransitive non-self-sufficient verbs: The young shepherd, having sat down beside the haystack, grew drowsy, and summer crops came to mind. Kp. One morning the children, having gathered at school, made a commotion among themselves. VencIR II 36. The farmhand, having stood up in the middle of the house, looked around and took off his hat. KrėvR 144. All the dignitaries, having gone out with the priests through the great opening in the settlement, greeted Gediminas. Dauk (DŽ I 110). I feared that Perkūnas, rising at once, would crush such enemies’ houses onto the highway. DonR 132. Brown ants, having climbed up his legs, crawled along his back. CvR II 78. Having gone out onto the highway, I met a group of pupils with their teacher at the head. VienR I 212. Having slipped behind the loom, I stood by the window. SimonOBT 83. Having set off rather early, I’ll go mushrooming. Alk. Having got home at twelve sharp, he bangs on the door. Šil. Having traveled only about a mile, he had to turn back. Jnšk. Much less often do past tense active participles formed from intransitive self-sufficient verbs convey the meaning of a secondary action. For example: The son, having grown angry, drove him out onto the ground. Er. The straw, having dried out, even begins to turn red. ŽemR I 212. That little child, having grown to eight years old, began to herd livestock. BM 257. Perkūnas, greatly angered, cut him in two with his sword. KlvD 334. Elena, red as a viburnum berry, not yet having looked at the tripod, darted out of the hut as if scalded with water. KrėvR 38. I would rather, having turned into a duck, swim over the little seas. JV 28. So it is hardly surprising that sometimes I cannot bring myself to pay the dear rent, and the master scolds me all over—or, terribly angry, strikes me over the ear. DonR 52. Thus, in their relation to transitivity and intransitivity and in their most general lexical meanings, past simple active participles denoting a secondary action differ markedly from attributive participles. § 5. A secondary action is most often denoted by prefixed past tense active participles. Unprefixed forms are used less often, and generally only those that can describe an action as a completed whole and have perfective aspect. For example: But even that is not enough; taking a large knife, he had already slit his throat and stretched out his hand. DonR 28. Where I went downhill, the ground was muddy; where uphill, it was dry; though take the marshy places and drain them, and water the hilly places. VaižgRR I 260. He immediately got up and spoke. ValVK 66. Having sat down beside the bed, the man spoke. ValPŽK 123. As usual, this time too the little blacksmith’s child, having managed to eat lunch, brought Mike a slice of bread spread with honey. CvR II 85. Having taken off the net and bought a boat, Bebenčiukas spent day after day fishing on the lake. CvR V 7. The cart, having jolted off the bank, broke apart, and the heads of the little boats began to tumble into the water. BsP III 105. Pretending nothing had happened, I went to the neighbor. Kv. 53 However, in certain cases, non-prefixed past active participles of the simple aspect can describe a secondary action as a process that lasted for some time in the past. Non-prefixed participles of verbs of motion and some other verbs have this meaning, characteristic of the imperfective forms, relatively rarely. E.g.: Not having waited for the eldest sister to return, the second sister went to look for Bebenčiukas. She came upon an apple tree as she was walking. CvR V 11. After traveling for three days, the hedgehog reached the estate of the second master. CvR V 72. After traveling for an hour, they saw a man gnawing on a birch tree. CvR V 32. That man who, after working hard and tiring himself out, always eats his meager meals with relish... deceives the one who, always dressed up every day, yet sighing and constantly ill, takes hold of a spoon. DonR 41. For a while I hover above the meadows; the sun quickly set. CvR III 190. After sniffling through his nose for a long time and examining the object from every side, the marshal would take the pipe from his teeth to ask the price. CvR III 54. § 6. Past active participles of the simple aspect, by relating in the sentence to finite verb forms functioning as predicates and distinguishing a secondary action from the main one, make it possible to indicate the sequence (order) of actions. They are therefore a convenient means of developing a narrative. In contemporary literary language, actions occurring one after another are often marked by a whole chain of past active participles of the simple aspect and finite verb forms. E.g.: Antanas, having bruised his legs with the broom handle and shaken the ice from his whiskers, sat down and spoke. ŽemR I 231. Onikė, having tucked the old woman in and sat down at the foot of the bed, dozed. ŽemR II 142. And just as Dūdonis came in through the door, he, terribly startled, having called upon toads and devils, pulled a whole packet of matches from his basket and hurled it with all his might into the corner by the benches. SimonOBT 130. Rūkinas, having set down his pipe, folded his sheepskin coat and, placing it under his head, stretched out on the bench at the table. ŽemR II 145. Having risen early in the morning, put some cheese and bread in their basket, and locked the house door, they went out of town. CvR III 28. He (the son), having thanked her for her gifts, came and lit the fire again. BsP III 154 (Brt). Having circled the homestead, the raven croaked a couple of times and landed in the same poplar. Having looked around, it wondered (32) whether it had perhaps lost its way, but, looking more closely, recognized the same house roofs covered with tiles. CvR II 32–33. Particularly characteristic in this respect are these lines from K. Donelaitis’s “The Seasons”: There, Dočys at once, having smelled the stench of ointments And felt the horror of old women’s witchcraft, Leapt from his bed all at once like a thunderbolt, And, grabbing a great club from beside the stove, Then, having smashed most of the household utensils And thrown the tiles and scraps out through the door, The children, who had eaten his carrion, He nearly beat to death, raging and shouting all the while. DonR 85. 54 § 7. Past active participles of the simple aspect used attributively and predicatively can express not only an earlier secondary action but also the resulting state brought about by it, which lasts while the action denoted by the predicate is taking place. Such participles are more closely connected with the predicate than those discussed above, both in meaning and in position. They are most often perfective and follow the predicate. When the participle is extended by dependent words, the meaning of an earlier secondary action is often sensed alongside the resulting state. a) Participles formed from transitive perfective verbs: Veronika sat for a long time, her eyes fixed on the mysterious darkness of the forest, and kept thinking about something. VienR I 175. Grigienė did not let go of the spinning wheel but sat for a long time, her hands folded in her lap. KrėvR 34. The wolf lies with its legs wrapped around a wild boar. BsP IV 284. The poor girl wept, her hands clasped. Srj. We ran with our heels flying, so that even the puddles dried up. Alk. Spend one night with such a sick person, and you would run off clutching your head. Slnt. Endure it with your teeth clenched; the misfortune that has happened will pass. M (DŽ II 796). Stepukas and I were doing so much and almost nothing else that we watched the sky with our heads thrown back. BaltPV I 114. Stepukas listened, holding his breath. CvR III 199. b) Participles formed from intransitive verbs of perfective aspect: He was lying on his side now, stretched out to his full length, his head resting by his front legs. CvR II 41. Stepukas and I made willow whistles and played them, sitting opposite one another somewhere on a stone. BaltPV I 55. It should be noted that expanded participles used in this way are sometimes not set off by intonation and do not form detached sentence constituents, for example: Peter, even more astonished, looked at his uncle’s fellow traveler and did not know what to say. Myk-PutS 55. The one who still had a kopeck left bought beer and a pastry, while the one who had none endured it with his belly drawn in. ŽemR II 25—26. I stood, stunned by my mother’s words. BaltPV I 74. The gentleman walked with his hands on his hips. J (DŽ II 341). Non-expanded past-tense active participles of perfective aspect, denoting a resultant state, adhere even more closely to finite verb forms functioning as predicates. Such perfective participles, unlike those discussed in §§ 4—6, are often formed from intransitive, underived verbs, especially resultative verbs. Their meaning of a secondary action is only weakly felt and often fades entirely. For example: The sergeant fell silent and, leaning forward, gazed into the distance where the caravan had gone. CvR VI 270. I huddled close and listened to what they would say. Srv. And what are you doing here lying down? BsMt II 99. Come after you’ve eaten your fill, and you’ll get some here too. B (DŽ II 773). His wife met her husband from afar, her eyes filled with tears. CvR V 137. Alyzas stared dazedly at this money. BaltPV I 245. The air grew sultry; the leaves of all the herbs had withered 55 and lay on the ground. ŽemR I 144. They live together, having pooled their resources. Rdm. Those slovenly women and their children walk around unkempt. Nmn. He returned from the hunt famished. J (DŽ I 87). As the examples show, some of these participles have a qualitative meaning and characterize the predicate’s action in much the same way as adjectives functioning as predicative attributes (cf.: The crowd walked along, solemn and composed. Vien.). Although their function differs from that of those mentioned in § 1, such past-tense active participles of perfective aspect also come close in meaning to attributive participles. In certain cases, imperfective past-tense active participles can also express a resultant state (usually when used with verbs denoting motion). For example: The kitten came back from the forest scratching, and, not finding the little rooster, wept and wept. LTR. The young gentlemen came back on foot after hunting. Plng. The daughter came back after raking the rye, very tired. Žal. I came back after weeding the garden. Sts. If I come back after drinking at the tavern, just see where you’ll end up. KlvD 144. When will you return after riding to the little town? KlvD 250. The shepherd girl is a long time coming back after grazing the animals. Ds. Just as Kazys opened the door a crack, having come in from chopping wood, his mother called weakly to him. VaizgRR I 200. Unlike the corresponding perfective forms, these imperfective participles always retain the meaning of a preceding action and do not become adjectival. They occur quite rarely in the literary language. Also to be distinguished from forms denoting a resultant state are past-tense active participles of both aspects used in combinations with the adjective sveikas ‘well, safe and sound’. For example: Welcome home safe and sound, dear son-in-law. JV 255. Well, you scoundrel, you crooked-legged one! Welcome back safe and sound, you long-beaked one! LzPR II 17. Welcome, you’ve arrived safely. N (DŽ II 773). Welcome, colorful world, celebrating the spring feast! Welcome, you too, man, having lived to see the lovely summer! DonR 41. § 8. Past-tense active participles expressing a secondary action are characterized by specific correlative relations with other verb forms. Just as attributive past-tense active participles correspond to their present-tense counterparts, nominative forms of past-tense active participles with a secondary-action meaning correspond to half-participles. If the secondary action occurs at the same time as the main action, it is expressed by a half-participle; if the secondary action has occurred before the main action, it is expressed by the nominative of a past-tense active participle. Cf.: Seeing that he would not catch the squirrel, the wolf howled so powerfully. LTR. And the hare, seeing that the wolf was chasing the squirrel, says... LTR. As she was walking through the forest, Veronika frightened some little animal, which, upon seeing a person, darted off to the side and rustled through the leaves; that was all the girl saw of it. On leaving the forest, Veronika even stopped for a moment. VienR I 175. The little lamb runs, bleating as it goes. Srj. The dog ran up, merely yelped, bit his hock, and ran off. Plv. 36 We see that, all the same, we cannot catch it (the rainbow), and we admire it, gazing at its wonderful hues. CvR II 16. Having looked at me, Anelė also began to cry. SimonOBT 175. While eating fish, take care not to swallow a bone. Vlk. Once I’ve eaten, I’ll hit the sack (sleep). Rm. As they listened to her stories, the men only laughed, while the women comforted her. KrėvR 67. On hearing Balsys’s surname, the gendarme and the policeman pricked up their ears. Myk-PutS 313. Who will make it up to me if I catch cold while driving there? Alv. “Stop here!” Janulis called out as he drove into his own yard. VienR I 145. The contrast between active past participles and half-participles is also strongly felt when they are formed from verbs with different roots but occur in the same sentence (or in adjacent sentences). For example: Having picked up the scythe handle, Jonas began to adjust the scythe and, while listening to his father’s speech, grew even angrier. KrėvR 93. Seeing the children, the woman stopped and, even more dejected, almost in tears, began to lament. KrėvR 65. The red rooster, having led a flock of hens out onto the woodchips, struts about, its comb raised, and crows loudly. ŽemR I 81. And the sun, once again departing from us, rolls onward, too; having left us behind, it quickly sets toward evening. DonR 63. Just as a dream, which we see while asleep but briefly recall after waking (63), passed us by, so too did joy, along with summer, pass us by. DonR 63–64. But the wolf, hearing too much, nearly went mad and, having grown very angry, swelled up all over with rage. DonR 124. We fraternized with hunger and cold while living on the estate; we became kin to hunger and cold after receiving land. CvR III 114. Looking around, the widow saw a very, very large stone. Having approached the stone, she saw a cave. LTR. Nominative forms of active past participles denoting a resultant state, which have at least partly retained the meaning of an earlier secondary action, are likewise contrasted with half-participles; cf.: Petras looked at the butcher with his eyes wide open, as if not understanding his words. KrvR 197. And the two old neighbors began to whisper, their heads together, as if speaking right into each other’s nose. VaižgRR I 193. On the riverbank, curled into a ball, her knees almost touching her chin, lay a girl. CvR III 266. However, those active past participles whose secondary-action meaning has faded can also be contrasted with active present participles. For example, compare the following sentences: Veronika, completely terrified and trembling, got up and could not make out whether she had really spoken with her mother or only in a dream. VienR I 197. One winter morning, Burokienė got up feeling somehow incapacitated, and by daytime there was a blizzard outside! ŽemR II 8. 57 The half-participle in the first sentence, correlated with a past simple active participle, is used here in much the same way as the present active participle in the second sentence, which in turn could be replaced by the corresponding half-participle. Half-participles may also be contrasted with nominative forms of past simple active participles used with certain reflexive verbs (especially with the verb džiaugtis ‘to rejoice’) and carrying a more or less pronounced shade of meaning of an explanatory (explicative) clause. For example: She (the cat) must be glad to have escaped the children’s clutches. SimonVK I 219. But he was glad to have returned to his native yard. CvR II 73. That prince was glad to have bought such a fine horse. BsP II 260. The parents rejoice at having raised good children. Dkš. And he was glad to have stayed alive. Jabl. Pranaitis comforted and consoled Balsys, and was himself glad to have escaped safely. Myk-PutS 230. I was glad to be rid of the storks. Šll. Do not regret having given; rejoice at having received. Rz. The old man rejoices while groaning, the young man while riding about, someone while threshing. VP 41. During the war, people rejoiced when they received horse-drawn loads of yellow sugar from the Germans. Ds. Poets, rejoice as you see what love can do! (Kudirk (DŽ III 60). Do not rejoice as the first to reap; rejoice as the first to haul a load to the barn. Al (Ppr 47). The shepherd is vexed, being unable to drive the geese out of the oats. Sr. When this meaning becomes more prominent, participial constructions with the reflexive verbs mentioned above approach constructions of the nominativus cum participio type. In such cases, present and future active participles are also used with reflexive verbs. For example: I am so glad that I even jump for joy to have a relative sister somewhere up high. ŽemR IV 311. Having heard a man approaching (with hens), the fox was glad that she would have a tasty breakfast. Nominative forms of past simple active participles and half-participles are contrasted on the basis of their different temporal and aspectual meanings. Nominative forms of past simple active participles denote an action earlier than the main action and usually completed. Half-participles, as unmarked forms, have a meaning of simultaneity and are of the imperfective aspect. In cases where past simple active participles denote a secondary action as a process that continued for a certain time in the past (see § 5 for examples), they are contrasted with half-participles only on the basis of their different relative temporal meanings. Cf.: Going to dance, she repaired the loom. KlvD 295. — Having been on the road for several days, he came across a man. LTR. § 9. The contrast between past simple active participles and half-participles is apparently not primary. There is evidence to suggest that in the cases mentioned above, half-participles have taken the place of present active participles. In dialects and older texts, sentences are still found in which present active participles have a meaning close to that of half-participles and may be contrasted with past simple active participles. Cf.: Walking through the forest all day, thinking, and having found nothing, he laments his lot. Slk (LTR). Having grieved for Stonė and as she came to visit her 58 Seeing the plant drooping, he rushed: grabbing a burning ember, he struck him across the back. VaičE 984. The archaism of such usage of present-tense active participles is indicated by corresponding constructions in many related languages5. In dialects, present-tense active participles, with a meaning close to that of half-participles, are also often used with various conjunctions6. § 10. Past habitual active participles are not used to denote a secondary action. In sentences whose predicate denotes a repeated action, past frequentative active participles carry the frequentative meaning. For example: The young people, having rushed into the cottage, would grab something to eat and dash out into the street. Myk-PutS 35. Having returned from the gymnasium in summer, (Janulis) would put boards on the branches, cover them with straw and, having tied them at the sides with ropes, make himself a bed. VienR I 152. Late at night, after drawing in the lamp wick and leaning on the bench for only a moment’s rest, the girl would soon fall asleep right there, with a ball of thread or an unpeeled potato in her hand. CvR III 26. The old pensioners, rarely seen otherwise, would appear in the sun and, having sat down somewhere sheltered from the wind and rested their chins on their canes, would remain motionless for hours, their faded eyes fixed on some object. CvR III 18. Such past frequentative active participles, on the basis of their temporal and aspectual meanings, are contrasted with half-participles just as in the cases discussed in § 8 (cf.: As I walked along the variegated carpet of meadows, I frightened and disturbed the birds more than I hunted them. CvR II 53). § 11. Attributive past frequentative active participles are related, on the basis of temporal meaning, not only to present-tense but also to future-tense active participles (past habitual active participles have an attributive meaning only in exceptional cases); cf.: the departing train: the train that had departed: the train that will depart. Nominative forms of future-tense active participles are not used to express a secondary action, and Lithuanian likewise has no special participial forms denoting a subsequent action (i.e. one taking place after the action expressed by a finite verb form). However, such a secondary action or state, which follows from the main action as its result, is often expressed by half-participles. For example: 4 For more examples of present-tense active participles with the meaning of a secondary action, see V. Ambrazas, Absoliutinis naudininkas XVI—XVII a. lietuvių kalbos paminkluose, LKK, vol. 5, p. 7. Compare also the following examples from the writings of J. Bretkūnas and B. Chylinskis: And they hastily came out of the tomb, fearing and greatly rejoicing, and ran. BrP I 401₂₅. Behold, your King comes, sitting upon a young ass. ChB NT Jon 12, 15. And when three months had passed, we set sail on an Alexandrian ship that had wintered on that island, with the sign of Castor and Pollux. ChB NT Apd 28, 11. Thus I fight [<fight>] not like one beating the air. ChB NT I Korint 9, 26. 5 Cf. Old Church Slavonic: obъchodъzdaše gradъbę uče Zogr Marc. 6, 6; Gothic: bitauh weihsa bi-sunjane laisjands GB ib.—καὶ περιῆγεν τὰς κώμας κύκλῳ διδάσκων “he went around the villages teaching”; Latin: flens me obsecravit Pl. Trin. 154 “weeping, he pleaded with me,” and so on. 6 See P. Skardžius, Dėl pusdalyvių raidos, “Archivum Philologicum,” vol. 6 (1937), pp. 102 ff. 59 The trees grew together into a wall, like a true rampart shielding Sakalynė homestead from the biting, harmful north and east winds. VaižgP II 29. Meanwhile, the window had already opened too, letting in fresh air. Simon OBT 126. My wife died, leaving three little children behind. LTR. Present active participles can sometimes have a similar meaning, for example: Like a spark from a fire, she (Veronika) leapt out of the little shed, took a bucket of water and poured it on the door, wanting to wash off the tar; but the water ran off as if over grease, making the door even uglier and splashing the porch. VienR I 197. Young and old gathered to see old Dirdas off, filling the yard and the lane by it. BaltPV I 285. But I waded half the day for nothing, finding nothing, and that was that. Grž. In such cases, the contrast between attributive-predicative present active participles and half-participles is partly neutralized. § 12. In the examples discussed so far, present active participles and half-participles, when expanded by other words, form closed syntactic constructions, which are usually distinguished intonationally from the main sentence constituents. However, in dialects, folklore, and sometimes also in literary language, examples also occur in which the subject of the sentence is incorporated into an expanded participial construction. For example: Once the master saw such beautiful rye and ordered his farmhands to reap it. BsMt II 109. When the king heard such news, he was deeply distressed. BsMt II 86. When the elder heard about the young man’s pranks from the thief, he laughed heartily, rewarded him generously with gold, and set him free. CvR V 197. When the women realized that the woodpecker was deceiving them, they went to the jugs, but, finding them empty, had to return home. LTR. Then, when you have taken those gifts, bow to your father and mother. BsMt II 104. The men found the wolf in the pit and beat it to death. Vlk. A person who has burned himself blows on both hot and cold things. Ūd. When Jurka could get no more money, he went trudging home. 'BsP II 198. When the foolish girl returned home, she told her sisters everything. CvR V 9. Sometimes, on hearing such a powerful singer, people would stop and strike up a conversation. CvR II 13. Corresponding constructions with half-participles are used in exactly the same way, for example: As Tupikis was seeing his brother off, he began to weep and lament his loss. ŽemR I 280. As a young man, Jonelis was fit for nothing but herding livestock. BsP II 253. Seeing that his son had a will of his own, the father, no longer able to restrain him, counted out twelve thousand dollars for him and said. BsP II 208 (Klp.) Unable to think of anything better, the next morning, before dawn broke, he ran to the wheat field to look around. CvR V 136. In these constructions, which are evidently certain syntactic archaisms, one can discern elements of an older, less centralized type of sentence structure. Here, participles and half-participles with their dependent words do not yet form a closed word group subordinated to the main predicative center of the sentence. The subject’s connection with a participle or half-participle, rather than with a finite verb form functioning as the predicate, on the one 66 on the one hand, reveal the marked predicative character of these participles and half-participles, while on the other, they indicate a lack of strict sentence centralization and less developed subordinate relations within the sentence. § 13. Present and past passive participles They denote a secondary action or the resulting state much less frequently than half-participles and active participles of the past frequentative tense. Most often, they have an attributive meaning or form compound tenses with inflected forms of the verb būti ‘to be’. In general, owing to the particularities of their development, passive participles are much closer to adjectives. Present and past passive participles were incorporated into the system of verbal categories much later than the corresponding active participles and therefore retained their original adjectival use more fully. In many cases, these participles, especially present-tense forms, have neither voice nor tense meaning and are used as certain adjectives derived from verbs. Meanwhile, only passive participles that have passive voice meaning and other verbal features can denote a secondary action. Attributive-predicative passive participles are most often formed from transitive verbs. In addition, they are sometimes formed from those intransitive verbs whose passive forms can have a passive meaning, for example: The old cottage creaks and crackles, blown by the wind. J. The women’s words are spoken, and thin strips of cloth are woven. JD 1000. Come while you are awaited; you will leave while you are loved. B (DŽ II 773). Then the matchmaker Vaurus, though a teetotaler himself, was winked at by the groom and immediately adorned the table with bottles of a rather unusual shape. VaizgRR I 322. § 14. Present passive participles denote a secondary passive action that lasts for at least some period concurrently with the main action expressed by the predicate. They are most often formed from non-prefixed verbs and have imperfective meaning. When expanded by other words, they form participial constructions functioning as detached sentence constituents. a) Present passive participle without dependents: While being beaten, Elena did not defend herself, but only caught her hands and kissed them. KrėvR 26. And the cat, being stroked, arches its back. Škn. The fire sulks when being put out. Nj. When being whipped, the mare does not run, but only rears up. LTR. The buckets clanked as they were being set down. Erž. When asked, Mother rummaged around a little, pursed her lips, and gave in. BaltPV I 280. The machine is turned blerb ia. Er. b) Present passive participle expanded by dependent words: Mikė, being teased by his friends, demands that Juozapėlis test his strength against him. CvR II 92. A crow that had settled began to caw crossly, its leash pushed by the wind. CvR II 36. Pelted with reproaches and persecuted by everyone, Petras felt that his pain had turned to resentment. ŽemR I 201. You will sway, little sister, scolded by your sweetheart. Krs. Warmed by my mother-in-law, I will not get warm. KlvD 197. I fell asleep only in the dead of night, tormented by sadness and heavy thoughts. SluckGMN 116. Being transferred from Kaunas to the Šiauliai prison, the future writer managed to par- 61 hide in felt clothing and a hat. VencIEV 211. Kaziukas tossed and turned, racked with pain. CvR VIII 176. Similarly to how past active participles expressing the meaning of a resultant state (see § 7) can, present passive participles may attach to finite verb forms functioning as predicates and form close syntactic-semantic combinations with them. E.g.: Go out beloved, come back awaited. SchG 318. Suddenly the ear heard a strange sound, as if someone, being pursued, were running through the pinewoods. SimonR I 62. The youngsters eagerly joined the work party without being asked. CvR III 35. § 15. In their temporal and aspectual meanings, nominative forms of attributive-predicative present passive participles correspond completely to gerunds, but differ from them in voice. Gerunds have an active meaning, whereas present passive participles have a passive meaning. Cf.: While being pursued, the fox still managed to slip between the wheels. Suva, while being chased, got caught between them and was badly struck by the man. LTR. Taught by Mikė, little Juozapelis twists his tongue, adding “ver” to the syllable of each word. CvR II 86. I pulled the millstones without resting, and built the fire without being urged. LT III 438. Accompanied by crying lapwings, the man, hopping from one tussock to another, went along nearby. CvR III 105. Whenever they undertook some other job or were compelled to carry out a task beyond the bounds of everyday life, each of them would prepare for a long time and deliberate for a long time. KrėvR 151. The cat, biting the mouse in the traps, makes it squeak, while the mouse squeaks when bitten. J (DŽ II 88)7 The relationship between the meanings of present passive participles and gerunds is especially clear in the form duodamas ‘being given’: used with an active meaning, it is understood as a present passive participle, whereas with a passive meaning it is understood as a gerund. E.g.: Take it while being given; run while being beaten. Erž (present passive participle). — By giving away all your possessions, you will distribute them, but you still will not give them to everyone. Al (gerund). However, this relationship by no means indicates that present passive participles and gerunds are used in parallel to express a secondary action. Whereas the meaning of a secondary action is fundamental to gerunds, present passive participles express it much less frequently. § 16. Past passive participles denote a secondary passive action that took place before the main action of the sentence began. Unlike the corresponding present participles, they are most often formed from prefixed verbs and have a perfective aspectual meaning. a) The past passive participle is unexpanded: Once frightened, the wolf does not return to the same place. Val (DŽ I 457). And a well-fattened ox pulls the yoke better. Myk PutS 134. The stone, 7 In those rare cases when present passive participles denoting a secondary action are used with an active meaning, the distinction between them and gerunds disappears completely, e.g.: …They lived densely in Pentepolė, but, unable to fit here, moved to another place. ŽS 104. In older writings, a continuing secondary action is occasionally also denoted by present passive participles formed from impersonal verbs, e.g.: Szytay téwas táwas ir as sopami (boleją W 111) išěsžkome tawęs. DP 632... Tassai szytai waystą..., prieme nieko to ne rėkiamas. DP 553 (Bez żadnej potrzeby W 86). 62 … flew whistling over the roof. Rm. Another stone burst into pieces, and even sparks flew out. ŽemR I 145. The trampled, battered gentleman fainted, and when he came to, he found himself sitting on that same haystack. CvR V 111. b) The past passive participle extended by dependent words: Just an hour ago, the quiet roadside village, flooded with the gurgling din, had become a noisy encampment. CvR III 208. Washed with cold water, Juozas opened his eyes. LzPR II 55. Released from the barn, the gentleman came to his wife and said. BsP III 303. Would you have thought that his matchmakers, generously entertained, did not know how to speak properly to their godparents? DonR 84. Entertained and given lodging by a man, the old fellow set off again. CvR V 61. Lured by cheerful chatter, others too would dash into the street. Myk-PutS 35. Past passive participles, like their corresponding active participles (cf. § 7), can also express a resultant state brought about by an earlier subordinate passive action. For example: Ona grew up in Zelvis’s home without knowing childhood, harnessed to work for a crust of bread from her very first day. CvR III 30. The horse stands bridled. Kp. The lads and girls just tease each other and laugh, while the flax stands unbroken. Rdm. — “And the malt remained unsprouted,” the old man lamented. BaltPV I 269. But then Nut Grove ended, the forest thinned, and a long gray highway appeared in the distance, strewn on one side with the shadows of trees. VienR I 173. The raven’s thoughts were heavy and dark, like the very earth, which lay soaked by the late-autumn rains. CvR II 33. The men approach quietly and wait, unnoticed. GirušD 95. § 17. Just as present passive participles denoting a secondary action relate to half-participles, so the corresponding past passive participles relate to past active participles. They have similar temporal and aspectual meanings and differ in voice. The relation between past active and passive participles can be seen, for instance, in the following examples: The gentleman, without pausing for a moment, seized by greed, sprang up and embraced the bag of gold, shouting. CvR V 111. The wolf, badly beaten, ran off with its tail torn off. BsP III 310. Once released into the pasture, Syuojį would race across the fields like a mad thing whenever she spotted a cart or grazing horses in the distance. CvR II 59. — “I don’t know where you keep getting to!” Simukas says to the cow, but she licks herself and starts following him; thus spoiled, she does nothing but keep her eyes on the garden. CvR II 11. Attributive-predicative past passive participles also differ from the corresponding past active participles in having a much narrower range of use (cf. § 15). On the other hand, on the basis of their relative temporal and, most often, aspectual meanings, past passive participles are contrasted with present passive participles. Present passive participles denote a secondary action that lasts for at least a certain period of time 63 together with the main action. Past passive participles denote a preceding completed action. Cf.: But this one being beaten did not even say anything, while the one released went back to his work. Val (DŽ I 26). A hurried baker does not bake; what is forgotten burns. R₁ 73 (DŽ II 251). Scolded by the son-in-law, go out through the door; scolded by the son, climb onto the stove. An. — Scolded by the son, climb onto the stove; by the son-in-law, go out through the door. Pl. § 18. A review of the use of the nominative of attributive-predicative participles and of half-participles shows that these forms are opposed on the basis of two relative temporal meanings and two voice meanings. Their correlation can be represented by the following diagram: Attributive-predicative usage Meaning of simultaneity | Meaning of a preceding (usually completed) action | Active meaning | half-participle | past frequentative active participle | Passive meaning | present passive participle | past passive participle Attributive-predicative participles differ considerably in their mutual relations from attributive participles, which are opposed on the basis of three temporal meanings and two voice meanings. Attributive usage Meaning of present time (simultaneity) | Meaning of past time (preceding action) | Meaning of future time (subsequent action) | Active meaning | present active participle | past frequentative active participle | future active participle | Passive meaning | present passive participle | past passive participle | future passive participle Comparing these diagrams, we see that the half-participle, which has no correlative relations at all with attributive participles, functions among the nominative forms of attributive-predicative participles as a full-fledged member of the system, with two distinctive semantic features: the meanings of simultaneity and active voice. 64 III § 19. The meaning of an accompanying action expressed by Lithuanian participles is based, on the one hand, on their morphological nature—the interaction of verbal and nominal categories—and, on the other hand, on their dual syntactic relations within the sentence. Other conditions also help bring this meaning into focus, however; among these, position, prosodic separation, and expansion by dependent words merit particular mention. a) Attributive-predicative participles generally occur alongside the predicate, which distinguishes them from attributive participles that tend to attach to nouns and pronouns functioning as subjects or objects. The most characteristic position of participles and participial constructions (D) denoting an accompanying action in relation to the sentence subject (V) and predicate (T) is as follows: V — D — T (e.g.: The master, having arrived, grabbed his fat and devoured it. BM 29). The sentence subject may be unexpressed or implied (e.g.: Having taken the bridle, he will bring the horse back. Skd), while an object or an adverbial modifier of the predicate may intervene between the participle and the predicate (e.g.: The mother, having embraced the girl, ran headlong into the kitchen. SimonOBT 42). The position D — V — T is also frequent (e.g.: Having surveyed the fields once more, the woman went into the house. CvR III 105). In such cases, the participle, especially when unexpanded, often takes on a nuance of attributive meaning (see § 1). The position V — T — D has a very different role in shaping the participle’s meaning. (Will I see what you’ll wag your tongues about once I’m gone? ŽemR II 338). In this position, the participle is usually very closely linked to the predicate (see § 7). The position T — V — D (— “There, there!” the girls shout, having seen a hawk. CvR II 56) occurs comparatively rarely, while the position T — D — V is quite atypical. In general, the dual syntactic relations of participles denoting an accompanying action to the subject and predicate are most clearly manifested when the participle occurs between them or at least before the predicate. b) Attributive-predicative participles expanded by dependent words most often occur as prosodically set-off sentence constituents. Prosodic separation emphasizes and further foregrounds the predicativity of such participial constructions, giving them a pronounced nuance of additional assertion or negation. In certain cases (for example, when an expanded participle precedes the sentence subject), prosodic separation plays a decisive role in bringing out the meaning of an accompanying action. Compare the following sentences: Released from the stable, the master came to his wife. BsP III 303. — Here and there, the hilltops, now completely bare, stood black among the fields. Gud-GuzKIT 566. If we were to pronounce the participial construction released from the stable in the first sentence without prosodic separation, we would turn it into an expanded modifier with attributive meaning. In the second sentence, by contrast, setting off the attributive participial construction here and there, now completely bare would thereby give it the meaning of an accompanying action. Prosodic separation plays a particularly important role in bringing out the meaning of an accompanying action when, owing to its position and morphological and lexical features, the participle can be understood in two ways (cf. the transitional-type examples cited in § 1). 5. Lietuvių kalbos morfologinė sandara ir jos raida 65 However, the concepts of prosodically set-off constituents and attributive-predicative participles by no means coincide. First, attributive participles can also function as set-off sentence constituents, most often when expanded by other words, e.g.: The hilly slopes, overgrown with shrubs, changed beautifully from lighter to darker shades of green. ŽemR I 132. But some naughty scoundrel does not hesitate to disparage even our dishes, prepared in the Lithuanian way. DonR 51. On the other hand, participles expressing an accompanying action, when they occur alone, unexpanded by other words, are often not separated by pauses (in writing, by punctuation marks). Even in such cases, however, they have a specific modulation of tone and stress that distinguishes them from the corresponding attributive participles. For example: The boy, having run about a little, came back and, hearing his grandfather telling a story, stretched out in the hay swath. CvR III 192. After waking, he lies around for another hour or so, and only then gets up. Gs. Most participles denoting a resultant state and closely linked to the predicate are not distinguished at all by prosodic means (see examples in §§ 7, 14, 16). c) Expansion of a participle by dependent words also creates more favorable conditions for bringing out the meaning of an accompanying action. When unexpanded and not forming a prosodically set-off sentence constituent, a participle in the nominative is comparatively more inclined to form either attributive or predicative word groups. Expanded participial constructions usually play a much more independent role in the sentence; they may include entire subordinate clauses. For example: Perhaps that is why the mother weeps, remembering that she no longer has a homeland. SimonOBT 26. Veronika gave birth, sighed with relief near the holy place and, looking around to see whether anyone was on the road or beneath the cross, emerged from among the trees. VienR I 174. But that son, when asked where he had been, says. Bsp II 130. IV § 20. While denoting a secondary action in the sentence, attributive-predicative participles often also express various circumstances of the main action. Such participles, especially when expanded by dependent words, may in meaning be close to subordinate clauses of time, cause, condition, or concession. Half-participles serve as fully-fledged correlates of nominative forms of attributive-predicative participles that denote circumstances, and relate to them just as in the cases discussed in § 18. Therefore, alongside participial nominative forms with circumstantial meaning, examples of the corresponding half-participles are also given below. Attributive-predicative participles and half-participles are very often used to indicate the time of an action denoted by a finite verb form. 66 Half-participles: Take a stick with you as you go — their dog is barking. Sv. While hammering, I thought I would give back more. Kp. Make some windows while lying down. Grg. Whoever did not go wild while growing green will go wild while growing grey. Kp. While working, do not look where the crows are flying. Ppr 32. When driving through puddles, watch out for unfrozen patches. Skn. As I watched some bird tumbling about in the sky, I would think about future exploits. CvR II 47. Fear the wolf as you go into the woods, and even a hare will frighten you. Kp. Būt. k. l. veik. dalyviai: Sušilę mes toliau keliausim, juk vilko namų nesugriausim. CvR V 119. Parėjęs kiekvienas žiūri, kad tik kur nuvirtus užmigti. KrėvŠP 140. Tokią tvarką jis rado atvažiavęs, ir jam neatėjo galvon, kad ją reikia pakeisti. KrėvR 8. Pabaigęs dvare dienas, galėjau ir sau ką prasimanvti. Grž. Apynius nurinkę, apynojus paklokit ant tako, kad nebūtų šlapia. Er. Vieverys nustoją giedot, gubą pamates (per rugiapjūtę). Kp. Vilkui kojos nepadaužęs, netark, kad raisas. Dauk (DŽ II 229). Present tense passive participles: If you do not cry while being pinched, you will cry while your husband combs your hair. Sln. Saulius was becoming fit neither to work nor to tend livestock. If asked, he will work, but will not finish; if ordered, he will go, but will not get there. VaižgP III 121. (Jonas) sees nothing around him and does not answer even when called. BaltPV I 66. You need to get some sleep; I myself saw how you were fainting when woken in the mornings. BaltPV I 60. (The inhabitants) tried to reach the mill or the town only when driven by dire necessity. CvR III 105. A man, as his end was being made, could only study there. DB 111. Past tense passive participles: Pliuškis the dog rarely dared to enter the room, and only when asked. CvR III 155. At first the driver made excuses, but, finally pressed, had to show it. BsP II 96. Old wine, poured into a new bottle, does not yet acquire a new taste. VenclEV 11. A thief, firmly seized, confesses at once. SInt. Taken before the king, the lad said that he and his friends agreed to perform three difficult tasks. CvR V 33. § 21. Closely related to the meaning of time are also the meanings of cause, condition, and concession. a) Causal meaning. Half-participles: Because I got hot while running, I even broke into a sweat. Vv. A father beats a child out of love, while strangers do so without changing their ways. An. One got lost through not knowing, the other while looking for him. Šim (DŽ I 137). The cat, having good eyesight, saw a light in the forest. LTR. Living in Vilnius, I cannot speak with my parents in person; I keep in touch only by letter. Sn. Doing nothing day after day, she has even too much time. SimonVK I 9. The sick man, being weak, cannot walk. Kr (DŽ III 60). Past tense active participles: Having praised someone unworthy, I was greatly embarrassed. Sr. The wedding guest does not eat pork, having taken a liking to horse meat. NS 821. Not having finished in winter, we brought all the remaining logs back from the forest in summer. Grž. Having worn himself out in youth, he was calm as an adult. 5* 67 Jnšk. Having been burned by something hot, one spits even at something cold. Pln. The old woman, who had never before in her life had so much meat, did not spare it at all. CvR V 59. Gustis eagerly seized the food like a hungry wolf, but ate very little, having grown unaccustomed to eating his fill. VaižgP II 244. Present tense, negative participles: A goat grows fat while being cursed. MŽ I 186. A stone that is constantly rolled does not become overgrown. Pn. And a tight knitted garment becomes shapeless from being worn. Vvr. The estate, left unattended by anyone, fell completely into ruin. TŽ III 323. The dog, often teased, began to grow listless. Sl. Mikuči’s hair, already fair, faded from being constantly washed by rain and scorched by the sun. CvR III 137. Pampered at home as the youngest of all, (Aleksys) grew accustomed to ruling and bluntly demanding whatever he wanted. VaižgP III 10. Past tense, negative participles: In the forest, trees trimmed into stumps dry out. O (DŽ I 839). The oak turns black after being pruned. Šts. Having crossed the field, buffeted by the breeze, his little face is red. Jabl (DŽ II 771). Heated by the battle, I did not notice what was happening around me. Tsp (DŽ V 80). As the examples show, the causal meaning emerges against the background of the more general meaning of simultaneity or prior action. It is more often found in expanded participial word groups preceding the predicate of the sentence. When a participle has no dependent words, the causal meaning is felt less strongly. b) Conditional meaning. Half-participles: If you keep running, you’ll eventually reach the end. Ds. Living apart, we’ll still see each other from time to time. Grž. With the eyes of a pig, you can get in anywhere. Kps. If you want too much, you’ll get nothing. Prk. How will you teach others when you yourself know nothing? SimonVK I 185. Whoever we may be, letting ourselves into such misery. LzPR II 74. If you do not want to get drunk, do not even taste it. VP 33. Past conditional active participles: I felt so abandoned and so unwell that, had the thought occurred to me, it seemed I would have crawled alive into the earth. BiIR I 209. If he had thought of it, he would drown someone in a spoonful. Plv.⁸ You’ll put it away, you’ll put it away—where could you put yourself if you hadn’t put yourself away? BaltPV I 18. I’m telling you this so that, if she wanted to, she could charm every girl around her finger as easily as a thread. KrėvR 150. What will you do if you don’t put it down? — I promise to give you my daughter. Grž. You must not have found room elsewhere, since you’ve crept in here to this hell, our estate! ŽemR I 325. Once you’ve fallen into the mud, you won’t get out clean. Krp. If you haven’t caught yourself, you won’t catch another. Šts. When the hole opens up, don’t worry about the fur coat. Ndz. Present tense, negative participles: The bacon will go rancid if left uneaten. BaltPV I 36. What will the children become if they are not disciplined? Lp. When driven, run; when given, take; when beaten, keep quiet. Vkš. Past tense, negative participles: That book will fall apart if left unrepaired. J (DŽ II 493). It’s so disgraceful that even a dog, if driven out, wouldn’t go. Alvt. Salt, if added in the right amount, enhances the flavor; if too much is added, it spoils it. Vj. Participles generally express a conditional meaning in generic sentences whose predicate is in the future, subjunctive, or imperative mood— 8 Cf.: If he had thought of it, he would have drowned him in a spoonful. Mrk, Rm, Dkš. 68 verbs say. A participle, which may be either extended or unextended, is often used with negation. Among passive participles, which are used in this meaning only occasionally, constructions with the participle dėtas are quite characteristic. For example: If I were in Zosė’s place, I wouldn’t even look askance at that Topylis. ŽemR I 121. And if she were in Petrone’s place, she would act no differently. ŽemR II 215. If I were in your height, I wouldn’t accept one like that. J (DŽ II 308). If I were you, I would have acted differently. Jabl. If I were in your place, I would have spat in his face. Skd. If I were in her place, I wouldn’t marry that lout. Ss. c) Concessive meaning. Half-participles: You run, man, yet you don’t get away; you walk, yet you don’t make progress, and still you have nothing. KrėvŠP 273. Džiugas sits... with small children and thinks, coming up with nothing. CvR V 54. But the girls, though they themselves still needed governesses, were already making colorful rag dolls for themselves. DonR 30. Weeping himself, he comforted and consoled Grėtė. SimonVK I 207. It is strange how the two of us, having the most diverse views and temperaments, came together. VienR I 212. Here now is a prince who, having neither father nor real mother, did have a stepmother. BsMt II 105. All sorts of kings, though having the smallest armies, defeat me—they conquered me. Dkš (BsP II 82). Past active participles. He is looking for it without having lost it. Dbk. Having worked for only a moment, he received a large payment. Sr. You don’t gain wisdom by wearing your teeth down. Slnt. Having gone such a distance, I only blistered my feet. Zp. I don’t get tired; I’ve come back from the rye field—why are you tired? Skr. And this man (the master), born here, raised here, nourished on the bread of these fallow fields, is unable, unwilling to open his mouth to speak his native tongue! LzPR II 16. The district, having brought Niaura no benefit whatsoever, nevertheless left an indelible stain on his reputation. VaizgP III 48. A miller worked in that mill, and I fell terribly in love with him without having seen him yet. SimonOBT 183. Present passive participles: The little hills collapsed unploughed; the linden tree bent unbowed. JV 912. My dear father will weep, unmade to weep. JV 460. Uninvited, uncalled, he goes everywhere and comes back. Ds. What does not get done, gets done? JablRR 304. I grabbed the cheese without being given it. J (DŽ III 591). Hops grew there without being planted. Dauk (DŽ I 111). Those who, (337) beaten and driven, preserved in their hearts the resolve to keep fighting and someday, perhaps not soon, to win, were victorious! Myk-PutS 337—338. Past passive participles: The orphan’s little head lies uncombed. NS 1317. That black raven is black, undyed. KlvD 160. I will rise in the morning, unawakened; I will do my work, unprepared. NS 175. The black raven is black, not made so. NS 104. The lamb was given, yet it still grabs at the rooster. Kv. In sentences with affirmative predicates, concession is often marked by negative-form participles, and vice versa. The concessive meaning is felt here because of the content of the participle or participial construction and the rest of the sentence 69 of contrast, but is usually rather indefinite. To express it more clearly and differentiate it, connective words are used: and, although, even though. § 22. In adverbial constructions, the relative temporal meanings characteristic of participle and half-participle forms generally remain. Only when causal relations are especially emphasized is the temporal relationship between the main and secondary actions sometimes felt less strongly. In such cases, the semantic contrast between past frequentative active participles and half-participles is partly neutralized. Cf. the meanings of past frequentative active participles and half-participles in the following sentences: You won’t accomplish anything good without breaking a sweat. Dauk (DŽ II 303). — Buying an old item, you’ll add to the repair bill on Tuesday. Gs. I’d act like a madman, attacking a gang of such human-eaters. Š (DŽ III 168). — I would sin grievously to think otherwise: you were parents to me, an orphan! LzPR II 64. Adverbial meanings sometimes also affect the aspect of participles. For example, past frequentative active participles denoting cause, condition, or concession are more often formed from non-prefixed verbs than in other cases, and do not have a perfective aspectual meaning. E.g.: Standing near the road, Vitėaus wells were a favorite place for the village girls. CvR III 223. I’ve known that all along, having ridden for so many years and seen many kinds of tears among the serfs. DonR 132 (Causal meaning). Having drunk water, you won’t be drunk. Rr. If you ride on someone else’s horse, you’ll end up in a ditch, too. Sim (Conditional meaning). A man who has fallen from a tree rests, but I, having walked all this way, won’t rest! Ėr. Having searched high and low, we would find no other such protector! LzPR II 90 (Concessive meaning). § 23. By denoting a secondary action or the state of the subject arising from it, participles and half-participles often also explain the manner of the main action. Half-participles: What father put together with sighs, his little son lost with cries. Ppr 245. I walked a path into being, walking about; I broke a little bridge, riding along. LTR. Katrė agreed to everything in silence. SimonVK I 136. The ox, as you can hear, earns its fodder through hard toil. DonR 36. At home Grigas greeted them, glaring angrily. KrėvR 31. Steponas Brička smoked greedily, sending smoke out through his nose. VencIGD 398. Past frequentative active participles: The devil slung a sack of stones over his shoulders and goes along stooped over. Pšš. The cat, hunched up, creeps toward the mouse. Tr. Rozalija sat beside me, her elbows spread wide. BaltPV I 37. Slowly, deep in thought, he would walk... Maš (DŽ I 190). But Snarjukes, stretching out his lips, played the pipe. DonR 69. Present passive participles: This voice can be heard when the ducks, undisturbed, feed or swim in some quiet corner of a lake. IvanLP II 88. Every week, led by some little girl, she went from yard to yard through her village. BilR I 243. The girl grew up in poverty, mocked by everyone, nicknamed, and hated. Myk-PutS 26. 70 Passive past participles: A boy from among the other acquaintances competed, trying to slip past them unnoticed. AvyžlSK 41. Against the fence leaned, stood a whip, while the boy held an old calendar in his hand. VencIR II 17—18. The pies lay stacked in slices. SimonVK I 11. (Cf. also the examples cited in §§ 7, 14, 16). § 24. The meanings listed here that attributive-predicative participles and semi-participles can have in a sentence are not clearly differentiated. In both literary and colloquial language, we very often find sentences in which participles carry shades of several adverbial meanings or can be interpreted in various ways. For example, in the sentence Dressed in a thick fur coat, you will not get cold (Svn), the participle with its dependent words indicates not only time but also condition, and also explains the manner of the main action. Time and cause are together expressed by the participial construction in the sentence The eyes of the honeycombs, filled with honey, became blocked. J. Such constructions make it possible to describe the action of the main clause simultaneously from various angles, without clearly specifying any one circumstance. E.g.: Meanings of time and cause: When at home, a person grows pale. Kp. Having quarreled and argued on the road, the old man had calmed down considerably by the end of the journey. VaižgR VII 191. Having suffered so much injustice, the German seriously decided to take revenge on the Samogitian. CvR V 66. Revived by the dew, all things rejoice. PG (DŽ III 333). Three died while being beaten. ŽemR II 17. Meanings of time, cause, and condition: Being hungry yourself, you cannot feed someone who is hungry. Pnd. Having received a gift, a person rejoices. Simon DŽ II 741. You will not die after eating, but your eyes will be opened. Val (DŽ II 200). Meanings of time and condition: Seeking him, you will not find him; calling, you will no longer call him forth; waiting, you will wait in vain! ŽemR II 49. Having acted badly, do not despair; having acted well, do not boast. TŽ III 38. You will hear more yet if you talk with him longer. KrėvŠP 13. Meanings of condition and manner: Go slowly, and you will get farther. Ppr 223. Wading in up to the armpits, he will not get across here against the current. Grg. Meanings of concession and manner: One morning, however, unable to bear being last every time, I got up without being woken. SimonNTP 20. Meanings of time, concession, and manner: Am I a fool, that, without anyone forcing me, I would go somewhere where, as people say, things will not be entirely good for me? KrėvR 257. § 25. The adverbial meanings of Lithuanian participles are not grammaticalized and have no defined means of expression. Position, relations with the predicate of the sentence, the aspect of the participle, and other formal conditions sometimes help one meaning or another to stand out more clearly, but they do not play a decisive role. All adverbial meanings depend primarily on the lexical meaning of the participle and of the other words included in the participial construction, on the content of the sentence as a whole, and on the context. When indicating the time, cause, condition, or concession of the main action, or explaining its manner, participles retain dual syntactic relations with the subject and predicate and with the secondary action 71 or a state meaning. Thus, the use of participles to express various circumstances of the action denoted by the predicate is an integral part of attributive-predicative usage. V § 26. A number of more unusual cases of the use of past simple active participles are also associated with attributive-predicative usage. a) A past simple active participle joined directly to a verb of the same root emphasizes the action denoted by that verb. E.g.: There are so many kinds of root cellars that you could keep digging all day and still not finish digging them. Blv (DŽ II 771). He keeps on going, still here. PP 330. Why go running? I’m dragging myself along like a wolf. Blv (DŽ II 771). Run around all you like. ŽemR I 31. How well you’ve been drinking—and you’ll keep drinking, and sell the hat off your head. JV 46. Drink your fill, brother, have a smoke, then go home. JD 72. You can work away, and after work you’ll be able to rest. BsMt II 16. He’ll wake up after staying a while, and then take whichever one he wants. Skr. Used in the same circumstances, half-participles likewise emphasize the action denoted by the finite form of the verb and are close in meaning to the corresponding past simple active participles. E.g.: My maiden, my young one, go walking behind me. BsO 110. Running, we run through those valleys. Pžt 63. Work as you work; pay no heed to who says what. May he come home at last, bringing a hundred yoke of oxen as he returns. KlpD 35. The cuckoo calls, perched in a tall birch. JD II 821. Seeing, I saw the affliction of my people. GNT Apd 7, 34. The relative temporal meaning of past simple active participles and half-participles used for emphasis is very weak or has faded altogether, and consequently their semantic contrast is not clearly perceptible. In present-day literary language, such participles and half-participles are relatively unproductive. b) A negative-form past simple participle accompanying imperative forms of a verb of the same root denotes an alternative and emphasizes an action that the speaker dismisses as futile. E.g.: Think all you want; it’s still the same—you’ll have to go. Lp. Hunch all you want; you still won’t catch it. Skr. Faint all you want—you certainly won’t faint it away (catch it). Krtn. Sow all you want, such barley, if it fails (does not sprout or withers)! Rs. Grieve all you want—the dead cannot be brought back to life. Š (DŽ III 25). However, when accompanying past simple verbs, negative-form past simple active participles do not have a clear alternative meaning and, like the participles mentioned above that lack negation, simply emphasize the action of the predicate. E.g.: They (the fairies) wove and wove, yet did not go any farther. BsMt II 196. That man suffered and suffered until he ran out of patience. ŽemR II 15. Corresponding half-participles may be used in a similar way, e.g.: Crowds of people… rejoiced beyond measure. LzPR III 3. 72 c) In constructions with verbs of a different root (most often in the imperative or subjunctive mood), the negative form of the active past frequentative participle denotes an action undesired by the speaker, forbidden, or simply contrary to the action expressed by the predicate. For example: Stop crying at once; it’s lovely without your tears! BaltPV I 59. Be quiet and stop grumbling; you won’t gain anything anyway. V kš. Go and eat, without wandering around the orchard. Ūd. Go on, don’t linger outdoors. Vj. Get up without lying about. Jn. Better look for a net without sighing. Blv (DŽ II 262). Go on your way without slamming the door. Klvr. Put that birbynė down; don’t play it here right by my ear. Gs. Let go of the cat; stop squeezing it. Sn. Shut your mouth and stop cooling it. Grž. Go to the shop; don’t stand around in the back alley! Mrs. Get onto the bed without dawdling! Rdm. You, Mother, wait without spitting... KrėvR 18. Give us supper without crying! KapsAA 97. You’d go to work without grumbling! Rs. May you choke, you who haven’t barked like a dog! Lnkv. Will you be quiet and stop stammering? Grž. Why were you late, instead of coming along with the others? LzPR II 92. Such active past frequentative participles likewise have no clear temporal meaning and are not contrasted with converbs. Converb forms, in turn, can occasionally also convey an undesired or forbidden action, for example: Oh, if only you’d turn into ravens, instead of being my children! (DŽ I 995). In the cases indicated here (a, b, and c), active past frequentative participles of both aspects are used. They denote an action completed earlier and, in meaning, are close to the finite verb forms with which they are associated. When used with imperative verbs, they express a command or order; with future-tense verbs, they indicate a future or anticipated action, and so on; cf.: Tell him; he won’t have listened anyway. Jnšk. — Tell him over and over; he just keeps doing his own thing. Vvr. Thus, these participles have already moved considerably away from other attributive-predicative participles and closer to predicative ones. § 27. A transitional link between attributive-predicative and predicative usage is formed by constructions involving nominative forms of participles with particles, relative pronouns, and other connective words. In some of these, connective words (especially particles) merely make the circumstantial meaning of the participle more precise, without substantially changing its role in the sentence, for example: The fire burns even when it is not stoked. Šim. Here again, the foal gets entangled in the net as soon as it returns from the horses of strangers. CvR II 63. In others, the verbal properties of the participle are particularly prominent, and it becomes equivalent to a finite verb form, for example: She would be a fine girl, except she grabs whatever she can. Sml. Wherever he stepped, wherever he went, Petras could not shake off his resentment. ŽemR I 204. The relations of these participles to present-tense participles and converbs are somewhat different as well. Such constructions with connective words occupy a specific, rather isolated place in the system of syntactic means of expression in contemporary Lithuanian and constitute a separate subject of study. 73 Conclusions 1. Attributive-predicative participles form a distinct type of participle usage and occupy an intermediate position between attributive and predicative participles. Their principal characteristics are: a) dual syntactic relations with nouns and pronouns, and b) the meaning of a secondary action or state. This meaning is brought out by the participle’s distinctive morphological (transitivity and aspect) and lexical properties, as well as by syntactic conditions such as position, isolation, and expansion by dependent words. 2. Attributive-predicative usage is most characteristic of nominative forms of active past frequentative participles and converbs, and considerably less so of nominative forms of present- and past-tense passive participles. Nominative forms of other participles (e.g., active present participles) have an attributive-predicative meaning only in rare constructions of a relict or transitional nature. 3. The nominative forms of attributive-predicative participles exhibit specific relations to one another, differing from those of the corresponding attributive and predicative participles. They are contrasted on the basis of two relative tense meanings and two voice meanings. The converb, which has no correlative relations either with attributive or with predicative participles, functions among the nominative forms of attributive-predicative participles as a full-fledged member of the system, with two distinctive semantic features: simultaneity and active voice. 4. The nominative forms of active past frequentative participles are contrasted with converbs as marked forms denoting a secondary action that precedes the main one and is most often completed. This semantic contrast between active past frequentative participles and converbs is partly neutralized in the following cases: a) when the relative temporal meaning of these forms is weakened by the foregrounding of a causal, conditional, concessive, or resultative meaning; b) when a nominative form of an active past frequentative participle or a converb is used to emphasize the action denoted by a finite verb form. 5. The correlative relations between converbs and nominative forms of attributive-predicative participles are probably not primary. Old writings and dialects provide evidence that, within the system of attributive-predicative participles, converbs displaced and replaced nominative forms of active present participles used earlier. 6. When denoting a secondary action (state), attributive-predicative participles often also indicate the time, manner, cause, condition, or concession of the main action. These circumstantial meanings of attributive-predicative participles and converbs are weakly differentiated, lack clearly defined means of expression, and depend primarily on the lexical meaning of the participle (converb) and of other words in the participial construction, as well as on the content of the entire sentence and its context. When denoting time, cause, condition, or concession, participles and converbs retain the principal attribut- 74 the features of attributive-predicative use — dual syntactic relations and the meaning of a secondary action (state). 7. The transitional link between attributive-predicative and predicative use is formed by emphatic constructions involving participles and half-participles, as well as constructions with connective words. ABBREVIATIONS Al — Alytus Alk — Alksnėnai, Vilkaviškis district8 Als — Alsėdžiai, Plungė district Alv — Alovė, Daugai district Alvt — Alvitas, Kybartai district An — Anykščiai. Arm — Armōniškės, Byelorussian SSR, Grodno region, Voranava district. Aru — Lithuanian Dialect Texts from the Vilnius Region. With grammatical notes by P. Arum a a. Dorpat, 1930. AvyžISK — J. Avyžius, Į stiklo kalną, Vilnius, 1961. B — Lexicon Germanico Lithvanicum et Lithvanico Germanicum... by Jakobo Brodowsky... I—II (manuscript kept in the library of the Lithuanian SSR Academy of Sciences). BaltPV — J. Baltušis, Parduotos vasaros, I, Vilnius, 1957. BaranAŠ — A. Baranauskas, Anykščių šilelis, Vilnius, 1956. BilR — J. Biliūnas, Raštai, I—II, Vilnius, 1954. Blv — Writings of Jonas Balvočius-Gerutis. BM — Lithuanian Dialects, collected by A. Baranowski, Vol. I: Texts from the Weber estate, edited by Dr. F. Specht... Leipzig, 1920. BrP I—II — Postilla tatai esti Trumpas ir Prastas Išchguldimas Euangeliv... By Jan Bretkunas... Königsberg... 1591. Brt — Barfininkai, Vilkaviškis district. BsMt — J. Basanavičius. Lithuanian Tales, I—II, Shenandoah Pa, 1898—1902. BsO — Ožkabalų dainos, surinko Dr. J. Basanavičius, Shenandoah Pa, 1902. BsP — Various Lithuanian Tales, collected by Dr. J. Basanavičius, I—IV. Chicago, 1903—1905. ChB NT — Versionis Bibliorum in Lingvam Lithvanicam. Tomus VII. Novum Testamentum... Lithvanicā Lingvā donatum (B. Chilinskis’s manuscript of the New Testament of the Bible, published in: Biblia litewska Chylińskiego, Nowy Testament, vol. II — Text, edited by Cz. Kudzinowski—Jan Otrębski, Poznań, 1958). CvR — P. Cvirka, Writings, I—XI, Vilnius, 1949—1953. Dauk — The writings of S. Daukantas. DB — Budą Senoves-Lëtuwiû Kalnienû ir Zamajtû iszrasze Pagal Senowes Rasztû Jokub’s Laukys, Petropilie, 1845. Dbk — Debeikiai, Anykščiai district. Dkš — Daukšiai, Simnas district. DonR — K. Donelaitis, Raštai, Vilnius, 1950. DP — Postilla Catholicka... Per Kuniga Mikaloiv Dauksza Kanonika Mėdniku iż łękiško perguldita... Wilniui... 1599. 8 District names are indicated according to the earlier (before 1962) administrative division. 75 Ds — Dusetos. DŽ — Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, I—VI, Institute of the Lithuanian Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences of the Lithuanian SSR, Vilnius, 1941—1962. Ėr — Ėriškiai, Ramygala district. Erž — Eržvilkas, Skaudvilė district. GB — The Gothic Bible, edited by W. Streitberg, 2nd ed., Heidelberg, 1919. Grg — Gargždai, Klaipėda district. GrušD — J. Grušas, Dūmai, Vilnius, 1956. Grv — Gervėčiai, Byelorussian SSR, Molodechno district, Astravas district. Grž — Grūžiai, Joniškėlis district. Gs — Geistarai (Didvyžiai), Vilkaviškis district. Gud-GuzKIT — A. Gudaitis-Guzevičius, Kalvio Ignoto teisybė, Vilnius, 1952. IM — L. Ivinskis, Calendar or Yearbook, 1846—1877. IvanLP — T. Ivanauskas, Birds of Lithuania, Vilnius. J — Литовскій словарь А. Юшкевича съ толкованіемъ словъ на русскомъ и польскомъ языкахъ, I—III, Петроградъ, 1897—1922. Jabl — Writings of J. Jablonskis. JablRR — J. Jablonskis, Selected Writings, I—II, ed. J. Palionis, Vilnius, 1957—1959. JD — Lithuanian Songs recorded by Antanas Juškevičius... I—III, Kazan, 1880—1882. Jnšk — Joniškėlis. JV — Lietuviškos svotbinės dainos, užrašytos par Antaną Juškevičę... Petropylė, 1883. K — Littauisch-deutsches Wörterbuch von F. Kurschat, Halle a. S., 1883. Kin — Kintai, Šilutė district. KlpD — Klaipėdiškių dainos, surinko J. Pakalniškis, Vilnius, 1908. KlvD — Prusijos lietuvių dainos, surinko V. Kalvaitis, Tilžėje, 1905. Klvr — Kalvarija. Kn — environs of Kaunas. Kp — Kupiškis. Kps — Kapsūkas. KrėvR — V. Krėvė, Raganius, Vilnius, 1958. KrėvSP — V. Krėvė, Šiaudinėj pastogėj, Kaunas, 1940. Krk — Krakės, Dotnuva district. Krp — Kruopiai, Žagarė district. Krtn — Kretinga. Kudirk — Writings of V. Kudirka. Kv — Kvėdarna, Šilalė district. LKK — Questions of Lithuanian Linguistics, Vilnius (since 1957). Lp — Leipalingis, Veisiejai district. LT — The Lithuanian Nation, I—V, Vilnius, 1907—1936. LTR — The Lithuanian Folklore Manuscript Repository at the Institute of the Lithuanian Language and Literature. LzPR — Writings of Lazdynų Pelėda. LzP — Lazdynų Pelėda, Writings, I—VII, Vilnius, 1954—1955. M — M. Miežinis, Lietuviszkai-latviszkai-lenkiszkai-rusiszkas žodynas, Tilžėje, 1894. Maš — The writings of Pranas Mašiotas. Myk. PutS — V. Mykolaitis-Putinas, Sukilėliai, I, Vilnius, 1957. MPs — A collection of fairy tales. Manuscript obtained by K. Būga from J. Murka. Mrk — Merkinė, Varėna district. Mrs — Miroslavas, Alytus district. 76 MŽ — Lithuanian-German and German-Lithuanian Dictionary... by Christian Gottlieb Mielcke... Königsberg, 1800. N — Wörterbuch der Littauischen Sprache von G.H.F. Nesselmann, Königsberg, 1851. Ndz — Nedingė, Varėna district. Nj — Naujamestis, Panevėžys district. Nmn — Nemunaitis, Alytus district. NS — A. R. Niemi ir A. Sabaliauskas, Lietuvių dainos ir giesmės, Ryga, 1911. O — The writings of K. Aleknavičius (Olechnowicz). Pc — Pociūnėliai, Šeduva district. PG — Pagėrintos Giesmių Knygos... revised anew by F. Kurszat, Königsberg, 1888. Pl — Palėvenė, Kupiškis district. Pln — Plungė. Plng — Palanga. Plv — Pilviškiai, Vilkaviškis district. Pn — Panevėžys. PP — Pasakos apie paukščius... hrsg. von H. Scheu... und A. Kurschat, Heidelberg, 1913. Ppr — Proverbs and sayings, Vilnius, 1958. Prk — Priekulė. Pšš — Pašušvys, Radviliškis district. Pžt — The dialect of Pajūrio fishermen. R₁ — Ph. Ruhig, Betrachtung der Littauischen Sprache, Königsberg, 1747. Rdm — Rudamina, Lazdijai district. Rm — Ramygala. Rs — Raseiniai. Rz — Rozalimas, Pakruojis district. SchG — A. Schleicher, Litauische Grammatik, Prag, 1856. Sim — Simutis's collection of proverbs (F. Sragis's source). Simon — Writings of I. Simonaitienė. Simon NTP — I. Simonaitýtė, Ne ta pastogė, Vilnius, 1962. SimonOBT — I. Simonaitýtė, O buvo taip, Vilnius, 1960. SimonR — I. Simonaitýtė, Writings, I—VI, Vilnius, 1957—1958. SimonVK — I. Simonaitýtė, Vilius Karalius, I—II, Vilnius, 1956. Skd — Skuodas. Skp — Skapiškis, Pandėlys district. Skr — Skirsnemunė, Jurbarkas district. Sl — Sālos, Rokiškis district. Slk — Šalakas, Dūkštas district. Slnt — Salantai. SluckGMN — M. Sluckis, Geriau mums nesusitikti, Vilnius, 1961. Sml — Smilgiai, Šeduva district. Sn — Sejny, Polish People’s Republic, Suwałki County. Snt — Sintautai, Kudirkos Naumiestis district. Ss — Sasnava, Kapsukas district. Sr — Material collected by Feliksas Sragys, held in the card index of the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language. Srj — Seirijai, Lazdijai district. Srv — Surviliškis, Dotnuva district. Sv — Svėdasai, Anykščiai district. Svn — Suvainiskis, Pandėlys district. Š — J. Šlapelis, Lietuvių ir rusų kalbų žodynas, Vilnius, 1921. Ta pačia santrumpa žymimi ir kiti J. Šlapelio raštai. 77 Šil — Šilavōtas, Prienai District. Škn — Šakýna, Žagarė District. Šll — Šilalė. Šn — Šunskai, Kapsukas District. Šts — Šatės, Skuodas District. Švnč — Švenčionys and Švenčionėliai. Tl — Telšiai. Tr — Traupis, Troškūnai District. Tsp — Soviet Press. TŽ — Nation and Word, publication of the Faculty of Humanities, I—VII, Kaunas, 1923—1931. Ūd — Ūdrija, Simnas District. W — Postille... Prez D. Jakoba W v y k a... w Krakowie... 1617. VaičR — P. Vaičaitis, Rinktinė, Vilnius, 1956. VaižgP — Vaizgantas, Pragiedruliai, Kaunas, 1942. VaižgR — Vaižgantas’s writings. VaižgRR — Vaizgantas, Selected Writings, Vilnius, 1957. Val — The writings of M. Valančius. ValPŽK — A little book for grown-up people, Joteiko, 1868. ValVK — A little book for children with pictures, 1868. VenclEV — A. Venclova, Epochos vėjas, Vilnius, 1962. VenclGD — A. Venclova, Gimimo diena, Vilnius, 1959. VenclR — A. Venclova, Raštai, I—III, Vilnius, 1955. Vien — A. Vienuolis’s writings. VienR — A. Vienuolis, Writings, I—VII, Vilnius, 1953—1955. Vj — Vajasiškis, Zarasai district. Vkš — Viekšniai, Akmenė district. Vlk — Valkininkai, Eišiškės district. Vp — M. Valančius, Patarles Zemajcziu, Tilžėje, 1867. Vv — Veiveriai, Kazlų Rūda district. Vvr — Veiviržėnai, Priekulė district. Zogr — The Codex Zographensis, a Glagolitic manuscript of the Four Gospels, formerly kept at Zograph and now in St Petersburg... edited by V. Jagić, Berlin, MDCCCLXXIX. Zp — Zapyškis, Kaunas district. Žal — Žalioji, Vilkaviškis district. ŽemR — Žemaitė, Writings, I—VI, Vilnius, 1956—1957. ŽemR₁ — Žemaitė’s writings, Kaunas—Marijampolė, 1924. ŽS — Żiwataj szwętuj... Wilnuj 1861. Zvr — Žvirgždžiai, Kudirkos Naumiestis district. ATTRIBUTIVE-PREDICATIVE USE OF LITHUANIAN PARTICIPLES В. АМБРАЗАС Summary Attributive-predicative use of participles is characterized by the following main features: (a) dual syntactic links with nouns or pronouns and with finite verb forms functioning as predicates; (b) the meaning of a secondary action or state. Participles of this type are distinguished by great semantic diversity. This type includes the so-called appositive participles denoting a secondary action, constructions such as accusativus cum participio, nominativus cum participio, and others. Most often, in attributive-predicative use, 78 participle forms in the nominative case occur; these are the forms examined in the present article. Attributive-predicative use is most characteristic of active past frequentative participles and the so-called semi-participles, and much less so of passive present and past participles. Nominative forms of active present participles in attributive-predicative use are observed only in rare constructions of a relic or transitional nature (e.g., with connective words). Nominative forms of attributive-predicative participles constitute a specific system of oppositions, distinct from the system of attributive and predicative participles. They are opposed on the basis of relative temporal values (simultaneity versus anteriority) and voice (active versus passive). The semi-participle, which has no correlational links with either attributive or predicative participles, functions in the system of attributive-predicative participles as an equal member with two differential features: the values of simultaneity and active voice (see the tables of oppositions on p. 64). The correlation of semi-participles with nominative forms of participles in attributive-predicative use is apparently not primary. Data from ancient written monuments and dialects indicate that semi-participles in this function replaced and supplanted older forms of active present participles. While denoting a secondary action (state), attributive-predicative participles often also indicate the character of the main action or its causal relations (meanings of cause, condition, and concession). These meanings are weakly differentiated, have no specific means of expression, and depend above all on the lexical meaning of the participle (semi-participle) and of other words in the participial construction, on the content of the whole sentence, and on the context. When used with the meanings mentioned above, participles and semi-participles retain the main features of attributive-predicative use: dual syntactic links and the meaning of a secondary action (state). Participles and converbs with emphatic meaning, as well as constructions with connective words, form an intermediate link between attributive-predicative and predicative use. 79