Bevardės giminės forma „tai“ ir jos santykis su kitomis įvardžių formomis

ŽODŽIŲ FORMOS IR JŲ VARTOSENA LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA A. VALECKIENĖ NEUTER FORM TAI AND ITS RELATION TO OTHER PRONOUN FORMS 001. Neuter forms are found only among some pronouns, cf.: tas, ta, tai, tat(ai); šitas, šità, šita, šitai; visas, visà, visa; kitas, kità, kita, etc. Of all neuter pronoun forms, the most widely used is tai. Its variant tat(ai) is rare. The neuter forms of other pronouns are also used less frequently than tai. This article seeks to bring out the general (invariant) meaning of the neuter form tai (tatai) and to show how this form relates to the forms tas, ta and other pronouns. Besides its pronominal meaning, the form tai is also widely used as a particle or conjunction. These functions of tai will not be specifically addressed here, but in individual cases it will be necessary to distinguish the function of the pronominal form tai from that of the particle tai. 002. The meaning of a particular form can be understood only within the language microsystem (subsystem) in which that form functions. It is important to set aside contextual meanings and the lexical elements of that form, and to bring out only the general meaning available to the form under consideration as it relates to the other minimally necessary forms in that system. To understand the general meaning of the form this and its relation to the forms that, we first need to identify the systems (subsystems) in which these forms function. It should be said at once that the gendered forms that are used much more widely than the neuter form this. Therefore, the subsystems in which the forms that function will be presented first; only then will it be indicated which subsystems of the forms that the form this belongs to and which it does not. Subsystems of the forms tas, ta 003. In discussions of the functions of demonstrative pronouns, K. Brugmann is usually cited. K. Brugmann was the first to distinguish the main functions of demonstrative pronouns in the Indo-European languages: the deictic (in the narrow sense) and the anaphoric1. Deictic forms are those that emphatically point to a known object, locating it in relation to the speaker (as more or less distant from the speaker). Anaphoric 1 Besides the deictic function in the narrow sense, K. Brugmann also used this term in a broad sense. It denotes the general demonstrative meaning shared by all demonstrative pronouns. On the basis of the nature of general deixis, he classified all Indo-European demonstrative pronouns into four types. See K. Brugmann, Die Demonstrativpronomina der idg. Sprachen, Leipzig, 1904, „Abhandlungen der Philologisch-historischen Klasse der Königlich Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften“, Bd. XXII, Nr. VI. 3 * 35 The forms indicate an object mentioned above or referred to immediately after the form, without marked emphasis. K. Brugmann particularly emphasized the use of deictic forms to indicate objects. According to K. Brugmann, a deictic form is like a gesture; it is often accompanied by one as well. Anaphoric forms do not carry such emphasis. In discussing the functions identified by K. Brugmann, J. Kurylowicz very aptly defined the difference between deictic and anaphoric forms: deictic forms indicate specific known objects, whereas anaphoric forms indicate words (the context)2. For this reason, anaphora is sometimes also called relative deixis3. 004. The Lithuanian language also allows us to distinguish these two functions of demonstrative pronouns: deictic and anaphoric. However, on semantic grounds alone, it is often difficult to assign one or the other function to a pronoun form—that is, to say whether the form indicates an object with marked emphasis or without it. Therefore, in this article, the functional differences between tas, ta forms will be based not only on meaning, but primarily on the forms’ position in the sentence and their paradigmatic properties, that is, on how these forms relate to other forms in the same subsystem. In terms of the paradigmatic properties of the tas, ta forms, two main subsystems of their use can be distinguished. 1) The Tas, ta forms are related to the šitas, -a; šis, ši; anas, -a forms. (There are other forms as well, but those mentioned are the minimal forms of this subsystem.) All the forms listed occur in the same position dependent on nouns—that is, they are used adjectivally. They are characterized by a deictic function. Typically, these forms emphatically indicate a known object, distinguishing it from others. These forms differ from one another in their lexical nuances according to how far the indicated object is from the speaker in space and time. The Tas, ta forms are the most neutral: they indicate a known object located at some distance from the speaker, whereas šis, ši; šitas, -a indicates an object at the least distance, and anas, -a a known object at the greatest distance from the speaker. An object may be known from the preceding context (even if mentioned earlier) or indicated after the pronoun. For example: One said: “That’s the way her illness is, just like my health!” Another said: “Your wife wasn’t so weak even when she was dying as mine was when she recovered.” Petras… overheard these jokes. ŽemR I 185. “You can go on your own, if that old black-faced fellow suits you so well!” Marce… muttered amid her outbursts. “You won’t drive me off because of that lout” (speaking of Kurmelis). ŽemR I 173. Once there was a box of matches, and those matches were very proud of their origin. BalčAP 201. Petras came out of the forest and turned straight across the stump-covered ground in the direction from which the iron things were clanking. ŽemR I 178. The mistress had already been taken on by the lady herself. That is the virtuous old woman Karolienė, a widowed churchgoer, a spinster, known to all as Dėdienė. VaižgP I 140. Cf.: My late mother used to wear them, and I would watch her picking potatoes like a cat after a mouse. But this mistress of yours (the young wife)—surely she isn’t the one who should be standing there! ŽemR I 186. Indeed, that day when Grandfather was outdoors for the last time is still so clear in his memory, as if it had happened yesterday. SimonR IV 16. The pronouns mentioned above have the same emphatic demonstrative (deictic) meaning and adjectival position in cases where no noun accompanies them, but one is understood from the context. Cf.: 2 Е. Курилович, Очерки по лингвистике, Москва, 1962, p. 204. 3 E. Kržizhkova, Remarks on the system of demonstrative pronouns in modern Slavic literary languages, Russian and Slavic Linguistics, Moscow, 1972, p. 144. 36 … a merchant’s son travels around the world and tells stories, only not as cheerful as the one about the matches (= like that story about the matches). BalčAP 203. The deictic forms tas, ta; šis, ši; šitas, -a; anas, -a relate to one another as semantic variants within a particular system. Tas, ta are primary forms—they are the most widely used and the most neutral in meaning. Šitas, -a, šis, ši; anas, -a are secondary, used more narrowly and having specifically defined meanings⁴. Tas, ta cannot here be contrasted with jis, ji, which occur in another (nominal) position. In a particular context, tas, ta may replace the forms šis, ši, šitas, -a or anas, -a, but by no means the forms jis, ji. The latter forms can substitute only for the entire combination of a noun and the forms tas, ta. Cf.: You can go by yourself, if that old, blackened fellow suits you so well= ( this one, this fellow)! but: Once there was a box of matches; those matches (= they) were very proud of their origin. Besides their deictic function (explicit indication with a nuance of contrastive meaning), the adjectival forms tas, ta are used much like articles in other languages. In these cases they have a bleached demonstrative meaning and are therefore not necessary; they carry a clear emphatic nuance of meaning and can often be omitted (especially when other so-called features of actual division are present—emphatic intonation, corresponding word order, fronting of particular words, and so on). In Lithuanian today they perform, one might say, a stylistic function⁵. — Where has our Petras disappeared to? ŽemR I 206. And that little water hen—could it be a little toad?—wading through the puddle, squeals: “You’ll be bald! You’ll be bald!” At last that louse, a tiny beetle, having crept into his ear, buzzes: “Brother, dear brother! You wanted a rouble, a rouble!” ŽemR I 200. The pronoun šitas, -a is also used with the same function, e.g.: Almost barefoot, he shuffles back along the bench and bumps into his seated father. At once the latter cries out: “You again, damn you! There’s no living with these children.” BaltPV I 13. 4 On primary and secondary forms, see J. Kurylowicz, The Inflectional Categories of Indo-European, Heidelberg, 1964, p. 15. 5 A. Valeckienė, Lietuvių kalbos įvardžiai ir jų reikšmės, LKK VI, Vilnius, 1963, p. 41, 42; D. Lukšys, Savotiška įvardžio tas vartosena, „Kalbos kultūra“, Vilnius, 1964, 7, p. 47. A. Rosin’s claim (“Kalbotyra,” XXIV (1)) that Lithuanian has articles derived from demonstrative pronouns, as in other Indo-European languages, is questionable. Under the definite article, which he examines in greater detail, he includes demonstrative pronouns even in cases where they still have a clear demonstrative (deictic) meaning (referring to things mentioned earlier); cf. the examples he gives: Pons parsivežė paukštį iš usenio (= užsienio)… ūkinėdys pasakė: „Vyrai, kas tą paukštį pavogs,… užplaks bus!“ …eme kilika… biladams… Tas kilikas naujas te(tamentas e)ti mana… (Mž 26–27). …klau(f)ikem… ape ubaga Lažari…. teipo ir apie fchi Lažari kalbedami… turim daboti/fi… Ifch tie fos (kon)te Loza-rio giwenimas… pawargens buwa… (BP II 189). Thie ifch wieno wi(f)adai fteng(e)fi prie(ch f)chi Kri(f)tu (BP I 108). Panna tureio funu… Tą funu žmones Emmanuel wadina (KN I 138) and so on. Even in languages that genuinely have articles (e.g., German), the corresponding pronouns, rather than articles, may be used in these cases, just as in Lithuanian; cf.: 1) Why do you say that the Son of Man must be lifted up? Who is this Son of Man? (Jn 12, 34) — Und wie sage(n) denn / Des men(s)chen Son mus erhohet werden. Wer ift die ser menschen Son (Biblia… Deudsch Auff(s) new zugericht von D. M. Luth. Wittemberg, 1549), 2) David foresaw all this and spoke about the resurrection of the Messiah… God raised this Jesus (Acts 2, 32) — Die fen Jhefum hat Gott auferweckt (ibid.). Lithuanian pronouns tas, ta, šitas, -a and others, when used with a weakened deictic meaning, merely approach and somewhat resemble articles in other languages, but they are by no means articles of the kind found in Germanic languages (German, English, etc.). Examples in which the pronoun retains a clear deictic meaning do not belong to this “article” function at all. 37 These pronouns no longer differ markedly from one another, even semantically. In literary language, tas, ta are more common as the more neutral forms. The aforementioned emphatic forms also have no relation whatsoever to the pronoun jis, ji. 2) Tas, ta forms are used in noun position and relate primarily to the nominal forms jis, ji, as well as to the forms šis, ši, šitas, -a; anas, -a and others when used as nouns6. All these forms have an anaphoric meaning. When used in noun position, they generally refer to a previously mentioned, familiar entity without emphasizing its distinctness, and thus substitute for nouns mentioned earlier. These forms are pure substitutes for nouns. All the money went to his son, and tas began to live happily. BalčAP 199. Žolys chatted up Marcelė, the lagina, while ta, head bowed, looking glum, smiled. ŽemR I 172. He can no longer keep the dandelion mushrooms and saffron milk caps (red-capped boletus) under control: tos scattered all over the birch grove. ŽemR I 177. And the princess gave him a sword studded with gold coins; tie came in very handy for him. BalčAP 201. Cf.: Between Vilius and Martynas, Mrs. Gaidienė sits wedged in. She is beautiful and cheerful. She speaks to Vilius, but šis says nothing for the moment. SimonR IV 359. — Are you going along too (to the night pasture)? — They’re not taking me. Jonas used to go, but šitas (=Petras) isn’t going. BaltPV 100. Otherwise, those two (=Lepukas and Ferdukas) were ordinary people, semi-intellectuals. VaižgP I 56. These forms differ from one another in lexical nuances and constitute semantic variants. In this subsystem, the primary forms are not tas, ta, but jis, ji—they are the most frequently used and entirely neutral in meaning. Tas, ta and all the other forms mentioned here are secondary: they are used less often and carry additional lexical nuances. Tas, ta differs from šitas, -a; šis, ši on the one hand, and from anas, -a on the other, essentially in the same way as the corresponding forms with deictic meanings mentioned above in the first subsystem—according to the distance of the entity referred to from the speaker. In this subsystem, however, the three-way system of these pronouns is already quite weak. Used anaphorically (without emphasizing distinctness) in noun position, these pronouns often lose their lexical nuances and fall out of use. As an anaphoric form, anas, -a is now very rare, and šitas, -a is also uncommon. Compared with the latter, the variant šis, ši is somewhat more frequent, but it too can often be replaced by the more neutral forms tas, ta⁶. Cf.: Without taking off his galoshes or setting down the dripping sheaf, he pulled a damp sheet of paper from his bosom and held it out to Gintautas. Šis (=tas) eagerly snatched it from the guest’s stiffened hands. VaižgP I 127. I drove the horses with all my might; šie (=tie) suddenly took off running… PaukštAK 67. This, this usually remains when there is a clear contrast between a nearer and a farther demonstrative object, or when in the same sentence, alongside this, there is also that. Cf.: Accustomed to his cramped little yards, this did not even look like a yard, just an open, unfenced field. VaižgRR I 117. The children laughed quietly. They set off running from the garden toward the cottage. The biggest one was faster and left the little ones behind; šie chased after him, crying, and tas turned around and struck him in the back. ŽemR II 323–324. 6 For further discussion of the other forms, see A. Valeckienė, Anaforiniai įvardžiai — daiktavardžių variantai, “Baltistica,” VII(2), 1971, pp. 139 ff. 38 On the other hand, among all the forms mentioned above in this subsystem, including tas, ta, the most neutral in usage is jis, ji. This pronoun, one might say, is used without restrictions (especially in the neutral style of literary language). Jis, ji can often replace the tas, ta forms, but the reverse is rarer. The tas, ta forms often cannot replace the jis, ji forms, primarily because, besides anaphoric function (the sole function of the jis, ji forms), tas, ta also have other functions. Cf.: 1) In this way, he seemed to want to emphasize that his work could not, without qualification, be assigned to the novel, epic, prose poem, or any other genre. VaižgP I 12. 2) The Citizens’ eyes go out, having buried their hope in the sun. All that remains for him, in remembrance, are candles dripping from the roof… VaižgP I 43. 3) Work is joy and a source of health; work ennobles and elevates a person, as the writer seems to say. And here, too, one cannot disagree with him. VaižgP I 25. In the first sentence, replacing jo with to (veikalo) changes the pronoun’s position and function. By saying to veikalo, we indicate precisely the work known from the preceding context. By saying jo veikalo, we indicate a person known from the preceding context to whom the work belongs. In the second sentence, jam occupies a noun position and has an anaphoric function. It refers to a known person mentioned earlier, who is the object of the action (belieka jam). When jam is replaced with tam, the latter is immediately linked with atminimui (tam atminimui), i.e., it takes an adjectival position and a deictic function. It refers to a known remembrance mentioned earlier. In the third sentence, juo refers to the writer (one cannot disagree with him, that is, with the writer). Replacing juo with tuo fundamentally changes the reference: one cannot disagree with that means that one cannot disagree that work is a source of joy and health. That, that anaphoric forms are often used when several objects are mentioned in a sentence; that, that forms usually refer to the last-mentioned object (person), cf.: They stopped at the market, one man flying around, thrusting a whip at anyone he could; that one shamelessly went crack-crack at the one standing nearby and drove him around the market. The one who had been beaten, having got hold of the whip, passed it to another with a flick, and that one standing beside him also lashed out whip-whack. ValPJ 51. In this sentence, tas is difficult to replace with jis. When the subject of an action mentioned earlier is referred to, jis, ji is used, cf.: Vaižgantas spoke, perhaps with considerable truth, about other people of the past who wielded the pen, but when speaking about himself, he clearly exaggerated. VaižgP I 30. The old man was not used to being shown no respect. BorMS 18. But Ule cared nothing at all about the women who had stopped or their talk, and even less about all the punishments—here on earth and there in hell. What was she guilty of? Only because she was young, beautiful, and cheerful did all the young men take an interest in her, but none wanted to marry her, because she had neither a dowry nor a trousseau. BorMS 24. Here, the forms jis, ji cannot be replaced with tas, ta. A more detailed examination of the differences between jis, ji and other anaphoric forms is beyond the scope of our topic. Here we wish only to emphasize that the lexical nuances of anaphoric pronouns have often faded, and in many cases the use of these pronouns depends on sentence structure. Cases of neutralization are especially common when, in a particular context, one form replaces another. It should also be noted here that tas, ta forms have a specific, structurally determined use as correlatives in a subordinate clause with relative pronouns. Whoever earns cheaply also spends cheaply. Sln. It is not the one who strikes who is strong, but the one who endures. PP 213. 39 In sentences of this type, the that, that forms are explained by a subordinate clause. These forms may occur either before or after the explanatory clause. In such sentences, the that, that forms occupy the position of noun cases (especially with the pronoun what), but since their use is structurally determined, in such cases these forms cannot be replaced by the he, she forms. 005. The neuter form tai functions much more narrowly than the gendered forms of the same pronoun, tas, ta. It belongs only to the second subsystem mentioned above, i.e. it is always used substantively—it occupies certain noun-case positions—and has an anaphoric meaning. This form refers to something mentioned earlier or stated immediately after it, without marked emphasis. Most often, the form tai is used in the nominative position of the subject and the accusative position of the object. Cf.: The Šimoniai always cared for the oppressed; that was simply in their nature. SimonAŠL 24. The poet knew how to be young, with all the heedlessness, illusions, and laughter of youth. Few can do that. KubSNL 171. A little cloud of pain crossed everyone’s brow as they remembered their deceased father. Noticing this, the mother said… ŽemR I 154. … I have no time to dismount from the horse, and the armadillo has already burrowed into the ground. Its extraordinarily strong claws help it do this. IvanPŽ 60. What especially struck Hans Cvi Bakas was that among the arriving Crusaders he saw Kilgailis and Šarka free. VienPD, K 334. Thus, in terms of position and meaning, the form tai can be linked only with the masculine and feminine substantive anaphoric forms (subsystem 2). In other words, only three forms are anaphoric: tas, ta, tai, whereas only two forms are deictic (in the narrower sense): tas, ta. 006. The anaphoric forms tas, ta, tai share the same position (they occupy noun-case positions) and function. However, these forms differ greatly from one another. The form tai is contrasted with the masculine and feminine forms tas, ta. It differs from the forms tas, ta primarily in the nature of the reference to things and in its antecedents. Moreover, when the form tai is contrasted with the forms tas, ta, it is also contrasted, in one way or another, with the semantic and syntactic variants of the forms tas, ta, especially the principal variant of that system, jis, ji. On the other hand, by entering the anaphoric pronoun subsystem mentioned above, the form tai also introduces new members with which the forms tas, ta do not interact directly. All these differences will be discussed below. The invariant meaning of the forms tai (tatai⁷) and their relation to the forms tas, ta 007. The forms tas, ta are primarily in a semantic opposition to tai. They are contrasted according to the nature of reference to things. The masculine and feminine forms tas, ta are used to refer specifically to familiar things mentioned earlier. Most often, these forms are used to refer to people. “Levuk!” shouted Baltaragis. That one turned around and listened. ŽemR II 62. Šlioks—šliokš splashed water on the girls, and, once they were wet, he giggled, “ki-ki-ki,” because those girls, dressed respectably as for a holy day, rustled. ValPJ 83. 7 The meaning of the form tatai is the same as that of the form tai, but the former form is very rarely used; see Table 1. Therefore, tatai will not be mentioned again below alongside tai. 40 The forms tas, ta also refer to other living beings. Tas capt sugr obė lapei už uodegą, bet ta ištraukusi blyks pasirodė po stalu. ValPJ 55. He (Pranaitis) said nothing in reply, but only lashed the mare with a whip, so that ta raced down the road at a gallop. Myk-PutS 19. The forms tas, ta also refer to inanimate objects. Dandelions and saffron milk caps [a reddish-capped boletus] can no longer be controlled: tos scattered throughout the whole birch grove. ŽemR I 177. Everyone wore shoes, but they wore them only until leaving the church. ValPJ 30. I asked: “What will you dance?” They answered: “The English dance.” As I played that, everyone danced… ValPJ 74. In all these cases, when a known thing is specifically indicated, the antecedents (words referring to the same thing as the pronoun) of the masculine and feminine forms are certain nouns. Usually, the thing is first mentioned by a noun, and then a pronoun is used to refer to the same thing. Thus, the masculine and feminine pronoun replaces a particular noun, like the masculine and feminine pronouns and the other anaphoric pronouns mentioned above. Both masculine and feminine forms refer to the aforementioned things in the same way; they do not differ in the nature of their reference. The masculine and feminine forms differ from each other only in their antecedents. They agree with their antecedents in gender and number. For example, if the antecedent has a masculine singular form, then the pronoun likewise takes the masculine singular form, and so on; cf.: The daughter asked her father: “Will you let your daughter go?” He answered: “I will.” She asked her mother: “Will you let me go?” She again answered: “I will”… ValPJ 156. And the princess gave him a sword studded with gold coins; tie proved very useful to him. BalčAP 201. Thus, the distinction between masculine and feminine forms is purely grammatical, based on those forms agreeing in gender and number with other forms (antecedents). When the masculine and feminine forms are used as correlatives in a complex sentence with relative pronouns, their antecedents are the entire phrase expressed by the subordinate clause. Whoever speaks ill of Mrs. Rimšienė has not yet been born… ŽemR I 27. Whoever does not see the morning, whoever builds nothing, will have no place in the company of new workers. Kors(LKŽ V 363). Whoever carries the load is the one who gets whipped. JabIRR I 492. Whoever has good nails also has a broad throat. ŽemR I 203. It was not the one who found it who went first, but the one who lost it. PP 212. So do not begrudge it, man… give thanks to the one who gave you fire and warmth. DonR 97. Let only those be ashamed who are not ashamed to be lazy. DonR 39. I am with those who are not afraid to sail while the waves buffet them. SNėrP I 223. Whoever went hunting shot a fox. JV 1060. Whoever is absent is guilty. Dkš. Antecedentas – šalutinis dėmuo, gali eiti prieš įvardį ir po jo. Tokiais atvejais tas, ta formos taip pat nurodo tam tikrą konkretų (tik neapibrėžtą) daiktą, paprastai asmenį, kurį apibūdina šalutinis dėmuo. Tas, ta formos derinamos su santykiniais įvardžiais. Su tas vyr. g. vienaskaitos formomis dažniausiai vartojamos atitinkamos kas, rečiau kuris, katras vyr. g. vienaskaitos formos (Tas dar negimė, kas (kuris, katras) Rimšienę apšne kės). Su vyr. g. daugiskaitos (tie) ir moteriškosios giminės (ta, tos) formomis paprastai vartojamos kuris, -i, katras, -a formos (kas šiuo atveju retesnės), atitinkamai suderintos su pirmosiomis gimine ir skaičiumi (Tie (ta, tos) dar negimė, kurie (kuri, kurios) Rimšienę apšne kės). In such sentences, the antecedent (the subordinate clause) of the masculine and feminine forms, as well as the masculine and feminine forms themselves, can be replaced by a substantival form (participle or adjective) formed from 41 the verb of the subordinate clause (the antecedent) and its counterpart in this position (the predicate form). Cf.: Whoever (who) gossips about Rimšienė has not yet been born ⇒ The one who will gossip about Rimšienė (that one) has not yet been born. In the transformed sentence, the substantival form the one who will gossip denotes the person referred to by the form that one. 008. The neuter form tai is used to refer in a general, nonspecific way to phenomena, actions, or things. Rapolas did nothing at all, but this was indescribably unpleasant and boring to him. VaizgRR I 127. One went “meow-meow” like a cat, another “ve-ve” like a calf... Hearing this, I could not hold out. ValPJ 67. Her character, her soul, did not interest him at all, for he had no understanding of such things. VienPD, K 158. Unlike the forms tas, ta, whose antecedent is usually a noun, the antecedent of the form tai is most often an entire phrase: a sentence constituent, a whole sentence, several sentences, a paragraph, and so on. The form tai indicates what the entire phrase expresses. The antecedent may precede or follow the form tai. In the preposed position (before the form tai), the antecedent consists of: a) A constituent of a coordinate or asyndetic sentence, or several constituents of this kind. He spoke to me as to an adult, and this was very pleasant for me. VenclPU 436. Even back when I was studying privately with teacher Butauskas, I was invited to act in a play, and that was a great rarity and honor in those days. VenclPU 320. And your eyes have become weary; you have turned into a perpetual idler, giving yourself over to sleep—is that fitting for someone so young? ŽemR I 69. b) The main clause of a complex sentence. ... he did all the farm work with such ease and lightness, as if it were a true “feast” for him, rather than a hardship. VaizgP I 215. Do not smoke tobacco of any kind, because it burdens the chest. BaranR II 8. c) The subordinate clause of a complex sentence (in these cases, the antecedent may also follow the form tai; see below). What old Vidmantas jokingly prophesied after drinking beer came to pass unexpectedly soon. VaizgP I 67. How, when, and who first brought them to Lithuania remains veiled in the mists of distant ages. VaizgP I 60. Although the aforementioned work could not be completed, despite this, the time I spent with our linguist was not wasted. BūgRR I 190. d) Any constituent or several constituents in a mixed-type sentence. Here he remembered that the matter had not yet been discussed with Darata herself, but this could not change the blacksmith’s plans. VenclR III 108. The region inhabited by the zoologists mentioned above (Turkmenistan) has long been notorious as a focus of malaria and leishmaniasis, but in districts where bats are plentiful these diseases occur much less frequently, and this is thought to be due to the bats, since they rid the region of mosquitoes and other insects that spread these diseases. IvanPŽ 32. e) A separate sentence or several sentences. “Thank you, thank you, dear granny, your song is very beautiful!” Hearing this, the old woman began to giggle. ValPJ 20. (Kazelis) You know, mother, what I would like to be? 8For the meaning of this, cf. K. Ambrasas, Some Semantic and Morphological Features of Personal Pronouns in English and Lithuanian, “Kalbotyra”, XXI, Vilnius, 1970, p. 227. 42 (Morta) It is too early for you to think about that. Grow up first. SruogR II 170. There will not be two kings in the state! The united body will split apart! Our unity will collapse! War will break out! The homeland and the church will be drenched in blood, and enemies will trample the graves of our ancestors—you, king, will have to answer for this! SruogR II 85. The passive participles (=non-active participles) in Latvian are in no way superior to ours. This can be clearly seen from the examples given. BūgRR I 535. f) An entire paragraph. A birch tree wafting pleasant scents sped past and vanished like a summer haze. The mornings smell of silvery dew, and a dragonfly plays in the grass. Softly splashing its silvery ripples, a stream rustles in a lovely valley, a bee buzzes among the thyme, and ears of grain ripen. The sultry heat lasts all day. Scythes ring out in clear voices... Though this brings comfort, though it lifts my spirits, my soul is still unhappy... BaranR II 33. A. Vienuolis refers to an entire episode in which it is told how Jogaila, while playing with Vytautas, almost knocks off the latter’s head, using the pronoun that: But that was long ago. VienPD, K 426. There are many such instances in literature. In postpositive position (after the form tai) comes an antecedent, which usually consists of: a) A subordinate clause of a complex sentence. How can a person imagine something that has never happened in life? PaukštAK 44.... nothing new has happened to me, except that I have remained healthy to this day. BaranR II 96. She was thinking precisely about how she would grow up and when that would happen. SimonOBT 49. Then the guests began to scold Stanislovas for having abducted a young maiden from them. ValPJ 111. What concerns us here for the moment is not whether the tale about Widewut’į is true or not. BūgRR I 187. b) An explanatory sentence element or an explanatory clause. This is the wonderful weakness of an empty-headed person—to boast of the antiquity of his family... VaižgP I 62. Adomukas had not yet fully understood what it meant—that your uncle was gone. VaižgRR I 154. c) An entire explanatory paragraph consisting of several sentences. It was a splendid sight, and moving, too! He rode out beyond the city gates to meet the king, like a young man, on a white horse adorned with gold. Banners waved, trumpets blared... The king began to wipe away his tears... But Vytautas’s horse stopped dead, tossed its mane, snorted, and sprang across the field, flying like a raging whirlwind... And the duke fell like a tree trunk... SruogR II 126. Vaižgantas’s “Dėdės ir dėdienės” (“Uncles and Aunts”) begins with the little word tai, whose explanation is the entire novella. Cf.: It would have been easy enough if they had been Father’s or Mother’s brothers and their wives... I must bring a different kind of uncle and aunt into the Lithuanian national epic. It will be a sad story... VaižgRR I 35–36. In all these cases, when the antecedent of the form tai is a phrase, the reference of this form is very general. When the antecedent consists of a sentence or a clause, the reference of the form tai is focused on the predicate of the sentence—the verb or its equivalent in this position. For this reason, in certain cases the form tai can be replaced by a verbal, adjectival, or other noun (according to the form of the predicate) denoting an abstract action, or by a verb infinitive. In such cases, a demonstrative pronoun (tas, šis) is usually needed with the noun. 43 It was decided to march to Lida, although only the duke’s intimates knew about it (= about that decision). VienPD, K 405. The organs of touch are highly developed, and this (= this development of the organs of touch) is of vital importance to the whale when diving and surfacing. IvanPŽ 204. These animals are called dormice because, when winter comes, they sleep for a long time; some species fatten up before that (= before that hibernation). IvanPŽ 108. The dental system is similar to that of insectivores, and this (= this similarity) proves once again that these two groups are related. IvanPŽ 28. Nevertheless, often, often, because that is what one needs. This is an essential summer supplement; this is a concert of the beautiful (= That revelry…). VaižgP I 223. But the progress of humanity would come to a halt if no one pointed a finger at existing evil and yearned for something better, more perfect. This is the poet’s duty (=To show evil, to long for beauty—the poet’s duty). KubSNL 84. Compare such expressions: “What have you got there?” asked another old wizard, who had no name at all, and that lack of a name was his greatest virtue (= and this was his greatest virtue). BalčAP 93. When they approached the throne where the princess sat, they were simply struck speechless, only repeating her last words, and that repetition did not suit her at all (= and this did not suit her at all). BalčAP 238. Only the foolish ones still held on to their rings in woollen gloves: they were very cautious, and such caution, one must say, is a boring thing! (= and this, one must say, is a boring thing!) BalčAP 274. In certain cases, the entire antecedent, consisting of a subordinate clause with a relative pronoun, can be replaced (as can the form tai) by a neuter participle or adjective form functioning as the predicate of the subordinate clause, or formed from the verb or adjective form serving as that clause’s predicate. The neuter form denotes a general phenomenon associated with an action or a property. 1) But neither difficult for Kaziukas nor annoying. Well, it will be annoying to carry out what one has conceived, felt, cherished, and nurtured... VaižgRR I 402. ⇒ Well, it will be annoying to carry out what one has conceived, felt, cherished, and nurtured. 2) How does the power to see in the world what no one sees arise in a person? KubSNL 55. ⇒ How does the power to see what no one sees arise in a person? 3) It will be enough to give to the needy what we ourselves no longer need. VaižgP I 73. ⇒ It will be enough to give the needy what we ourselves no longer need. These kinds of substitutions and transformations are, of course, limited both structurally and stylistically (they are possible only when other favorable conditions obtain), but they show how general the reference of the form tai is in these cases (when the antecedent is a phrase), compared with the reference of the forms tas, ta (jis, ji, etc.) mentioned above. Even in cases where the antecedent of the forms tas, ta is a subordinate clause with a relative pronoun, their reference is much more specific (Whoever gossips about Mrs. Rimšienė has not yet been born (a particular person is indicated)), than the reference of the form tai. Their substitutes, too, are different (cf. 007). In all cases where the antecedent of the form tai is a phrase, this form cannot be replaced in any way by tas, ta; jis, ji or other gendered forms of anaphoric pronouns. 009. In certain cases, the form tai is also used with antecedents such as tas, ta; jis, ji and other gendered forms of specific reference, that is, with a noun preceding that form. Even in this case, however, there is a difference between the antecedents of the form tai and of the forms tas, ta; jis, ji and others. The forms tas, ta and others specifically indicate a particular thing, which is also denoted by the antecedent. In short, between the thing indicated by the forms tas, ta and 44 the object denoted by their antecedent coincide completely. By contrast, there is often no correspondence between the object indicated by the form tai and the object denoted by its antecedent. This occurs due to various contextual circumstances. There is no complete coincidence between the object indicated by the form tai and the object denoted by its antecedent: a) When the antecedent of the form tai denotes an abstract object whose concept is not strictly defined: more or fewer attributes may be assigned to it, it may be understood figuratively, and so on. 1) As before a minor operation: although you know it will not hurt, although it is cocaine-anesthetized, nevertheless you tremble, you get nervous. VaižgP I 195. 2) ...how and to whom, indeed, can you evaluate the sun’s good work, when this is obvious in itself? VaižgRR I 43. 3) Oh, a maid’s testimony? Does that say too little? SruogR II 58. 4) ...they listened intently to the hardness of the steel: the reapers recognize it by the sound. VaižgP I 223. 5) He was tired, and feared complications with the police as well: that was not fitting for a priest. Vaižg P I 178. In the first sentence, operation serves as the antecedent, but tai refers not so much to the operation itself as to its effects (after all, one could not say: the operation (it) will not hurt, the operation is cocaine-anesthetized). In the second sentence, the antecedent of the form tai is work, but tai refers not so much to the sun’s work itself as to the results that follow from it. In the third sentence, where testimony serves as the antecedent of tai, it is understood that tai refers to everything the maids have said, and not merely to some specific testimony. In the fourth sentence, the form tai refers not to the hardness of the steel as such, but to the degree of hardness of the scythe. In the last sentence, tai refers to the complications and all the consequences that follow from them. In many such cases, it is hardly possible to replace the form tai with gendered forms of anaphoric pronouns, such as tas, ta; jis, ji, etc. However, there are contexts in which, in such cases, the form tai can be replaced by the gendered forms of the aforementioned anaphoric pronouns⁹. Cf.: He was worried about confession too, but, foreseeing once again all sorts of difficulties and so many events in his life that contradicted one another, he put it off until later. VienPD,K 167. Coming to his senses, Mr. Gerulavičius merely told those gathered that he had witnessed a great miracle and that he would confess it to the priest alone. VienPD,K 201. In these sentences, tai can be replaced with the corresponding form of jis, ji (put it off — the confession; would confess it — the miracle). Nevertheless, when we replace confession with the pronoun form ją, we have in mind mainly the act itself, the specific procedure, whereas the reference of the form tai is broader: it also includes what he will say during that confession. The same applies to replacing the miracle with the form ji. Cf. also sentences such as these: 1) Well, only now did I notice the stench, but (=but) such a one that the whole town could suffocate from it. O, lieber Gott! where does this come from, what is this? VaižgP I 188. 2) Throughout his life, Sviestavičius had never tried to weigh anything—not even this feeling—to see what sort of weight and value it had; to probe where it came from, what it was, and what it was like. VaižgP I 117. In the first sentence, stench is replaced by tai; in the second, feeling is first referred to by tai, and then twice by jis. Cf. similar expressions in a similar si- 9 It is more convenient to compare the form tai with the forms jis, ji of anaphoric pronouns, since they are the most neutral and most widely used; the forms tas, ta, šis, ši, etc., are specially defined and in many cases can also be replaced by the forms jis, ji. Moreover, the gendered forms tas, ta must not be confused with the masculine singular forms tas, ta, tam, tą, etc., which have a function corresponding to that of the form tai (see below). 45 in a situation involving different pronouns: where does that come from, what is that (a child) and where does he come from, what is he (a feeling). Here, the forms tai and he, she differ so little in their semantic function that they are used in parallel. These are cases in which, owing to a particular context, the spheres of use of tai and he, she overlap. b) When the antecedent of the form tai denotes a name. …there will be money to establish a farm elsewhere. – Where? – Sviestavičius was surprised… – In Linksmynė. Do you know what that means? – I know: a place of joy and merrymaking. VaizgP I 133. …the first duke mentioned in the Tatar chronicle is called Szwejst-Sapandaila. In Lithuanian, this means: Šviesiausias – Najjas’niejszy – Sijatelnyj. – Batvinis? – Is that a surname? In these sentences, the form tai refers not to a place (Linksmynė) or a person (Sapandaila, Batvinis), but only to the name of that place or person, which is then commented on. Cf. the expression: Do you know what she means to me (Linksmynė)?, where only the place itself is meant. c) When the antecedent of the form tai denotes several things of the same kind, the form tai refers to them approximately, as things belonging to that sphere. 1) …and she herself gladly went, bringing no less “cake and curds” than the other women. It is pleasant to accept that from her, knowing that she takes it from her master openly and brings it without stealing. VaizgP I 142. 2) True, he came to that room only to sleep, and during the day he had an assigned place in the brewery, but all the same it was better than the “labyrinth.” Myk-PutAŠ 62. In the first sentence, tai does not refer specifically to “cake and curds,” but to everything that people generally bring when going visiting. (It is no coincidence that the author puts “cake and curds” in quotation marks.) In the second sentence, tai refers not so much to the room and the place in the brewery as, more generally, to that kind of living situation. Cf. also the following sentences: …the granary is still full of grain, bacon, flax, wool? To you that is nothing, but to Ansus it is a temptation, an object of envy. VaizgP I 74. – And what should we say about food and fodder for the horses? – We will discuss that together with the magistrate. VienPD,K 399. She could not imagine happiness and a full life without a gurgling baby, a loving husband, and her own cozy corner of a home. This is the first link in human existence. KubSNL 314. In these examples, gendered forms (tas, ta; jis, ji, etc.) would sound unnatural in place of the form tai; moreover, the nature of the reference would change as well. d) When the antecedent denotes one specific thing, and the form tai refers to it together with all its attributes and the consequences that follow from them. 1) The manor had deliberately cut itself off with that bend when releasing the serfs. But for him it was inconvenient, far away; so he parcelled it out to the villagers in small bits for next to nothing. VaizgP I 86. 2) Along the very low-lying ground, a thick, dense growth of meadow grass carpeted the land, like sheepskin covered in dense, lake-like wool. Now that is more beautiful than when people put together a little basket of the most splendid flowers. VaizgP I 219. 3). There is still all sorts of forgotten material at the manor. Gather it up and take it to Linksmynė. VaizgP I 134. 4) In some places in nature there are natural salt licks, and deer have visited them since ancient times to lick the salt. There are such places in Siberia, and the local hunters know them and lie in wait for the deer that come there. IvanPŽ 261. In the first sentence, tai refers not only to the bend itself, but also to all the inconveniences arising from the fact that the bend is far away, not near the manor. Here, tai could be replaced by ji, ta- 46 for it would specifically indicate only the meadow. Besides, the pronoun form jam is already present nearby, so a second form from the same root would also be stylistically undesirable. In the second sentence, using the form tai refers not only to the meadow grass, but especially to its beautiful growth. In the third sentence, instead of tai one could also say ją (the material); that would be more specific, but the author precisely does not want such definiteness. Here tai refers not only to the material, but to something more as well: everything on the estate suitable for building. In the previous sentence, tai could be replaced by the form jas (i.e., the places, the licking grounds), but when we say tai, we indicate more broadly—not only those places or licking grounds, but also the fact that the deer come to them. e) When the antecedent is a noun-like word that lacks the category of gender, or an infinitive, tai is very useful in this case. To buy land… he was granted barely 60 tithes. That is quite a lot, after all. VaižgP I 211. Poetry must engage with everything that happens in the world and feel responsible for it. KubSNL 126. Putting a lived moment into words is lyric poetry’s great power, advantage, and distinctive feature. This is the law of the genre. KubSNL 174. In certain cases, the form tai is used with nouns preceding it, but from the context it is difficult to tell whether that noun is the antecedent of the form tai. The form tai may be linked not only to that noun, but to the entire phrase. …the sun was already setting, ready to scatter all the fishing boats; as he smoked on his way home, a human figure, not a bear, stretched out beneath the crosses. That (=what stretched out) was clearly moving dimly through the fog. VaižgP I 138. The wolf looks and says, “Look, on the other side of the sea a flock of little geese is flying.” The gander answers, “That (=what is flying) isn’t for you!” ValPJ 139. …there is one (candle) behind the picture (=painting), but tai (=what is behind the painting) is for his own home… VienPD, K 24. The cemetery is overgrown with various trees, especially pines and firs. They hum their eternal song, mysteriously and softly, as they did once and as they do today. And yet that (=what is being hummed) sounds like a mother’s voice lulling her beloved, crying child to sleep. SimonAŠL 8. Mikodemas’s face was so foolish that one could paint a portrait of him… That (=the fact that the face was foolish, its foolishness) finally convinced Vizgirda that the hour of his doom had come. VaižgP I 201. From all the context-dependent variants presented above, it can be seen that the use of tai with antecedents is not sharply distinguished from the use of gendered forms tas, ta, jis, ji and others. Sometimes both tai and the latter forms are possible. The form tai is generally used when things are indicated without wishing to define them precisely (generalized reference). 010. One more case of the use of the form tai should be noted separately, in which its antecedent is a noun or a word that substitutes for one. This case is defined structurally: tai occurs in a sentence or clause whose predicate consists of a noun in the nominative case. This nominative describes the form tai as well as the noun or nominal form serving as its antecedent. The antecedent usually occurs in the preceding sentence before the pronoun—in preposed position, although it can sometimes occur after it (inversion). In these cases, tai can refer to (as can the forms ta and tas; cf. 007): a) A person. Jonukas would have received more elsewhere, since he is a man, well-built and broad-shouldered, as strong as an ox. ŽemR I 73. Nearby, someone seized the blacksmith in an embrace and began kissing him affectionately. It was a young, handsome fellow dressed in a gymnasium uniform. ŽemR I 46. The whole of Lithuania, it seems, had been missing female doctors, 47 because it is still new. VaižgP I 70. The blacksmith Bronislovas looked around, while the one standing beside him was already gazing at Petronėlė in amazement. It was a very young, tall, slender girl, like a roe deer… ŽemR I 52. …bought (land) by Samogitians of the kind he had been looking for so long… This is Vilius Vidmantas, a Prussian with his daughter Darata, an intellectual. VaižgP I 125. b) A living creature. He sees that the same man has an animal—this was a wolf—to sell. BsRP 40. Most mammals live on land, but some have adapted to a very wide range of habitats. Compared with birds, they are quiet, not very agile creatures. IvanPŽ 9. …all the bats of Europe, Africa, and America are very useful to humans—they are important destroyers of harmful insects. IvanPŽ 28. Of all American monkeys, the capuchin genus is perhaps the best known. These are medium-sized animals. IvanPŽ 46. Squirrels are widespread throughout Europe and Siberia as far as northern China. This is a forest dweller. IvanPŽ 113. c) An abstract thing or action. What did socialism mean in the eyes of S. Nėris? It was the death of evil, coercion, and human egoism. It was the final demise of poverty and inequality, oppression and wars… It was the resurrection of humanity from the dust of humiliation and degradation. KubSNL 108. At that time all their vital functions slow down, breathing becomes less frequent, the heart beats less often, overall body temperature falls, and this state lasts five or six months. This is winter dormancy. IvanPŽ 31. She did not consider smuggling a sin: it was the whole border region’s industry. VaižgP I 69. We get angry at weeds for being so prolific. Isn’t that foolish? Is fecundity a curse? It is an example of how we should live in order to survive. VaižgRR I 94. For Vasarus, it was an extraordinary event: his parents’ first visit, his first meeting with his parents as a cleric. Myk-PutAŠ 36. d) A concrete thing. “A lovely little drink…” “And tasty, too. What is it?” “It’s homemade honey wine.” VaižgP I 116. For S. Nėris, the earth was a provider, addressed in the tenderest words of peasant love. It is the source of life. KubSNL 373. “And do you know what those towers are for?” “They are battering rams for throwing stones!” VienPD,K 261. …several large houses covered with shingles could be seen. These were the municipal and school buildings. VaižgP I 95. I would pin on a bright little sword. It is my little light, my bright little lantern. JD 798. Sentences of this type occur in which the predicate consists of the same noun as the antecedent, but the former has different modifiers (or a subordinate clause functioning as a modifier), which characterize the thing. “Well, then, what spirit pierced Brother Rudolf with a spear?” “Oh, it was a very terrible spirit.” VienPD,K 338. In Catholic society, S. Nėris’s love had no rights. It was the love of party members, despised, condemned, and slandered. It was a love beyond the law. KubSNL 88. Having indulged in daydreams, he would open a book… then, lying on his stomach, he would not lift his eyes from it for four whole hours. Those were the only hours when Napalys was not a grumbler. VaižgP I 233. Many species of narrow-nosed monkeys have what are called cheek pouches—these are pouches occupying the space between the molars and the cheeks, IvanPŽ 48. He told them not to be afraid of the dead bird, 48 lying in that corridor. It was a real little bird with wings and a beak. BalčAP 183. In sentences of this and the above-mentioned type, where the nominative noun forming the predicate describes the entity denoted by the antecedent, it is difficult to replace the form tai with gendered forms of anaphoric pronouns (jis, ji, tas, ta, etc.). Such replacement is constrained not by the meaning of the pronoun, but by the sentence structure. Jis, ji can be used with the same antecedent, but only in sentences of a different type, where the predicate consists of a verb or another form, but not a nominative noun with a descriptive meaning. Cf.: Above all, we must not let the neighboring noblemen’s land pass into the hands of foreign newcomers. The noblemen do not value it, but for us it is a source of life. VaižgP I 211. Here the antecedent is the same—land—for both the form jos and the form tai; these forms are simply used in different types of sentences. Cf. also: First, let us get acquainted with the fox... It does not avoid people very much and often settles near a town. It is Europe’s most abundant predator. IvanPŽ 157. The Šešiavilkiukai would bring the books home from neighbors, where no one read them, although no one threw them into the stove either. Ah, they were in the cottage on equal terms with the prayer book, as “the glory of God,” although they were Alekna’s balalaika pieces or imitations of Valančius. VaižgP I 229. ... but neither knowledge nor ideas and theories create lyricism. It wells up spontaneously from the foundations of the psyche. It is an outpouring and voice of the profound powers of the human being. KubSNL 141. Cf. also these two sentences: The broad-eared bat is also common in Lithuania; it is medium-sized (IvanPŽ 34) and the better-known species is the colugo. It is a fairly slender-bodied animal about the size of a cat. (IvanPŽ 35). In sentences with a descriptive nominative noun, the form tai cannot merely be replaced by gendered forms of anaphoric pronouns (jis, ji; tas, ta, etc.); it cannot be omitted from the sentence at all. This form is an indispensable component of the sentence. Without it, the sentence would be difficult to construct. On the other hand, because the specified sentence type has a fixed structure, the use of the form tai is becoming fossilized. Its function, one might say, no longer represents the function of a full-fledged word. Owing to its special position in the context, the form tai semantically links the antecedent with the noun that describes the entity it denotes. For this reason, in the sentences in question, the form tai gravitates more or less toward functioning as a particle. Cf. sentences in which the form tai is clearly a particle: The Santekliai Palace is a small art museum. VaižgP I 108. The brid’s most important weapon is its forelegs. IvanPŽ 248. ... behold, this very aurora is Žiežmariai. VienPD,K 395. Sheep are something else. Myk-Puts 96. The falcon is the symbol of a free, courageous fighter. KubSNL 123. The potatoes are finished, and the gardens are nothing to worry about: the women alone will clear them. ŽemR I 186. Almost all the people you saw in church are nobles or minor gentry. ValP J 43. Honor, king—that is the honor of the state... SruogR II 39. These sentences are transformations of sentences of the type described above (the form tai with a descriptive nominative noun); cf.: Jonukas would have received even more elsewhere, because he is a strapping fellow (ŽemR I 73) ⇒ Jonukas is a strapping fellow; he would have received even more elsewhere. 4. 520 49 011. The form tai is also used with a descriptive nominative noun without an expressed antecedent. In this case, what is being referred to can be inferred only from the context and situation. He … had long been wondering what other gentlemen were riding separately and so quietly in a separate compartment. “Pakulinis is quite a man!” said Leopold, expressing great disdain with his voice and a wave of his hand. VaižgP I 55. And he turned around … quite unexpectedly. No, that was not the face I had hoped to see. SimonAŠL 5. “Knight, is this a dream, or your spirit?!”—Knystautienė rose from her chair. And indeed, she did not believe that it was the knight Griežė. VienPD,K 464. He sits like an owl, looks like a horned owl: this is your pick, little sister, this is your choice. As tall as a threshold, as stout as a pestle: this is your choice, little sister! (proverb) ValPJ 109. Once, while in the county office, he saw on a wall pasted over with newspaper sheets a little drawing of a mill. He recognized that it was a little mill. VaižgP I 86. That is antirhetoric (said after a quotation from a poem). KubSNL 349. … In the evening Tupikis went out to say his prayers too, because it was the last Saturday before Shrove Tuesday. ŽemR I 266. In these sentences, the form tai is even closer to a particle, as in the sentences mentioned above with a nominative noun describing the entity denoted by the antecedent. Here the form tai can be replaced by the particle čia or, with a certain intonation, omitted altogether. Cf. a sentence in which the particle čia occupies the same position as the form tai in the sentences mentioned above: After the ring had been kissed, it immediately opened completely, and then it became clear that this was a real tulip. BalčAP 179. It should be said that, in general, the form tai is used much more often as a particle or conjunction than as a pronoun form. Here we have highlighted only intermediate cases in which the pronoun form tai approaches the particle tai. Cf. Table 1 for the frequency and functions of the forms tai and tat(ai). 012. Of all the uses of tai mentioned above as a pronoun form—the combinational variants—a general (invariant) meaning of this form emerges: to refer to an entity in a generalized, non-specific way. (Perhaps for this reason it often comes close to being a particle.) Generalized, approximate, non-specific reference is the basic meaning of the form tai, by which this form is contrasted in the language with the gendered forms tas, ta. These forms (taken together) do not have this feature (generalized reference). On the contrary, they refer specifically to particular entities. Thus, a privative opposition is established between the gendered forms tas, ta and the form tai: Specific reference Non-specific (generalized) reference tas, ta tai (tatai) This opposition is asymmetrical. Specific reference has masculine and feminine singular and plural forms in all cases (tas, ta; to, tos; tam, tai, etc.; tie, tos; tų; tiems, toms, etc.), whereas generalized reference has only one invariable form, tai, and its rare variant, tatai. As a result, a different, purely syntactic opposition arises to restore symmetry. 013. Unlike the first, the second opposition formed by the form tai is not with all the gendered forms tas, ta, but only with the masculine singular forms, 50 Functions of the forms tai, tat(ai) Table 1 tai | tat(ai) | Pronoun | Particle Conjunction | Intermediate between pronoun and particle | Pronoun | Particle Conjunction | Intermediate between pronoun and particle | BalčAP | 39 | 41 | 26 | 2 | 2 | 2 | BūgRR I | 18 | 35 | 1 | 5 | — | — | IvanPŽ | 26 | 27 | 50 | — | — | — | KrėvŠP | 20 | 112 | 13 | — | — | — | KudR | 58 | 220 | 19 | — | — | — | PietA | 67 | 297 | 33 | — | — | — | SimonAŠL | 54 | 110 | 59 | 20 | — | 2 | VaižgP I | 110 | 128 | 44 | 1 | 1 | 1 | VienPD, K | 24 | 102 | 20 | — | — | — | ŽemR I | 12 | 64 | 12 | — | 1 | — | ŽemR₁ I | 1 | 46 | 2 | 10 | 11 | 10 Note: To compile this and the other tables, 180,000 printed characters of text were sampled for each, i.e., including tas, to, tam, tą, tuo, tame. This opposition does not include feminine singular and plural10 or masculine plural forms. Both members of this opposition—tai and tas, singular forms—have the same meaning. Both tai and tas forms refer to objects, phenomena, or actions in a general, non-specific way. Like the tai forms, the antecedents of the singular forms tas are usually an entire phrase. She particularly liked the fact that flowers smell on land, while at the bottom of the sea they have no scent at all. BalčAP 136. “Mother, would you let us have a dance?…” She replied: “Well, all right, go ahead and romp; my daughters long for it very much too. ValPJ 53. For if the people overthrew them, it was so that they could take power into their own hands. VenclGD 269. The children, accustomed to being alone all day, doing whatever they wanted—sitting, sleeping, crying, or laughing—were left alone today as well. ŽemR II 188. It ended with Antanėlis moving into his uncles’ little barn to spend the night, too. Vaižg RR I 148. 10 In dialects, feminine singular forms also occur with the meaning of general reference, for example: Čia ne t ó (= tas): ne dėl pyktinių jie dalijas. Trgn. 4 * 51 The singular forms of tas, which refer to a general phenomenon, are distributed in certain positions in relation to the form tai. They have characteristic environments. 014. The neuter form tai, historically a nominative–accusative case form, is generally used in the nominative or accusative position. In the nominative position, the form tai usually denotes the subject of an action and most often occurs with the following predicate forms: 1) With neuter adjectival forms used predicatively: a) Adjectives. She knows one shouldn’t take too much pleasure in one’s own beauty; that is unbecoming. Simon AŠL 63. The children nod and wait to hear what else their father will say, because it is extremely interesting. SimonAŠL 19. Everyone forgot him. No one needed him anymore; no one invited him anywhere, no one said they would visit him: that was how things were, indeed. VaizgP I 54. Do you want to be much, much richer than you were; to live much, much more beautifully than you did; to keep the same four horses, if that is so necessary? VaizgP I 132. At ground level, a thick, densely grown meadow grass is covered with tufts, like a sheepskin with dense, woolly fleece. Where could it be more beautiful than when people make a little basket of the loveliest flowers? VaizgP I 219. “Why are they sitting there so long? What are they saying?”—“Well, that is the hardest thing to understand.” SruogR II 93. b) Participles. All the graves have been laid waste. We will have to set them right in a new place, perhaps… That can’t be done for a few pennies. VaizgP I 188. – “Have you ever tried to imagine clearly what you’ll be like, say, ten years from now?”—“No. But that’s impossible, after all.” Myk-PutR III 46. He was at least so satisfied that the Prussian was—at least of a false faith, an unbeliever. In the opinion of a Catholic from Aukštaitija who had seen no one of other faiths except Russians, this was unforgivable. VaizgP I 77. Napalys did not even wag his tail at those words; he did not even smile at his mother in his usual way, as though the words had not been addressed to him. VaizgP I 234. You women, you good-for-nothings, this was written for you (that one must not be lazy). DonR 39. The priest’s father spoke Lithuanian just as well as Polish and Russian; this had stayed with him from those days when he used to quarrel with people at the tavern. VaizgP I 157. ... for a feast day, according to the fashion of the time, girls, and especially women, deliberately wore at least several buckles so that their bottoms would look fuller and their waists thereby more pronounced. This was not very necessary or effective: Lithuanian peasant women were stocky and broad-bottomed even without additions, and no amount of tying could make a sturdy masculine waist slender. VaizgRR I 43. c) Pronouns. A beehive without bees, an estate without people—that is one and the same. LzPR V 118. In these instances, the form tai, expressing the subject of the action, and the neuter forms functioning as predicates are formally in agreement. Since neuter predicate forms of adjectives and participles are widely used in Lithuanian, the pattern “substantival neuter form tai + adjectival neuter form” is fairly productive in Lithuanian. It also supports parallel constructions with correspondingly agreeing masculine and feminine forms; cf.: Tas geras, Ta gera, tai gera. 52 2) With adverbs gerai, negerai, daug, etc. Some are already wearing bast shoes; admittedly, tying the straps very slowly, but still tying them rather than loosening them, he was getting ready to go out and look around. That’s good already. VaižgP I 103. But it is not good either that sometimes, when he has misplaced something, he climbs into dark corners at night with a light. DonR99. As for buying land… he was granted a mere 60 desetinas. That is a great deal in the end. VaižgP I 211. 3) With third-person forms of various verbs: a) Intransitive verbs. It is a pity that I did not finish a single one of those letters. That happened because I knew very little Polish. BaranR II 24. While traveling, I arrived in Sateikiai and saw a small wooden church. It was in 1860. ValIPJ 35. What a multitude of these swindlers have spread through our land like wolves! They lure people, stir up violence, and plunder! And no one punishes them! They cannot restrain themselves! They are even given high positions at the Crown! And all this goes on in the Polish state. SruogR II 32. Wherever he had been, suddenly he grabbed a book. It became such a habit that Napalys was never without a little book in his hands, like a man never without a cigarette between his fingers. VaižgP I 230. I had long sensed that this would happen (that Vytautas would be crowned). SruogR II 82. Go and present yourself in person. Sviestavičius will like that. VaižgP I 56. What concerns us here for the moment is not whether the story about Widewut’į is true or not. BūgRR I 187. b) Verbs requiring the accusative or genitive. And what am I doing now? In fact, nothing, and that frightens me most of all. BaranR II 88. Nevertheless, Napalys’s ears catch other kinds of sounds, too. There are many. Just listen. Here a slap, there a thud; here someone sighed, there someone groaned. This does not disturb either the prayers of the blades of grass, the tinkling of the little bells, or the chirping of the crickets. VaižgP I 222. The State Treasury Department… replied… that … my request could not be granted. This made me terribly sad. BaranR II 97. … do what you want: I have no money to give you! And that troubles me most of all. VaižgP I 130. 4) With the nominative of nouns or words used substantivally (singular and plural, masculine and feminine). Still, you should persuade the doctor not to shirk the performance of that duty, because it is an outrage to the whole neighborhood. VaižgP I 209. … but in those districts where bats are plentiful, these diseases occur much less often, and it is thought that this is thanks to the bats. IvanPŽ 32. She glanced at the clock. That was the signal for him to leave. PaukštAK 143. — We are too patient! — That is a lofty virtue… SruogR II 89. Most gracious sir, is it true that noble women were beaten with rods? SruogR II 58. Rapolas had not the slightest doubt that these were deeds (that he had fallen in love with Severja). VaižgR I 51. Although this= (transport across the border) was not the first for him, he took great care of his clients so as not to lose his livelihood. VienPD,K 190. 5) With various case constructions. — Do you know that worshipping the old gods is forbidden? — That is not within human power. VienPD,K 393. 6) With the infinitive of a verb (to see, hear, feel, etc.). The transition to the large-scale epic genre was not easy for the writer; this is especially evident from the first novel. VienPD,K 482. Similarly, a friar becomes friends with the puppy being raised alongside him. This is especially clear if you try to separate them and then bring them together again. IvanPŽ 47. 53 7) With a zero form of the predicate, when the sentence contains only determiners of the predicate group. The other maidens pulled up weeds and burned them, and this was done so that the rye and crops would not become weedy. ValPJ 89. …the doctor’s popularity grew and increased among the Jews of the whole district. It also increased through ever more skilful treatment; this was its reward. VaižgP 165. The form tai in the nominative position usually functions as the subject. In rare cases, this form is used as a nominal predicate; compare: We are that which one can still draw from life, that which has not yet been taken from you. BaltR I 113. Here tai occurs in the same position as the noun in the nominative, mokytojai, in the sentence We are teachers. In the accusative position, the form tai denotes the object of an action. It usually occurs: 1) As governed by verbs that require the accusative case (transitive verbs). Jankevičius arrives and tells various news, and that he promises to try to become a clerk. BaranR II 41. The more fiercely the sun scorches, the more the earth crackles and clangs. Napalys sees this. VaižgP I 222. He will only smile that he is the son abandoned by a miser. Petras will sense this from five backs away. VaižgP I 90. Gintautas would ask in vain what was being done at the estates now, what was planned for autumn or spring. Sviestavičius would let this pass as if he had not heard. VaižgP I 120. …he was more concerned with getting his own few sentences in German washed up as well, so that Šešiavilkis would hear them. VaižgP I 65. I too have had a hand in changing the spelling. Today I can say that I did this. BūgRR I 399. …he was leaping about on the horse, but it did not pull at all. Seeing this, I asked. ValPJ 65. 2) With an accusative-governing preposition. Against Russia, perhaps that is the way to go! It is not your job. I forbid you to think, let alone speak about it. SruogR II 193. Instead of “gįsla” and “skįstas,” one should write “gysla” and “skystas,” regardless of the fact that some Samogitians pronounce “(įn)” in these words. BūgRR I 397. …the bride… threw the matchmaker’s towel around her neck (=a towel) and thereby showed that she was telling the matchmaker all the lies.…give thanks for this every day to your God, because your ox with a plough helps you work. DonR 35. 3) In a gerundial construction. (Someone) stood for a while, crouched down again, stood up again, and set off in that direction, just like Ona. Ona realized that this would be Mr. Sviestavičius. VaižgP I 138. In rare cases, the form tai occurs in the genitive position. 1) Meanwhile the women lamented their laments. Even this did not hinder the Teutonic Knights. VienPD, K 337. 2) During the “Agnus,” Alfonsas, his head tilted back, beat his breast and only rolled his eyes so that no one looking on would notice this. So he did not go ahead and do what had been wanted (make introductions). “But who needs this?” he replied. VaižgP I 56. 4) Then he tore off half his beard from his chin and scratched his whole face with his blunt nails. But this was not enough; still grabbing for money and kicking about, he knocked the table over with the food DonR 27–28. The form tai in the genitive position is not usual. Usually in these cases, alongside the verb requiring the genitive, an omitted transitive infinitive or participle is still understood, cf.: 1) (to do) this did not prevent, 2) not noticing this (while doing it), 3) this needs to be done. Sometimes the form tai in the genitive position is altogether unnatural and should be replaced by the genitive form to (sentence 4). Cf. K. Donelaitis on the same page: But that is not enough; having taken a large knife, he had already stretched out his hand to cut the throat and windpipe. 54 015. The neuter form tai in fact occupies only the nominative and accusative positions; in the positions of the other cases, when a general phenomenon needs to be indicated, the masculine singular forms of the pronoun tas are used without competition, namely: to, tam, tuo, tame (the latter case is almost never found). The forms to, tam, tuo, tame are used in the positions of the corresponding cases with exactly the same function as the tai form mentioned above in the nominative and accusative positions: these forms refer to an object, phenomenon, or action in a generalized, nonspecific way. The forms to, tam, tuo, tame differ from the tai form only in the circumstances governing the use of the respective cases. 016. The genitive form to is used: 1) With negative verbs. Hey, there is nothing in the world that Aras, the foremost of all arų, would not dare to do. KrėvAP 18. In the old days, after threshing, the gun used to go bang-bang at once; nowadays it no longer does that. ValPJ 107. If my opinion mattered to you, you would respect your old father, boy. But you did not learn that. SruogR II 188. She does not know when she will see him again. SimonP 25. …they came up with the idea of pulling a “wolf’s tail.” But when Justin gave the whip a crack, all those pulling toppled over with a thud… Not looking at that, they rigged the wolf’s tail a second time. ValPJ 86. I cannot understand that either. He is so afraid of Vytautas—and he will raise his hand against him! SruogR II 100. We cannot identify “Voruta” with “Vered-ava,” because the unfortunate discrepancy prevents us from doing so. BūgRR I 133. It was difficult to obtain so much tarpaulin fabric, impermeable to water, and sew bags from it. He would not have been Mendel if he had not done that too. VaižgP I 172–173. Never in his whole life had he experienced such a thing—that anyone should mock him or his household! VaižgRR II 21. In the preceding sentences, only one of the two verb forms making up the compound predicate is negative. This is sufficient for the use of the genitive. In Lithuanian, the genitive—in this case, the form to—is also used with affirmative verbs if the sentence contains the negative particle nei, cf.: Whenever he came back, he would bring some new whim with him: either harrowing the potatoes at the wrong time, or plowing them over and over again. Neither our fathers nor our grandfathers did that, yet, thank the Lord, they used to have thirty bushels or more of potatoes. VaižgP I 85. For the use of the form in the genitive position after negative verbs and the tai form in the accusative position after affirmative verbs, cf.: Who does not know that? Everyone knows it… VaižgP I 163. 2) With affirmative verbs that require the genitive. The church’s right to Vytautas’s protection must be taken away… And he himself must be separated from the church! (Zbignievas) It seems to me that Vytautas is waiting precisely for that. SruogR II 102. …I will tell at least the beginning of my journey, for that is what my dear mother wants. Let only one bishop bow at my feet… that will be enough for me. SruogR II 10. …we must act in exactly the same way with “šeip,” that is, write “šiaip,” as the origin of the words requires. BūgRR I 102. The two seemed to be lacking precisely what they are now paying their father to do for them—to nurse him in his old age. Gintautas of Paviškelis Sakalynė, to be sure, did not buy it, though he had long desired it for its beauty. All that was missing was for the bailiff from Bendzinas to start acting like he owned the king’s palace! SruogR II 141. 3) With quantifying words that require the genitive, such as gana, negana, daug, maža (enough, not enough, much, little), and others. To set my conscience at rest, I propose this: let the queen swear in church… Let a number of other honorable women swear alongside her… that the queen is innocent. That is enough for us! 55 SruogR II 63. In the corner the stinkards are still laughing; or is it that you deserve to have them growl at you, always cursing as they quarrel? And as if that were not enough, now they have even taken to fighting. DonR 53. I will not be able to provide a spelling textbook this year. What is more, I could not even venture to say today when the awaited textbook will be released to the public. BūgRR I 385. But can the father go on restraining his “happiness” any longer: did it double when you deposited another ten thousand in the bank? — Well, no… not double. — Exactly. The satisfaction was already less, because that was too much; it was not needed. VaižgP I 72. 4) With nouns that govern the genitive. I fear that, having chosen of my own accord to come, I might harm myself; all the more unbearable would be the misfortune of feeling that I myself am its cause. Baran R II 91–92. 5) With genitive prepositions. “Show us your correspondence!” the prosecutor demanded. “I assure you, you will gain nothing there either.” “A formality. It cannot be otherwise,” the prosecutor explained gently. VaižP I 200. But will the king sign it? (Zbignievas) “That won’t be much trouble…” SruogR II 100. And so Sviestavičius simmered away… in his own dreams… And it was always unclear whether anything of it remained in his heart, or whether nothing remained. VaižgP I 120. …he set about recounting the pictures he had experienced: what their style and character were, at which art exhibition they had been bought, who the artists were, where their homeland was. From there he moved on to the beauties and wonders of Europe. VaižgP I 112. And it is hard to get used to something that one does not have in one’s own language. BūgRR I 396. The struggle between what is old and what is new, between what is dying and what is being born—that is the basis of our development. T 1952, 284. 6) With passive verb forms (the genitive to denotes the subject of the action). …the dear word “Brother,” which rang out for the first time after leaving one’s parents… spread wide, so to speak, through the empty spaces of the soul. Influenced by it… I wrote in reply: “Poet of the splendid Samogitian land.” BaranR II 82. 7) With various verb forms in a partitive sense. Oh, the powers of Nature may change, but they do not perish! They will yet compel the Citizens’ will to take from her again what she herself offers: a different kind of wealth, but the same love, poetry, and beauty. VaižgP I 48. 017. The dative form tam is used with verb forms to denote an indirect object of the action. …after all, that is what the mistress of the house is for: to look after the household, to save bread and provisions. ŽemR I 165–166. Whoever saw this: Skirgaila’s troops and nobles, during the battle, are crossing over in groups to Vytautas’s side and everywhere greeting the duke and accepting him as their ruler! We must put an end to this, most illustrious lord! VienPD,K 409. “Better to look after Marčė amicably, and you can entangle Kurmelis with the forest.” “You needn’t teach me that.” ŽemR I 175. And the girl is pure-hearted. That is why she believes what she hears. SNerR I 453. 018. The instrumental form tuo is used: 1) With intransitive verbs, denoting the direct object of the action. I understand this best, and have no doubt that having a spelling textbook today would be very useful to us. BūgRR I 385. Here he learned that the Prussians, too, had not yet made such a miraculous little machine, and that making counterfeit money required a very skilled, resourceful master craftsman. Eventually, he lost interest in it altogether. VaižgP I 168. I admit, I am great, and I rejoice in that—that I am great! BalčAP 100. Besides the respect Geišių Geišė had earned…, he could also boast that all the serfs truly feared him. 56 VaižgRR I 64. The prefix „san-“ differs from „in-“ in that it has retained all three genders in all words and in all dialects. BūgRR I 390. And the Šešiavilkiai family was content with what it received. VaižgP I 231. The class liked this last thing so much, and it brought such joy, that even the teachers themselves caught the enthusiasm. VaižgP I 99. 2) With transitive verbs, expressing an indirect object of the action. Who is blowing, and who is not—but the distinguished bishop of Kraków, a lover of bladder games… (Zbigniew) What does the bishop want to say by that? SruogR II 60. And I too resisted them, flung myself in every direction, zealously argued their baseness, and thereby subdued them. BaranR II 102. The others, who escaped in better health, set off running toward the shore and thereby caused great panic. Vien PD,K 385. For Gintautas, this closeness with Schumacher was quite extraordinary. It signified an extraordinary inner agitation on his part. VaižgP I 169. The chaplain, you see, ate with her and tried to impress her. A strange man! What will you achieve by that, if your hands and feet are bound? PaukštAK 140. 3) With adjectives and participles that require the instrumental case to express an attribute of the object. The court is better than the truth in that it is unambiguous. BūgRR I 110. And he was already suspect also in that he had left Vilnius without registering his departure. VienPD,K 198. I asked… Bielinski and the Treasurer, who… agree not to send me. But Nechayev and Gachovich are not very pleased about that. BaranR II 15. 4) With the instrumental preposition su. … one French knight… having declared her (Margarita Knystautaitė) the lady of his heart, swore to defend her honor and beauty with his sword. “And whoever disagrees with that,” he turned to the knights, “I challenge to a duel!” VienPD,K 362. His reverence, Father Stulginskis… is trying to free me from the local district officials, and supposedly the Chambers agree to that. BaranR II 97. Let him be a “priest,” then: along with that, he is also a “human being.” VaižgP I 182. 019. The locative form tame, when referring to an object in a generalized way, is used rarely: My personal happiness, then, does not lie in earning a lot, but lies somewhere else. VaižgP I 73. 020. The masculine singular nominative and accusative forms tas, tą, without the meaning of specific reference, are also used with a generalized reference. In that case, they compete with the form tai. First of all, it should be said that the tas, tą forms, in place of the tai form with a generalized-reference meaning, are used in contemporary writing much less frequently than the tai (tatai) form. Cf. Table 2. 021. The forms Tas ir tą compared with the form tai in the nominative and accusative positions are most often specifically (structurally and stylistically) defined or dialectal. As can be seen from the table, they occur rarely in some writers (especially in scholarly literature), while others use them somewhat more frequently. 022. The form tas is generally used. 1) In the main clause of a complex sentence, in the subject nominative position, when the form kas occurs in the same position in the subordinate clause. In such cases, the form tas is entirely natural even when it has a predicative relation to the adjectival neuter form (tas gražu; the more characteristic pattern in a simple sentence is tai gražu). What is red is beautiful. Ml, Švnč, Auk. What is sweet is delicious. Rk, Rd, Avl. What is beautiful is also good. Škn. Whatever is excessive is unhealthy. PP 198. “Whatever will be, will be?” said the eldest. BalčAP 282. 57 Pastaraisiais trim dešimtmečiais išleisti raštai 2 lentelė Nominative position | Accusative position | Genitive position Nominative position: tai | tat(ai) | tas Accusative position: tai | tat(ai) | tą Genitive position: tai BalčAP | 16 | 2 | 9 | 23 | — | 4 | — BūgRR I | 6 | 2 | 1 | 12 | 3 | 3 | — IvanPŽ | 20 | — | — | 6 | — | — | — KrėvŠP | 4 | — | 2 | 16 | — | 2 | — PaukšŪK | 1 | — | — | 9 | — | 1 | — SimonAŠL | 27 | 8 | — | 27 | 12 | — | — VaižgP I | 45 | 1 | — | 64 | — | 1 | 1 VenclGD | 76 | — | 3 | 31 | — | 2 | — VienPD, K | 4 | — | — | 20 | — | — | — ŽemR I | 1 | — | — | 9 | — | 1 | — In all these examples, symmetry between kas and tas is preserved: both kas and tas occur before the predicate form. This word order strengthens the use of tas alongside kas. When there is no symmetry, the tai form is also used (alongside kas), cf.: What is the very essence of falsehood in life can sometimes, on paper, be quite close to the truth—and vice versa. BielKR 351. It should be noted that even when there is symmetry, as in the sentences mentioned above, tai may occur instead of tas, but in that case the former form tends to grammaticalize into a particle, cf.: What is red is beautiful. JablRR I 491. What is black is not white. Ds. What is true is not a lie. Grz. What is sweet is tasty to me. Kpr. Alas, what is mine is the best… VaižgRR I 114. Cf.: If it is red, it is beautiful. 2) In the main clause of a complex sentence, in the nominative position of the predicate, when the subject is a noun in the nominative. In this case, the form tas is explained by the subordinate clause. Perhaps the most characteristic feature of horses is that their legs have only one toe each, namely the third. IvanPŽ 217. One subgroup of this large group forms a herd called odd-toed ungulates, and their most important characteristic is that the third toe is the most highly developed. IvanPŽ 214. But Alfonso Gerulavičius’s chief concern was that no one really knew what was happening on the eastern and western fronts. VienPD,K 164. 58 Here, the form tas is supported by the noun in the nominative, with which it has a predicative relationship. The form tai is also possible in such cases, cf.: Braškės, į tos tai da nieko, ale (=bet) vis ne tai, kas vyšnia. Plv. …norins iš kitų pusių šitie Armino žirgai ir nepeiktini, bet gana to, jog perlepūs. Ir šalčio jie bijo, ir vandens bijo, ir viso ko bijo. — Tai ne tai, ką mūsų tyriniai — laukiniai žirgai! PietA 62. In the last sentence, tai is used, although it describes another form of tai. 3) In sentences where the form tai is already present, but functions as a particle or conjunction. Cf.: Even if we did get a little tired, that is nothing; at least we made something good of it. BalčAP 25. In this sentence, the form tas cannot be replaced by the tai form because tas is already next to tai, which forms a correlative conjunction with jei (jei — tai); here the form tas can only be omitted. Cf. also the following sentence, in which the form tas occurs alongside the particle tai: That is easy for me to do. Žsl. Here the form tas can likewise simply be omitted; then tai will no longer be a particle, but a pronoun (taking over the function of the form tas). 4) In fossilized expressions and constructions. “Come now, daughter-in-law, isn’t he of our blood?” her mother-in-law belittled her. “That’s just it: he isn’t wholly of your blood; your blood is diluted with ours.” VienPD,K 44. But the fishermen, who had earlier heard the real nightingale singing, said: “It’s neither one thing nor the other—like a nightingale’s song, but still not that!” BalčAP 69. In many cases, the form tas is identical to the form tai. Any difference between them is merely stylistic. When it occupies the nominative subject position, the form tas occurs with the same predicate forms as the form tai does (cf. 014): 1) with neuter forms of adjectives and adjectival words (“unagreeing” pattern). And now make yourself at home here—that will please me very much. BalčAP 122. — “But you’ll have to repay me!” the witch went on. “And that won’t come cheap.” BalčAP 149. Now that fat duck loves to gossip about everyone—she has a terrible sharp tongue; that is contrary to our nature. But, noticing a cross on the door of the house where the soldier lived, he took a piece of chalk and drew a cross on every door in the town. That was very cleverly done, because now the lady at the king’s palace could no longer find the house she had marked. BalčAP 109. 2) With the adverbs well, badly, etc. If only we could fly to the village now and wait there for Spring!.. Perhaps that would be good, one sparrow replied... Only I’ve already settled in the city. BalčAP 270. That soldier began to live happily: he went to the theater regularly, often walked in the king’s garden, and gave money to the poor. On his part, that was very good. BalčAP 107. 3) With third-person forms of intransitive and transitive verbs. You compare me to such a trifle! If I cared about that, surely I could find someone at least a little more worthy?! ŽemR I 111. His colors faded, but no one could say whether that had happened during the journey or from grief. BalčAP 198. — “Children!” Stankus shouted, “all together now—bam!” The children liked that. ŽemR I 243. All the ducks that hatched from her eggs were also called Portuguese, and that certainly means something. BalčAP 121. 59 4) With the nominative of nouns. … now he was allowed to look through the open door at the chattering, cheerful children. That alone was a great happiness. BalčAP 327. I drew the sap of life from the earth, took sustenance from the air, lived as I pleased, rejoiced in happiness and blossomed—and that was my life, my happiness. BalčAP 22. 5) With various other forms and combinations. Well, let it be as you say now, that it is through my tongue (that Marce was persuaded to marry Kurmelis). ŽemR I 197. In all these sentences, the form tas can easily be replaced by the form tai. When the form tas is used, the meaning “that thing” is emphasized more strongly. It is characteristic that in these cases the form tas instead of tai is more commonly used only in the writings of certain authors. 023. The form tą is used similarly to the form tas: 1) In the main clause of a sentence with a subordinate clause, in the object position, when ką occurs in the same position in the subordinate clause. Children, what I knew, I sang; I sang that. ValPJ 19. And whatever he took away, he can get back again. BaranR II 105. Mother always does what she promises. PaukštAK 6. Whatever he wanted, he did! ŽemR I 19. The Order triumphed: what it had lost near Vilnius, it regained at Marienburg. VienPD,K 361. Cf.: The children, accustomed to being alone all day, doing whatever they wished—sitting, sleeping, crying or laughing—were left alone today as well. ŽemR II 188. Whatever Aršusis himself decides to do, he does. PietA 16. In these sentences, ką — tą are used just as symmetrically as kas — tas in the sentence types mentioned above. When the main clause with tą precedes the subordinate clause with ką, and there is no symmetry between the forms tą — ką, the form tą can more readily be replaced by the form tai; cf. examples with tą and tai in the same kinds of cases: And did you do what I told you? Skn. That gift gave me the power for all those I love to see and feel what I myself see and feel. BalčAP 265. Let us see whether even one of Sobolevskis’s six words expresses what it ought to express. BugRR I 412. Sometimes they express very precisely and concisely what we like to discuss at length and in a convoluted way. VendGD 332. 2) In fossilized expressions. Who knows, after living a long time, whether I might have denied myself such a good thing. ValPJ 27. She, glancing at Dominykas, replied: “Who knows, perhaps I will marry after all.” ValPJ 96. My beloved went away, keeping watch over the surrounding lands. Who knows whether he will return, or settle near me. ValPJ 129. Often the form tą, like tas, corresponds fully to the form tai, and both are used as synonyms; that is, tą is also used, without tai, in the same position and with the same meaning, especially by writers for whom this is familiar from their dialect. The form tą relates to the same predicate forms as tai in the accusative position (cf. 014). It is used: 1) With transitive verbs. The mistress of the house was sorely missed. Peter sensed that too. ŽemR I 179. Thus Jonas the fool became king—he got a wife and a crown and sat down on the throne. We learned that from the newspaper. BalčAP 290. Whether it helped anyone recover, only the best of gods knows; but that he helped himself, everyone knew about his plump wife. VaizgP I 229. All the evidence, 60 which the science of language could gather today to demonstrate the closer kinship of the Baltic and Slavic languages, were brought together and supplemented with several new ones by the Latvian linguist Jonas Endzelīnas. He did this in his work “Славяно-балтийские этюды”. BūgRR I 407. The next morning the stronger ones returned home and, instead of going to church, slept through the entire day. The others, sleeping right there by the tavern, waited for the next evening’s revels. They drank again and danced again. Thus they celebrated for three days. Seeing this, I was greatly indignant. ValPJ 86. 2) With accusative prepositions. Are you angry about the Klaipėda Region? That is nothing compared with what might happen. VencIGD 29. He is very good (the child), because during the day he slurps down half a pot of milk, while the porridge has hardly appeared before he takes it and asks his mother for more, saying “yum-yum.” Viskantas said: “There is no need to be angry about that; whoever eats well is healthy.” ValPJ 11—12. In all these sentences, the form tą can easily be replaced by the form tai. 024. From what has been said about the use of the forms tas and tą with the meaning of tai in contemporary writings, one may conclude that the function of generalized reference performed by tas and tą is secondary: their use is often determined by sentence structure or stylistic motivation; these forms occur less frequently than tai. The form tai is primary in the nominative and accusative positions. Being inherently a nominative-accusative case form, it still retains its positions, although, by analogy with the other cases, the forms tas and tą are already encroaching on its place. Bearing in mind the distribution of the form tai and the masculine singular form tas across case positions, we can construct the following general paradigm of generalized reference. Primary forms Secondary forms N. tai (tatai) tas G. to D. tam A. tai (tatai) tą I. tuo L. tame All the forms in this paradigm have the function of generalized reference: 025. The forms tai, tas of generalized reference relate to the forms tas, ta of specific reference in the following way: Specific reference Generalized (non-specific) reference N. tas, ta — tie, tos tai (tatai); tas G. to, tos — tų to D. tam, tai — tiems, toms tam A. tą — tuos, tas tai (tatai); tą I. tuo, ta — tais, tomis tuo L. tame, toje — tuose, tose tame 61 In this system of the forms tas, tą, tai, the masculine singular tas forms are homonymous. They serve both a specific and a generalized referential function. Context and antecedents help distinguish the specific and generalized referential tas forms. Forms of specific reference agree with the antecedent (noun) in gender and number, whereas forms of generalized reference do not agree, since their antecedents are usually whole phrases. Cf.: Nothing appeared in the air, nor did a dog bark: there was also somewhere there to take shelter from the cold. VaižgP I 127. We would be glad to defend the Lithuanian origin of all these little words, but we cannot do so even with the best intentions: the unfortunate sound laws and the history of words stand in our way. BugRR I 199. 026. In examining the relationship between the use of the tai and tas, tą forms in nominative and accusative positions, not only writings published over the past three decades were considered, but also earlier works (from the beginning of the 20th century). In the latter, the relationship between the aforementioned forms is essentially the same as in contemporary writings. Cf. Table 3. Writings published at the beginning of the 20th century Table 3 Nominative position | Accusative position | Genitive position | tai | tat(ai) | tas | tai | tat(ai) | tą | tai KrėvR II (1921) | 2 | 1 | 4 | 13 | — | 1 | — KudR I (1909) | 15 | — | 1 | 43 | — | 1 | — LzPR₁ I (1921) | 19 | — | 1 | 14 | — | — | 2 Myk-PutAŠ₁ (1933) | 43 | — | 5 | 26 | — | — | — PietA (1905) | 16 | — | — | 50 | — | 5 | — VaižgP₁ I (1926) | 45 | 1 | — | 64 | — | 1 | 1 VienK (1932) | 4 | — | — | 19 | — | — | — ŽemR₁ I (1924) | — | 1 | — | 1 | 9 | 10 | — As the diagram shows, the neuter forms tai (tatai) predominate in most writings from this period. The masculine forms tas, tą, in their generalized referential sense, usually account for a much smaller proportion than the neuter forms. In old writings (16th–17th centuries), neuter forms are likewise more characteristic in the generalized referential sense. Cf. Table 4. 62 Senieji (XVI-XVII a.) raštai Table 4 Nominative position | BP I | Ch | DP | Mž | SP I | Vln¹; Nominative position | tai | — | — | 16 | — | 33 | 2; Nominative position | t atai | 27 | — | 17 | 5 | — | 32; Nominative position | tei | — | 43 | — | — | — | —; Nominative position | tas | — | 9 | — | 5 | — | 12; Accusative position | tai | — | — | 26 | — | 80 | 6; Accusative position | tei | — | 90 | — | — | — | 1; Accusative position | tatai | 83 | — | 36 | 38 | 1 | 102; Accusative position | tatei | — | 1 | — | — | — | —; Accusative position | ta | 1 | — | — | — | — | —; Accusative position | tą | — | — | — | — | — | 11; Genitive position | tai | — | — | 1 | — | — | —; Genitive position | tatai | 3 | — | — | — | — | 4; Genitive position | ta | 2 | — | — | — | — | 1 N o t e: In addition to tatai, tai and other forms, clitics g, gi, gu, etc., are sometimes found. Ta in accusative and genitive positions may also be tą (the ogonek is not written). In the genitive position, the forms were found only after negative verbs, so they could also be considered accusative forms. 027. In dialects, the relationship of the tai (tatai) forms to the generalized reference forms tas, tą in the nominative and accusative positions is somewhat different11. In the Samogitian dialect, when referring to an unspecified thing, the masculine singular forms are generally used: nominative tas, accusative tą12. 11Dialect material was collected from the card index of the “Atlas of Lithuanian Dialectology,” from the published volumes and card index of the comprehensive “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language,” and through individual interviews. 12Researchers of these dialects have already noted that the neuter pronoun form is replaced by a masculine form in the Samogitian dialect; see P. Jonikas, Pagramančio tarmė, Kaunas, 1939, p. 60; J. Aleksandravičius, Vakarinė pajūrio žemaičių tarmė Vilnius, 1949 (manuscript), p. 62. 63 It isn’t that easy, don’t say so. Pj. That is hard to endure. Rt. That was very difficult, but we got it done. Žd. Ten rubles—that is expensive. Skd. That is pleasant—threshing with flails. Eig. It is bad that he doesn’t want to study. Ms. Having to study after getting married is hard. Dr. I don’t know what it is that makes the belly hurt. Klk. Ten kopecks—what is that? Klk. The fare home costs ten rubles; that’s nothing. Lnk. If it gets a little late, that’s nothing. Yl. That is a reduction in the number of people, not a war (if they allow an atom bomb). Pp. To be an educated person—that is a great fortune. Grg. You know, those are old times—what can one remember of them now? Lkv. That depends on mother. Dov. That happened during the war. Pln. Not everyone could do that either. Pkl. The form tas, when used in subject nominative position, can combine with a neuter adjective form functioning as the predicate; compare: Tas yr sveik akims. Prk. Tas yr sunku. Als. However, alongside this pattern, a pattern with agreeing words is also used: Tas yr negers, kad krūvoms laiko gyvulius. Sg. (Plg.: Tai negera, negerai). Užmirštas tas, ko neturi. Krš. (Plg.: Užmiršta tai). Tas man kaip į kaktą y parašyts. Ms (Plg.: Tai parašyta). Tas yr pameluots, kad širdis sveika. Nd(LKT 146) (Plg.: Tai pameluota). Kas raudons, tas i gražus. Dr, Krtn, Tl, Rt (Plg.: Kas raudona, tas (tai) ir gražu). Kas saldus, tas skanus. Slnt. This form is absent in the Samogitian dialect, as far as we know. Instead, the form tā, more rarely tatai, and sometimes tei. are used in its place. But these forms usually have the meaning of a particle. What stupidity people can be! Klyr (LKŽ V 362). What hot weather, what clear weather. Slnt (Būg). Learning is good. Stl. Well, what is there good to hear? Sd. What is old? Plt. It has been a rainy year this year. Lž. He knows how to misbehave. Kik. Let them give thirty rubles, and that will be good enough for us. Tl. If Dapševčičaitė doesn’t know, then nobody knows. Sd. Tas tatai negerai, ka veršiai giūvo. Žr. Svaidyti sen(a) žmogų su akmenimis, a tatai tas y gerai? Žd. Tas tatai netur reikšmės. Bdr. Vuo tei sakau kaip tatai cibules jėsti sveik. Vg. Tei didelė laimė. Krš. In the Samogitian dialect, unlike the literary language, the paradigm of generalized reference has been leveled: here all cases have masculine forms (tas, to, tam, tą, tuo, tame), much as in Latvian, where masculine forms are also used instead of our neuter forms13. In the Aukštaitian dialects, both the neuter form tai, and masculine forms tas, tą are used with the meaning of generalized reference. The forms tas, tą are more common in Eastern Aukštaitian, but are also found in Western Aukštaitian dialects. That is expensive. Ktk. In German times, that was unimportant. Ar. That is my bridge. Slč. That is hard to do. Lb. It is not right that you didn’t go to see her. Sdb. Just don’t lie down, child; that’s good. Slč. That is all nonsense. Pg. That’s true. Sdr. I don’t like that. Klyr. I fell from a height; perhaps that is what is aching. Jd. What does that mean (=means)? Vlkš. You won’t get off that easily. Kt. That was still on his mind. Brb. That was a long time ago. Lbv. You could have known that by now. Skp. I was paid for something other than that, not for carrying books. Kdn. It is difficult to say without special research which forms are more commonly used in the Aukštaitian dialects with the meaning of generalized reference—tai or tas, tą in the corresponding position. (Here tai is also common as a particle). One thing, however, is clear: the masculine forms tas, tą are more common in the aforementioned meaning in the Aukštaitian dialects, especially the eastern ones, than in the literary language. 13 Žr. Mūsdienu latviešu literārās valodas gramatika, I, Rīga, 1959, p. 520. 64 Among those writers whose works more closely reflect spoken language—for example, in J. Balčikonis’s translations—the masculine forms tas, tą also occur comparatively more often alongside tai than in the works of other writers. On the other hand, the masculine forms tas, tą have not become as firmly established in Aukštaitian dialects as they have in Samogitian. For example, expressions such as Tas nieks nėr, Kas tas yr, and so on, are purely Samogitian. The question arises why, in the literary language, the primary form of generalized reference in the nominative and accusative positions is nevertheless tai, especially in scientific and journalistic styles, rather than tas, tą, if the latter forms are used so frequently in the dialects. We will not discuss in detail here the history of the formation of the literary language14. One reason—and, in our view, the most important one—is that tai rather than tas, tą has gained wider currency in the literary language because the tai form conforms better to the grammatical system of Lithuanian. Tai yra is an unambiguous form, whereas tas, tą also have other functions: they denote not only generalized but also specific reference. The distribution of these forms is also important here. Tas, when used instead of tai, retains in the literary language the latter form’s surrounding pattern. Both tai and tas are used with neuter adjectives and participles; compare: Tai gražu (‘That is beautiful’; a pattern with gender agreement) and Tas gražu (‘That is beautiful’; a pattern without gender agreement). Agreement between these words remains so strong in Lithuanian that, for example, when tas is used here in the Samogitian dialect (instead of tai), the neuter form of the adjective or participle is correspondingly replaced by a masculine form (tas gražus= ‘that is beautiful’, tas parašytas= ‘that is written’, compared with tai gražu, ‘that is beautiful’, tai parašyta, ‘that is written’; see the examples above). In the Samogitian dialect, such leveling of gender is facilitated by the fact that neuter forms of adjectival words are also disappearing here (they are being supplanted not only by masculine but primarily by feminine forms, as well as by adverbs). Thus, in the Samogitian dialect, the law of agreement does not strongly impede analogy-driven leveling of the forms in the paradigm of generalized reference (masculine forms are introduced into the nominative and accusative cases on the model of the masculine forms in the other cases). In the literary language and in the Aukštaitian dialects, however, these two laws (paradigm leveling and form agreement) are, in a sense, in conflict with one another: the tendency toward agreement between forms impedes paradigm leveling. Owing to these internal laws of development in the grammatical system of Lithuanian, the tai form continues to hold its position in the Lithuanian literary language, even though the functionally identical forms tas, tą also exist alongside it. Relationship of the generalized-reference forms tai, tas to other pronoun forms 028. The neuter form tai and the masculine singular forms tas, to, tam, tą, tuo, tame, as forms of generalized reference, are opposed not only to the gendered forms tas, ta used for specific reference, but also to their semantic variants jis, ji; šis, ši; šitas, -a; anas, -a; tas pats, ta pati, and so on (see 004, 2). 14 It is worth noting that in his grammar D. Klein regards the expression Tai yra mano sūnus mielasis (‘This is my dear son’) as a gender irregularity (anomalia generis), instead of Tas yra manas sūnus (‘That is my son’; see Pirmoji lietuvių kalbos gramatika, Vilnius, 1957, p. 244). A. Schleicher likewise notes that instead of tai (yr) mano brolis, tai mano sesuo (‘this is my brother, this is my sister’), the following are more correct and belong to an older stage of the language: tas mano brolis, ta mano sesuo (‘that is my brother, that is my sister’; see A. Schleicher, Littauische Grammatik, Prag, 1856, p. 300). Schleicher’s latter example is related to cases of specific reference with tas, ta. 5. 520 65 In this opposition, the neuter form tai and the masculine singular form tas can be said to stand in an almost uncontested relationship with the gendered forms of all the pronouns mentioned above: that is, when an object needs to be referred to in general terms, the forms tai or tas (masculine singular) are usually used, whereas when an object needs to be referred to specifically, the various gendered forms mentioned above are used. This is because, of all the pronouns mentioned above, only tas has a widely used neuter form, tai, and only with this pronoun are the masculine singular forms (tas, to, tam, tą, tuo, tame) widely used with the same meaning as the neuter form. The other gendered anaphoric demonstrative pronouns do not form neuter forms, apart from the occasional šita, šitai15. The masculine singular forms of other pronouns, except tas, are also used relatively rarely to express general reference. Besides tas, šitas, šis and tas pats16 are also found with this meaning. For the frequency of use of the forms mentioned above, cf. Table 5. 029. The rare use of the forms for general reference šita(i), šitas, šis (masculine singular) can be explained by neutralization of their meaning. Just as the forms for specific reference šitas, -a, šis, ši are often replaced by the forms tas, -a, so too the forms tai, tas can often be used instead of the forms for general reference šita(i), šitas, šis. Cf.: I knew nothing about this. Kp. Is it really wrong for a dog to eat a lot all by itself? Db. Even if they decided to take that allotment away from you, it will still be a long time before that happens, and meanwhile you may acquire land of the kind the laws permit you to acquire. Tell this to the superior. KudR I 122. But do you know, sir, about what I said about the money? Keep quiet about it, — Virpša finally replied to Ivonas. — And are you really planning to keep quiet about this as well? — Ivonas asked. PietA 33. Someone deliberately threw a rotten dog to us Jews, mocking our faith, which may be much better than that of the Christians themselves, since it has sprung from our own… — Well, leave this aside, sir! — the offended bailiff interrupted him sternly. VaižgP I 188. — And because the Kaunas authorities kept my wife and me in prison, dragged us around, interrogated us, and drove us from place to place?! How much I had to endure, how many petitions I submitted… I spent my last penny… — All right, all right. Add this too. VienPD, K 186. By agreement, Prince, Knystautas Castle should long ago have been either destroyed or handed over to us. You, Prince, have not done this so far. VienPD,K 322. Do you not know that the dead do not live in the cemetery, but in heaven or hell, wherever each person has earned a place by their deeds while alive? Have you never heard this? KrėvŠP 11. In these sentences, the forms šita(i) and šitas, šis can easily be replaced, respectively, by the forms tai or tas. Cf. the example in which šita(i) is used alongside tai. Tell me now, would it not have been better to accept Catholicism and become true Christians?… I must confess to you that I too have often thought about this. I have often spoken about it as well. PietA 91. Cf. also the example in which the neuter form of the pronoun šita(i) is used alongside the particle tai: The form šiai, found in fixed expressions, especially alongside tai, may also be a secondary formation modeled on the latter; cf.: You speak both šiai and tai. KrėvR II 171. In rare cases, the meaning of general reference is also found with the feminine form ta pati; cf.: Whether you take it or not, it is the same now… — It is always the same for me… KudR I 101. — Since these are isolated cases, it is not included further in the system of forms under consideration. 66 Forms of generalized reference 5 lentelė BalčAP KrevŠP LzPr I Myk-PutAŠ PaukštAĶ PietA VaižgP I VencIGD tai Nom. 16 4 20 45 1 16 45 76 Acc. 23 16 15 26 9 50 64 31 Gen. — — 1 — — 1 1 — tat(ai) Nom. 2 — — — — — 1 — Acc. — — — — — — — — Gen. — — — — — — — — šita(i) Nom. — — — — — 1 — — Acc. — — — — — 5 — — Gen. — — — — — — — — tas Nom. 9 2 2 5 — — — 3 Gen. 32 21 25 40 3 49 38 33 Ins. 2 6 — 1 — 1 1 4 Acc. 4 2 — — 1 6 1 2 Ins. 6 3 4 5 2 8 4 4 Loc. — — — — — — — — šitas Nom. — — — — — 2 — — Gen. — — — — — 20 — — Ins. — — — — — — — — Acc. 1 — — — — 3 — — Ins. — — — — — 2 — — Loc. — — — — — 2 — — šis Nom. — — 1 — — — — — Gen. — 1 — — — — — — Ins. — — — — — — — — Acc. — — — — — — — — Ins. — — 1 — — — — — Loc. — — — — — — — — tas pats Nom. 1 — — 2 — — 3 1 Gen. — — — — — — — — Ins. — — — — — — — — Acc. 1 — — 3 1 — 2 1 Ins. — — — — — — — — Loc. — — — — — — — — 5 * 67 And what I really like (=), is this, that you too understand such an approach… PietA 88. As regards the neutralization of the meaning of the forms šita(i), šitas, šis between the forms of specific reference šitas, -a, šis, ši and the forms of generalized reference šita(i), šitas, šis, the symmetry is not preserved. Šita(i), šitas, šis forms are secondary variants of the forms tai, tas. Together with the latter, they are opposed to the gender-specific forms of specific reference (on the one hand tai, tas, šita(i), šitas, šis, on the other — tas, ta; šis, ši; šitas, -a; anas, -a; jis, ji, etc.). 030. The masculine singular form tas pats of generalized reference differs in meaning more from the forms tai, tas (masculine singular), and therefore they cannot always be replaced by the latter. Cf.: The same thing happened to him as to that other one. BalčAP 50. Call neither him nor his place by that name anymore, and command the others to do the same. VaizgP I 137. They saw, listened, thought, and pondered the same thing as Edvardas. VienPD, K 207. How long ago you said the same thing here, Jurgis! Be a priest… That is exactly what he asked! SruogR II 173. As precious as health is to a person, even it is not good in excess: by squandering what one has too much of, a person often squanders everything. The same is true of wealth. VaizgP I 72. “How handsome I am!” he thinks to himself. “So intelligent. They all look at me.” It seems to him that the girls, looking at him, are thinking the same thing. PaukštAK 50. …they would all answer alike that they feel the same way, are equally distressed, and equally happy. VaizgP I 217. In the sentences of the first paragraph, the forms tas pat(s) could also be replaced by the forms tai, tas, whereas in the sentences of the second paragraph, the forms tas pat(s) are difficult to replace with the forms tai, tas. Because of their differential meaning, the masculine singular forms tas pats, which have a generalized-reference function, preserve symmetry with the specific-reference forms tas pats, ta pati. However, the latter are rarely used anaphorically and, moreover, are somewhat archaic — they occur mostly in expressions such as: The front porch is small, the same one without railings. ŽemR I 56. The windowpanes are old, small, the same ones, moss-covered. ŽemR I 172. There is one cow, and that very one is an old milker. Pš. Therefore, the symmetry between tas pats, ta pati (forms of specific reference) and tas pats (masculine singular form of generalized reference) is also not strong. Incidentally, in certain cases the form tas pat(s) with a generalized meaning approaches the adverb taip pat ‘likewise’, cf.: Thursday. I am writing the register… Friday. The same (BaranR II 48) and Tuesday. I wrote all day in the office. Wednesday. Likewise (BaranR II 43). But this convergence of the minimal forms is due not to their function, but purely to context. 031. The relation of the forms tai, tas (masculine singular) to the above-mentioned forms of generalized and specific reference can be represented as follows: Specific reference Non-specific (generalized) reference tas, ta; šitas, -a; šis, ši; anas, -a; jis, ji, etc. tai (tatai), tas; šita(i), šitas, šis tas pats, ta pati tas pats 68 032. The gendered forms of specific reference tas, ta, etc., used with antecedents—preceding nouns—are substitutes for those nouns. Sentences or clauses containing an antecedent and a pronoun that replaces it and has a specific-reference function can be transformed into a relative clause (an embedding transformation). In that case, the specific-reference forms tas, ta, etc., are usually replaced by forms of the relative pronoun kuris, -i. Cf.: 1) Žolys took Kupstis along for a beer. He did not leave even Petras behind. That man, although he was reluctant, had to obey his uncle. ŽemR I 162. ⇒ … He did not leave even Petras behind, who, although reluctant, had to obey his uncle. 2) We get the news from the basket; it often goes to the market. BalčAP 202. ⇒ We get the news from the basket, which often goes to the market. 3) … the wolf… jumped over the stump and kicked the little boy. The people nicknamed him Bridaitis. ValPJ 163. ⇒ the wolf… jumped over the stump and kicked the little boy, whom the people nicknamed Bridaitis. 4) She turned back once more toward the window. There, it seemed, she saw Janikė. ŽemR I 200. ⇒ She turned back once more toward the window, where, it seemed, she saw Janikė. 5) And the princess gave him a sword studded with gold coins; they proved very useful to him. BalčAP 201. ⇒ And the princess gave him a sword studded with gold coins, which proved very useful to him. 6) The old woman found two large horns. From them she made two fine trumpets. ValPJ 19 ⇒ The old woman found two large horns, from which she made two fine trumpets. Such transformations are possible because in these examples the forms tas, ta and kuris, -i are functionally identical: they occupy the same position and replace the same noun, that is, they have the same antecedent17. In addition to kuris, -i, katras, -a is also used with the same function. Both are structurally defined—they acquire an anaphoric function only in certain types of relative clauses—and should therefore be treated as syntactic variants of anaphoric forms such as jis, ji; tas, ta; šis, ši, etc.18 In rare cases, instead of kuris, -i, katras, -a, the gender-neutral kas also occurs. I see no person who could take the flag. Lnky (LKŽ V 364). I have a young maiden across the field, who soothes my heart. Všk (LKŽ V 364). 033. Apibendrinto nurodymo formos tai, tas (vyr. g. vn.) ir kt., kurių antecedentai yra visa frazė (paprastai sakinys arba sakinio dėmuo), vartojant įjungiamąją reliatyvinę transformaciją, niekada nepakeičiamos kuris, -i (katras, -a) formomis. Aukščiau minėtos formos reliatyviniame sakinyje gali būti pakeistos tik giminės kategorijos neturinčio santykinio įvardžio kas formomis. The forms tai, tas are replaced by the form kas (in nominative position). 1) She glanced at the clock. This was a sign for him to leave. PaukštAK 143. ⇒ She glanced at the clock, which was a sign for him to leave. 2) The organs of touch are highly developed, and this is of vital importance to the whale when diving and surfacing. IvanPŽ 204. ⇒ The organs of touch are highly developed, which is of vital importance… 3) That is why his homestead, though not luxurious, is exemplary, and this is still a great rarity here. SimonAŠL 53. ⇒ That is why his homestead, though not luxurious, is exemplary, which is still a great rarity here. 4) That soldier began to live happily: he regularly went to theaters, often walked through the king’s garden, and gave money to the poor. For his part, that was very good. BalčAP 22. ⇒ That soldier began to live happily: he regularly went to theaters, often walked through the king’s garden, and gave money to the poor, which was very good of him. 17 For the conditions of the relative transformation, see Noam Chomsky, Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, The Structure of Language, New Jersey, 1964, p. 71. 18 See A. Valeckienė, ibid., p. 145. 69 Cf. these sentences with kas in place of the possible tai, tas: [The parish priest] received him kindly; while kissing his hand, he passed the other hand over his head, which (=tai, tas) even moved Benediktas. VaižgP I 83. If sometimes everyone has to leave the house—which (=tas) rarely happens—the doors are bolted from the inside, and the last person slips out through the window. SimonAŠL 84. Our present-day surnames, such as Daukšas, Daujotas, Gedminas, Daugilas, Dargis, Gedvilas, and so on, were still personal names in the sixteenth century, which (=tai, tas) is clearly evident from the 1528 list of nobles. BūgRR I 203. The forms tai, tą are replaced by the form ką (accusative position). 1) Having submerged itself in the water but run short of air, the beast often only sticks out its nostrils to breathe, and does so so quietly that it is hard to notice. IvanPŽ 232. ⇒ …the beast often only sticks out its nostrils to breathe, which it does so quietly… 2) A little cloud of pain passed across everyone’s brow as they remembered their dead father. Having noticed this, the mother said. ŽemR I 154. ⇒ A little cloud of pain passed across everyone’s brow as they remembered their dead father, which the mother noticed and spoke of. 3) A wounded Samogitian was carried past on a stretcher; a trickle of blood followed him from the fortress walls to the tent. Neither Vytautas nor the other nobles and warriors paid any attention to this. VienPD, K 323. ⇒ …to which neither Vytautas nor the other nobles and warriors paid any attention. 4) It seemed that in a year or two he would enlighten all those smouldering here in the dark. He would revive them, re-educate them, kindle them with noble ideals… And for this he himself would earn respect, even fame. PaukštAK 102. ⇒… He would revive them, re-educate them, kindle them with noble ideals…, for which he himself would earn respect… Cf. these sentences with ką in place of the possible tai, tą: …in ancient times there were deer in Lithuania (about which (=tai, tą) the remains mentioned here testify). IvanPŽ 263. As I went on telling my story for so long, the listeners began to snore loudly; seeing this (=tai, tą), I quietly put out the candle with a squeak and went to bed. ValPJ 117. The word pavojaus has an etymological “v” between the vowels “a” and “o,” which (=tai, tą) is shown by dialectology, the word’s history and origin. BūgRR I 107. In the same way, the form to is replaced by ko, the form tam — kam, the form tuo — kuo, and so on. 1) In olden times, after being stunned, it would immediately go bang-bang; today it does not do that. ValPJ 107. ⇒ …which it does not do today. 2) Šešiavilkis was completely uneducated; he could neither write nor read. That is why all sorts of “kankulecijos” were so difficult for him. VaižgP I 93. ⇒… which is why all sorts of “kankulecijos” were so difficult for him. Cf.: He repeatedly struck this tree with his forehead, as a result of which (=to) the tree had bent to one side. IvanPŽ 293. … Girls around Biržai and Pabiržė still observe that custom of the fairies, which (=to) has long since disappeared in Samogitia. ValPJ 90. It was decided to set up a banquet table and hold a feast at the pagan center. A suitable place was also chosen for this. VienPD,K 379. ⇒…a suitable place was also chosen for which. … …he promised to make every effort so that she would never lack anything… It seems that he had continued to concern himself with this as much as he could up to then. ŽemR I 146. ⇒ …with which, it seems, he had continued to concern himself as much as he could up to then. 034. The replacement of the generalized demonstrative forms tai, tas with kas forms is structurally restricted in many cases. Kas forms have far narrower possibilities of use than the tai, tas forms mentioned above. Kas in a relative clause can occur only postpositionally with respect to its antecedent. The antecedent and the pronoun kas must be in the same sentence. A separate sentence with the relative pronoun kas generally does not begin— 70 In such cases, the demonstrative particle štai usually also precedes the relative form kas; cf.: Those socialists are wise people. And they wish people well. And they act. But dangerous vagabonds. Robbers. Who use the name of socialists and incite violence, burn homesteads, and kill people. That is what (=tai, tas) is wrong. SruogR II 202. A rascal meets me, ties me to the ship’s mast, and throws me into the stormy sea. Meanwhile, the king’s horse delights in its golden horseshoes and curls its nose. That is what angers me most! BalčAP 102. The relative pronoun kas, when it has an anaphoric function, is a rare and unusual case at the beginning of a sentence; cf.: The children grabbed the heron by the beak and giggled, “kee-kee-kee.” Seeing this (=tai, tą), I began to grind my teeth. ValPJ 77. Replacing the forms tai, tas, which express a generalized reference, with forms of kas is often possible only with certain changes to sentence structure—by rearranging sentence constituents, changing the order of clauses, combining two or more sentences into one, and so on. 1) What especially struck Hansas Cvibakas was that, among the arriving Crusaders, he saw Külgailis and Šarka at liberty. VienPD,K 334. ⇒Hansas Cvibakas (he) saw Külgailis and Šarka at liberty among the arriving Crusaders, which especially struck him (Hansas Cvibakas). 2) Some predator had killed his horse while it was grazing in the forest, and Miškinis thought that this was the work of wolves. IvanPŽ 186. ⇒Some predator had killed his horse while it was grazing in the forest, which, as Miškinis thought, was the work of wolves. 3) If only she had said half a word to me: were you a devil, or what, why did you break it, or put another one in? I kept pleading for that, but she didn’t utter a sound! ŽemR I 136⇒. If only she had said half a word to me: were you a devil, or what, why did you break it, or put another one in (which I kept pleading for), but she didn’t utter a sound! In many cases, because of various contextual circumstances, replacing the forms tai, tas that express generalized reference with forms of kas is altogether impossible. a) When the context is longer and what is referred to has been separated by other clauses or is expressed unclearly. Between the nose and the eye lies a certain gland that produces a fatty lubricant. The animal smears this lubricant on and massages its wings and other skin outgrowths. This action is apparently very important to the bat, because even when caught, it takes every opportunity to groom itself. This is associated with extraordinarily sensitive sensory organs of microscopic size, distributed throughout the skin. IvanPŽ 29. — “And what are you afraid of, daughter-in-law?” her mother-in-law suddenly asked her in a mysterious tone. “Perhaps Stašenytė?.. Don’t be afraid, my dear. They heard, after all, both that it had been ordered and that we were getting ready… Had she wanted to… Don’t even think about it (that her son had seduced Stašenytė); everyone has already forgotten about it.” VienPD, K 157. b) When the form tai, tas occurs in an interrogative sentence or a relative subordinate clause containing interrogative particles and interrogative-relative pronouns or adverbs. As soon as he saw the bathhouse, he wants to build a church on those grounds! Who could do that?! ŽemR I 50. Adomukas still did not fully understand what it meant—that your uncle was gone. VaizgRR I 154. — And you, sonny, don’t you need one just like it? Everyone is astonished!.. — Alfonsiuk, is it really true (that he is going to marry Gliaudelė)?! VienPD,K 106. — Let us hope the Christians do not attack us, even at night, Knystautienė replied, and Griezė did not understand whether this had been deliberately brought to his attention because of the Crusaders’ tact, or whether it was merely a coincidence. VienPD,K 377. …the duke doubled the size of his troops, and what use is that to us? VienPD,K 436. You handed the keys to Siesčencu! Do you know how offended he will be because of 71 …all those nobles? SruogR II 140. [Ciolekas] Who blows, and who does not, but the venerable bishop of Kraków—a lover of blisters… [Zbignievas] What does the bishop mean by that? SruogR II 60. c) When the forms tai, tas occur in responses to questions or in other situations where the discourse plan changes (direct speech—authorial speech, one character’s speech—and another character’s speech, a question—an assertion by the same character, and so on). Did the princes Mindaugas and Gediminas really fraternize with the crusading dogs? O Ancient One, this is unheard of! VienPD,K 282. [Ciolekas] Another man, let us say, someone like you, dear neighbor, might, somewhere on a battlefield such as Grunwald, stumble upon a wounded knight, stab him, then show up in the king’s antechamber—and suddenly he is a bishop—a statesman! [Zbignievas] This is a malicious slander, Bishop of Poznań! Vytautas made that up out of envy! SruogR II 50. — Why did you steal Valulis’s Palutė’s handkerchief? People are giving me a hard time over that. PaukštAK 90. “Thank you, thank you, little granny, your song is very beautiful!” Hearing this, the old woman began to giggle. ValPJ 20. Are you keeping up the old custom? Sweeping?! There is no need for that here. ŽemR I 75. d) When the forms tai, tas are explained by a subordinate clause occupying the position of a sentence constituent. The subordinate clause may be introduced by either a relative pronoun or adverb, or by a conjunction. The forms tai, tas serve as correlatives for forms of relative pronouns and adverbs. This alone already prevents the forms tai, tas from being replaced by forms of kas. What old Vidmantas, after drinking beer, jokingly prophesied came to pass unexpectedly soon. VaižgP I 67. How, when, and who first came to Lithuania remains concealed beneath the mists of deep antiquity. VaižgP I 60. And it is difficult to get used to what one does not have in one’s own language. BūgRR I 396. I shall claim only what is due to me. VienPD,K 455. …it is enough that they see you do not want to be lazy. ŽemR I 151. What good will come of it if my manor turns to ashes? SruogR II 205. And the Šešiavilkiai family were content with what they received. VaižgP I 231. And the prince differed from his nobles in this: he was stronger than them all. VienPD,K 328. e) When the forms tai, tas occur in a subordinate clause linked by compound conjunctions such as kad… tai, jei… tai, and others. …that one’s own should call upon a common enemy against one’s own, that had never happened in Samogitia before! VienPD,K 282. …if a farmer wants to reap a fine crop, then before that he must spread fine manure. DonR 49. f) When the forms tai, tas occur in subordinate object, causal, conditional, concessive, or other clauses with the corresponding conjunctions. “Vytautas is a traitor!” was all the inhabitants of Marienburg said; they turned against one another and said that he had foreseen this long ago. VienPD,K 380. Soon the two of them… were speaking only Lithuanian, although Gintautas had not asked this of them. VaižgP I 163. The knight Griezė rode along with him and, as the statutes and customs required, stood all night on horseback and in armor in the courtyard of the little castle. VienPD,K 349. It would be better for the old woman not to see him at all and not to write anything, because this too could affect the case… VienPD,K 133. The parents, sisters, the matchmaker, groomsmen, wedding sponsors, bridesmaids, relatives, and all the invited guests offered their congratulations. Since this was new to most of them, they all competed and did as the first one had done. VienPD,K 148. Replacing the forms tai, tas with forms of kas in these sentences would eliminate the causal, conditional, concessive, and other relationships, and in many cases it would be entirely impossible, cf.: He said that he had foreseen this long ago ≠ (not equivalent to) He said what he had foreseen long ago. 72 g) When the forms tai, tas occur in a sentence or clause joined to the preceding context by the conjunction but (a contrastive relation). … he recognized the same Samogitian who had so cunningly led them through the bog. He recognized him and was surprised, but that, too, was his undoing. VienPD,K 440. It is possible that other species of wolves also helped give rise to breeds of domestic dogs, but this is only conjecture. IvanPŽ 169. What he had set out to do ten years earlier… he had almost achieved. But, compared with the other pursuits already taking shape in his mind, this was only a beginning. VienPD,K 479. I glanced at Vičvienaitis just once, but he did not see it. ŽemR I 136. When asked, they answered from the castle that neither the noblewoman Knystautienė nor her daughter was inside. But no one wanted to believe that. VienPD,K 394. In some sentences, if but is omitted, the tai, tas forms could be replaced by kas forms, but this would eliminate the contrastive relation. h) When the tai, tas forms occur in a separate sentence or clause that is linked to the preceding context without conjunctions, through explanatory, contrastive, object, causal, and other relations. Finding them (fawns), people sometimes think they have been abandoned and believe they would be doing the right thing by taking them home. That is a mistake. IvanPŽ 242. A male must never be kept where there are children; that is dangerous. IvanPŽ 244. Compared with wild sheep, the domestic sheep is not that lively, alert, courageous animal, but merely a dull-witted creature. That is the result of human interference. IvanPŽ 285. i) When the tai, tas forms occur in a sentence or clause connected to the preceding context by an additive relation. Replacing the tai, tas forms with kas forms would eliminate that relation. When Eduardas returned a little while later, Alfonsas immediately realized that he had already become involved. His mother realized it too. VienPD,K 144. …however, when the English knight turned his horse so that it would be easier to shield himself with his shield from his opponent’s blows than to attack, everyone understood that the decisive hour was approaching. Brother Hansac and the knight Drankas understood it too. VienPD,K 345. The villagers knew that Benediktas had lost his wits: they knew, too, of his mysterious journeys to the old parish priest and to the distant city. And they did not forget this, since his trips to the priest were repeated. VaižgP I 84. The aim here is not to enumerate all the cases in which replacement of the tai, tas forms by kas forms is restricted structurally and semantically. There are many such cases19. It is important to emphasize that the domains of use of the tai and tas forms are much broader than that of kas forms with the corresponding meaning. The tai, tas forms are primary in this case, while kas forms are secondary. The relation between the generalized reference forms tai, tas and kas is the same as that between the specific reference forms jis, ji; tas, ta; šis, ši and kuris, -i; katras, -a, and so on. The forms kuris, -i; katras, -a are an additional syntactic variant of the forms jis, ji; tas, ta; šis, ši, and so on, while kas forms are the same kind of syntactic variant of the forms tai, tas. With all this in mind, the following scheme can be drawn to show the relations among the forms mentioned: 19 In similar cases, the use of the forms kuris, -i; katras, -a in place of the specific reference forms jis, ji; tas, ta; šis, ši, and so on, is also restricted. 73 Specific reference Non-specific (generalized) reference he, she; that one (masculine), that one (feminine); this one (masculine), this one (feminine); this one, -a; that one, -a, etc. this (that), that one, this one(s), this one, this one, etc. which, -i; which one, -a, etc. who The model formed by these correlative forms can be represented graphically as follows: A B C D where A = he, she; that one (masculine), that one (feminine) etc., B = which, -i; which one, -a etc., C = this (that), that one etc., D = who. The isomorphic relations of these pronouns are A: B = C: D or A: C = B: D. Received 1973. III. 26. А. ВАЛЯЦКЕНЕ NEUTER FORM OF THE PRONOUN TAI AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER PRONOUN FORMS Abstract The article determines the invariant meaning of the neuter pronoun tai and its isomorphic relationships with the masculine and feminine forms tas, ta and with other pronoun forms. Pronouns with anaphoric meaning alone have forms in all three genders, tas, ta, tai, whereas the deictic pronoun (in the narrow sense of the word) has only two forms: tas, ta. The common feature of the anaphoric forms tas, ta, tai is that they all occupy the position of a case form of a noun—that is, they perform a substantive function. The form tai contrasts with the forms tas, ta in the nature of its deixis: tas, ta are forms of specific, definite reference, whereas the invariant meaning of the form tai is generalized, indefinite reference. These forms also have different antecedents. The antecedents of the forms tas, ta are certain nouns (usually in preposition). The antecedents of the form tai may be not only nouns but also, most often, an entire phrase (a word group, sentence, or paragraph), occurring in either preposition or postposition. The forms tas, ta agree with their antecedents in gender and number. It is precisely in these categories that they differ. The form tai, an old nominative–accusative form, occurs only in the positions of the nominative and accusative cases. The forms of specific reference tas, ta are used in the positions of all ca- 74 ses. Consequently, the opposition tai: tas, ta is not symmetrical. Not all case forms function in the sphere of generalized reference. To restore symmetry, another, purely syntactic opposition is formed. In addition to the form tai, the singular masculine forms tas, to, tam, tą, tuo, tame are also used with the meaning of generalized reference. Feminine forms, as well as plural forms, do not have this meaning. Thus, in Lithuanian, the form tas is a homonymous form: when expressing specific reference, it agrees in gender and number with its antecedent noun, whereas with generalized reference it does not agree with its antecedent. Tai and the singular masculine forms tas, to, tam, tą, tuo, tame, when expressing generalized reference, contrast with the forms of specific reference tas, ta. The generalized-reference forms tai and tas combine into a single paradigm and are distributed according to the positions they occupy as follows: nom. tai (tas), gen. to, dat. tam, acc. tai (tą), instr. tuo, loc. tame. In this paradigm, tai is the primary form in the nominative and accusative positions, while tas, tą in the corresponding positions is secondary. The latter forms are restricted structurally and stylistically and, in some cases, have a dialectal flavor. Statistically, the use of tas and tą in the corresponding case positions accounts for a small percentage. The generalized-reference forms tai, tas contrast not only with the specific-reference forms tas, ta, but also with their semantic synonyms jis, ji; šitas, -a; šis, ši; anas, -a; tas pats, ta pati, and others. Many of the pronouns listed have no neuter forms at all, or that form occurs only sporadically (šita(i)) alongside tai. Singular masculine forms with generalized-reference meaning are comparatively rare (šitas, šis, tas pats). Therefore, generalized reference is most often expressed by the forms tai, tas, whereas specific reference is expressed by a whole series of different lexemes (tas, ta; jis, ji; šitas, -a, etc.). Because of the specificity of their meaning, the gender forms of specific reference tas pats, ta pati and the singular masculine forms with generalized-reference meaning tas pats, to paties, etc., are more symmetrical. The generalized-reference forms tai, tas and others also contrast with the forms kas, just as the specific-reference forms tas, ta; jis, ji and others contrast with the forms kuris, -i; katras, -a. Just as kuris, -i; katras, -a replace the forms jis, ji; tas, ta and others in sentences of a particular structure, so the pronoun kas replaces the forms tai, tas in analogous cases. The form kas is a secondary syntactic variant in relation to the forms tai, tas, just as the forms kuris, -i; katras, -a are secondary in relation to the forms jis, ji: tas, ta and others. Both the use of kuris, -i; katras, -a instead of jis, ji; tas, ta and others, and the use of kas instead of tai, tas, are restricted by the syntactic and semantic structure of the sentence. The range of use of the generalized-reference form kas is considerably narrower than that of the forms tai, tas. Within the system of all the pronouns mentioned, the gender forms of specific reference A (tas, ta; jis, ji, etc.) relate to their syntactic synonym B (kuris, -i; katras, -a) in the same way as the generalized-reference forms C (tai, tas, etc.) relate to their syntactic synonym D (kas). Their isomorphic relationships can be represented as follows: A: B = C: D or A: C = B: D. Received 26.III.1973.