Būdingesnieji frazeologinių junginių geografijos bruožai

LIETUVIŲ AREALINĖS LINGVISTIKOS KLAUSIMAI LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA J. LIPSKIENĖ GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES CHARACTERISTIC OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS Atlases of various languages show that many words, phonetic features, and morphological forms have very clearly defined distribution zones within the territory of one language or another. Some phraseological units are likewise characteristic only of certain areas. It is true that, compared with individual words, phraseological units generally tend to spread more widely, but some are more attached to their own “native homes” than, say, proverbs. Their spread is often impeded by the fact that they become recognizable as phraseological units only in the context of a sentence, and their semantics can be understood only from the obligatory circumstance accompanying them; compare the ordinary expression danties ant danties nesuleidžia1, meaning teeth grown unevenly, crookedly, and the phraseological unit — (it is cold) danties ant danties nesuleidžiu, meaning “very cold.” Proverbs, meanwhile, have more favorable conditions for spreading. They are apparently more established formulas, possessing a clear weight of thought in themselves and a meaning that is easier to predict even without context, without the obligatory circumstance required by a phraseological unit, e.g., he who does not work does not eat; the bread weeps when eaten by the lazy, etc. At present, when a larger body of factual material has not yet been accumulated, it is impossible to specify the precise geography of individual figurative expressions or to draw more interesting or better-grounded conclusions; nevertheless, it is possible to discern some general tendencies. Thus, in this article, on the basis of the material available, although incomplete (phraseological units have not been collected exhaustively throughout the entire Lithuanian-speaking area), an attempt is made to describe these general tendencies and, where possible, the areas in which certain specific phraseological units are used, since the geography of phraseological units has hitherto remained wholly unstudied in Lithuanian linguistics2. In many cases, the ideas advanced or conclusions drawn in the article may still be refined. In studying the geography of phraseological units, we observe that some occupy very large areas, being used not only in all Lithuanian dialects but also having equivalents in other languages, while others are known in smaller territories—used across the area of a particular language or only in certain of its dialects. Perhaps the largest areas are characteristic of many somatic phraseological units, which form one of the oldest strata of phraseology. Many phraseological units of this type 1To avoid inconsistency, illustrative material in the article is presented without stress marks, since it was collected not only from spoken language but also from various written sources without stress marks; moreover, when attempting to create a text in a dialect other than one’s own, one may make various errors. 2Individual studies reflect the distribution of only one or another term-related phraseological unit; compare: B. Rokaitė, “Names for the Rainbow in Lithuanian Dialects,” *Proceedings of the Lithuanian SSR Academy of Sciences, Series A*, 2(15), 1963, pp. 275—295; *Atlas of the Lithuanian Language*, I, *Lexicon*, map no. 58. 169 because of the identical functions performed by the respective body parts, and the mental processes and practical factors common to all people, they are identical across different nations. For example, the Lithuanian phraseologism galvą muilesti (nukarti) ‘to become dejected’ has equivalents in many other languages (cf. Latvian — nokārt galvu; Russian — повесить голову; Polish — opuścić głowę; German — den Kopf hängen lassen; English — hang down one's head; French — baisser la tête; Estonian — pead norgu laskma. This point is also confirmed by a table of Latvian somatic phraseologisms containing the word ‘eye’, in which Latvian phraseologisms are compared in form and meaning with similar phraseologisms from various nations, including Lithuanians3. Similarities among somatic phraseologisms have been observed not only in the languages of European nations, but also between European languages and very distant languages. For example, the Estonian linguist F. Vakk presents evidence showing that some Estonian somatic phraseologisms have equivalents in West African languages4. However, the opposite cases are also common: that is, a somatic phraseologism in one language may have no equivalent in other languages. For example, the above-mentioned article by Latvian linguists notes that, to date, no equivalent has been found in other languages, in terms of component structure and semantics, for the Latvian somatic phraseologism ceļa kāja ‘the last small glass or mug of beer, drunk before guests part and leave’5. It may be added that this phraseologism, with the same meaning, has also passed from Latvian into some Lithuanian dialects adjacent to Latvia, for example, in the environs of Biržai, Joniškis, Skaistgirys, Žagarė, Kruopiai, and Šakyna; cf.: Nu, kaimyne, nieko nebūs, išgerk dar celia kaja Sk; Daugiau kaip sau nori, ale celia kaja tai reikia išgert, ir tiek Škn. In some cases it is used even as a calque; cf. Palauk, dar neik, dar turi išgert kelio koją, kitaip neišleisiu Jnš. It is not easy, and sometimes almost impossible, to determine which factors account for the differing areas of use of individual phraseologisms within one language. Various factors probably play a role here: differing social and economic conditions, variations in ethnographic realities and customs, relations with neighboring nations, and so on. In addition, the spread of an expressive saying is partly restricted to a dialect or a group of closely related dialects (e.g., Samogitian, Eastern Aukštaitian, etc.). However, the influence of dialect on the area of use of a phraseologism is usually indirect, operating through individual lexical units that make up phraseologisms and are widespread in one dialect or another. It happens that a word forming one component of a phraseologism is used not throughout the Lithuanian-speaking area, but only in a few dialects. The isogloss of that word’s distribution often provides at least an approximate indication of the areas in which expressive sayings formed with it are used. Thus, even without complete data, we can estimate the distribution of some popular phraseologisms and their variants from the main words they contain, whose distribution is already known. For example, Lithuanian dialects have quite a number of phraseologisms formed with the words — kiškis and zuikis (‘hare’). The distribution areas of these two synonyms are divided relatively regularly. Zuikis or its variant zuikys is used in the Samogitian, Western and Central Aukštaitian dialects, as well as in the Dzūkian dialects on the left bank of the Nemunas. 3 Ж. Э. Кагайне, С. Раге, Некоторые параллели соматических фразеологизмов в языке латышей и их соседей, — Взаимосвязи балтов и прибалтийских финнов, Рига, 1970, p. 181–6. 4 Ф. Вакк, О соматической фразеологии в современном эстонском литературном языке (filol. m. kand. disertacijos autoreferatas), Таллин, 1964, p. 7. 5 Э. Кагайне, С. Раге, min. str., p. 175–6. 170 Hare is generally known here from literary language. The eastern Aukštaitians and almost all the Dzūkai on the right bank of the Nemunas make greater use of kiškis or its variant kiškys, whereas zuikis is most often recorded here with the label “newer.” Thus the areas of the idiom kiškį pagauti and its variant zuikį pagauti (sugauti), meaning “to come to grief,” should probably roughly coincide with the distribution areas of the words kiškis (kiškys) and zuikis (zuikys); both idiom variants will be known in the zone where those words overlap. Of course, in the area of the idiom zuikį pagauti (sugauti), the variant with the word kiškis will also occur nowadays, undoubtedly as a result of the influence of literary language. Other popular figurative expressions and technical phraseologisms formed with these words would probably have a similar distribution, for example: kiškio (zuikio) pyragas “a treat brought back from a trip”; kiškio (zuikio) kopūstai “wood sorrel”; the comparative idiom (bailus kaip kiškis (zuikis)) “as timid as a hare,” and so on. The areas of this last idiom and its variants should, of course, reflect not only the morphology of the words kiškis, zuikis, for example (bailus kaip kiškys (zuikys)), and so forth, but also variation in the adjective (bailus | baikštus | baugus…), since the adjective is an essential part of the idiom’s context and helps clarify its meaning. On the basis of the same assumptions, similar generalizations could be made about the geography of other idioms. For example, Lithuanian dialects have an idiom containing the word žarna, cf. žarna žarną ryja “very hungry”: Mama, duok valgyt – žarna žarną ryja Kair. The word žarna is used in the sense of a digestive organ across a large part of the Lithuanian-speaking area: it is found among the Dzūkai, the eastern and central Aukštaitians, and most of the western Aukštaitians. The sparse illustrative material shows that the aforementioned idiom has likewise been recorded precisely in that area (e.g., An, Bgs, Bsg, Btg, Čb, Dglš, Drsk, Glv, Jnš, Jnšk, Kair, Ker, Kps, Krs, Kš, Kvr, KzR, Lnkv, Ml, Mrk, Plv, Pn, Pun, Rd, Rdm, Šd, Švnc, Ukm, Vp). In addition, rarer variants of the idiom have been recorded in individual localities, for example: žarna žarną ėda Ut; žarna žarną valgo Rš; žarna žarną loja Grv; žarna žarną veja Užp. Synonyms also occur, for example žarna į žarną lenda Plk. The latter is also found in literature—in the works of the Kupiškis-born J. Baltušis; cf. O kad man žarna žarnon lenda, be pietų dar aš⁶… The fact that this expression is not a recent coinage is shown by its having been recorded from the former East Prussia (the vicinity of Ragainė) as early as by A. Schleicher⁷. In the same sense, for example, the idiom žarnos maršą ūžia (= groja), “the intestines play a march,” is used in Gervėčiai; cf. Itai kaip alkanas, tada ir klega (=šneka): ot noriu valgyt – žarnos maršą ūžia. It has exact equivalents in Polish (kiszki grają marsza⁸) and Belarusian (кіуші маршам граюць⁹). It may have entered the Gervėčiai dialect from either of these two Slavic languages. The Samogitians and the Aukštaitian subdialects bordering Samogitia use the word žarnos in place of grobas. A variant of the idiom žarna žarną ryja has been recorded in the distribution area of the word grobas: grobas grobą ryja, cf. Trečią dieną ėsti neduoda, grobas grobą ryja Krš¹⁰. Erž, Klm, Ms, Mžk, Rdn, Rt, Skd, Škn, Vn, Žr. Also recorded in one locality is grobas grobą gainioja, cf. Ėsti noriu – grobas grobą gainioja Sg. 6 J. Baltušis, Parduotos vasaros, II, Vilnius, 1969, p. 33. 7 A. Schleicher, Litauisches Lesebuch und Glossar, Praga, 1856, p. 113. 8 St. Skorupka, Słownik frazeologiczny języka polskiego, I, Warszawa, 1967, p. 423. 9 Ф. Янкоўскі, Беларускія прыказкі, прымаўкі, фразеалагізмы, Мінск, 1962, p. 478. 10 The abbreviations of settlement names given after the semicolon indicate where else that idiom is used. 171 Until fairly recently, the variant ≈ s grobas grobą ryja greta žarna žarną ryja was used (and is still used by members of the older generation) in the village of Spirakiai, on the border of the central Aukštaitian area near Latvia, where the digestive organ itself is now called žarna. This phenomenon could be explained in two ways: either this village formerly fell within the distribution area of the word grobas, or the area of the entire idiom is, for various reasons, broader than that of the individual word it contains. The variant grobas į grobą lenda of the idiom žarna į žarną lenda, with the same meaning, has also been recorded, chiefly in written sources (the writings of S. Daukantas and M. Valančius, as well as J. Basanavičius’s collections of tales), for example: Grobos į grobą lenda, taip noriu valgyti M. Valanč; Bičiuli, valgyti didei noru – grobas į grobą lenda11. It may also be added here that variants of other idioms recorded in a few localities with these words are likewise restricted by the distribution areas of the synonyms žarna and grobas, while some are found with only one of the two synonyms. For example, the expression (eina kaip grobą pūtęs “to walk away empty-handed, dejected, dissatisfied”) has no counterpart at all in the more widely used variant formed with the word žarna. Thus its distribution cannot extend much beyond the area where the word grobas is used; that is, it must be confined to Samogitian dialects. The example of the geography of the words epušė, apušė, drebulė, drebuolė and the idioms formed with them also partly supports the view that the geography of individual words determines the distribution areas of idioms. For example, the idiom meaning “to be afraid” used across the Lithuanian-speaking area is dreba (virpa) kaip epušė (apušė, apušis, drebulė) arba dreba (virpa) kaip epušės (apušės, apušies, drebulės, drebuolės) lapas (“trembles (quivers) like an aspen (leaf)”). Another variant of this idiom occurs in those subdialects that use the synonym lakštas instead of the word lapas “leaf,” for example: Vilkenyčia (= vilkė) sv irpt peršoko, e aš kap apušės lakštas drebu Grv. In some cases, usually in subdialects more strongly influenced by Slavic languages, the morphological structure of the idiom also differs: following the Slavic-language pattern, an adjective is used instead of a noun in the genitive, for example, Vaikai dreba kaip lapai apušiniai Dbg. Of the comparative idioms presented here, the most widely used variant is dreba (virpa) kaip apušės lapas (“trembles (quivers) like an aspen leaf”). With the exception of the more southerly part of western Aukštaitian and some eastern Dzūkian subdialects, instances of its use have been recorded across roughly the entire Lithuanian-speaking area (e.g., Bdr, Dbč, Drsk, Grz, Eiš, Jnš, Kri, Klm, Knv, Krs, Krš, Lkm, Lkv, Lnkv, Lp, Mrk, Ob, Plm, Pp, Rgv, Rud, Sk, Škn, Užv, Vg, Žg). It should be noted that this idiom is known not only in standard Lithuanian and its dialects: it has equivalents in other languages and is international in character; cf. Latvian — trīc (dreb) kā apšu (apses rt.) lapa12; Russian — как осиновый лист дрожит (трясется)13; Polish — trząsi się jak liść (jak listek) osiki14; German — zittern wie Espenlaub15; English — quake (quiver, shake, trembling) like an aspen leaf16. 11 Lietuviškos pasakos įvairios, surinko J. Basanavičius, II, Kaunas, 1928, p. 13. 12 K. Mūlenbacha Latviešu valodas vārdnīca, I, Rīga, 1923—1925, p. 118; D. Caubuliņa, N. Ozoliņa, A. Plēsuma, Latviešu—krievu frazeoloģiskā vārdnīca, Rīga, 1965, p. 56. 13 Фразеологический словарь русского языка, под редакцией А. И. Молоткова, Москва, 1967, p. 226—227. 14 St. Skorupka, Słownik frazeologiczny języka polskiego, II, Warszawa, 1968, p. 396. 15 D. Šlapoberskis, Vokiečių—lietuvių kalbų žodynas, Vilnius, 1972, p. 311; Немецко-русский фразеологический словарь, под редакцией Малиге—Клаппенбах и К. Агрикола, Москва, 1975, p. 160. 16 A. B. Кунин, Англо-русский фразеологический словарь, Москва, 1956, p. 628. 172 It is difficult to determine why this phraseological unit is used in various languages. But it is hardly possible in this case to speak of borrowing or the result of language contact, since it also links geographically quite distant regions. Perhaps the more accurate assumption is that the same phraseological unit could have developed independently in many languages; that is, here we are dealing in part with the same factors that determine the geographical features of somatic phraseological units. Within the area of the phraseological unit discussed, other phraseological units containing the word apušė or its variants in individual Lithuanian dialects do not have clearer isoglosses, e.g.: dreba kaip apušė Grz, Kp, Lp, Mrc, Pkp, Pnd, Skp, Slnt, Vs, Vvr; dreba kap apušis Alz, Srv. In some East Aukštaitian and East Dzūkian subdialects, and here and there even among the Samogitians, expressions with the variant epušė have been recorded, e.g.: dreba kaip epušė Als, Eig, Km, Kvr, Rk, Trš; dreba kaip epušės lapas An, Ds, Kvr, Ml, Trgn, Tršk, Užv. In dialects where the synonym for the tree name drebulė is used, various variants of the phraseological unit in question are also formed with it, e.g.: dreba kaip dreb ulė Brt, Dt, Jrb, Kb, KzR, Pc, Rdm, Vl, Vlkj, Vlkv; dreba kaip dreb ulės lapas Šk, Vdk, || dreba kaip dreb ulė Dkš, Erž. In the area around Ignalina where the synonym dreb uolė is used, the variant dreba kaip dreb uolės lapas has been recorded in Vds. Incidentally, both in those localities and throughout the Lithuanian-language area, the phraseological unit is also used without the tree name, cf. (dreba) kaip lapas (Dglš). It may also be noted that in most of Lithuania, especially when the phraseological unit contains the word apušė (or epušė), its fuller variant seems to be used most often, namely the one containing the noun lapas: dreba kaip apušės (less often epušės) lapas. Phraseological variants formed with the synonym dreb ulė are usually without the word lapas—dreba kaip dreb ulė. So far, no equivalents of this more concise variant have been found in other languages. It may therefore be assumed to be newer, having arisen in Lithuanian by shortening the longer variant. As already mentioned, the areas of these individual words and the phraseological units formed with them almost coincide, with the occasional deviation generally reflecting the greater antiquity of the synonym apušės in a particular dialect. Here are several cases in which both names for the tree are known in individual dialects, but the phraseological unit is formed with only one of them; for example, alongside the tree name apušė, the name dreb ulė is also used, but the phraseological unit contains only apušė Grz, Jnš, Khm, Lkm, Plm, Sk, Škn; apušė || apušis || dreb ulė || dreb ulis, but the phraseological unit contains only apušė Dbg; epušė || dreb ulė, but the phraseological unit is formed only with epušė Als. The reverse case, that is, the name epušė || dreb ulė but the phraseological unit using dreb ulė, has so far been recorded only once—in Urkuvėnai. Since the geographical distribution of a phraseological unit generally cannot diverge greatly from that of the independent word forming one of its components, if the area of such a word is fragmented (sometimes even consisting of separate, non-contiguous parts), the area of the phraseological unit containing that word will also be discontinuous. For example, the comparative phraseological unit storas kaip užėtkas ‘very thick’ has been recorded in the southernmost Dzūkian subdialects around Dubičiai. An equivalent containing a variant of the same word, ušėckas, is found in some Aukštaitian dialects along the Latvian border (Grz, Jnš, Kri, Sk, Žml), where, as in those Dzūkian dialects, it denotes a certain kind of small tub. The area of Ušėcko / ušėtko is divided into parts by intervening areas where the same object has a different name (cebras / ceberas / ceberkas); the phraseological unit in question is probably not known in those areas either. Another case is when the words making up the phraseological unit are used throughout, or almost throughout, the Lithuanian-language area, while the phraseological unit itself, functioning as a verb and formed according to the pattern D + V₁ (V₂, V₃...), 173 This construction, formed according to the pattern D + V₁ (V₂, V₃...)17, is found only in some dialects. For example, most Lithuanian dialects have the noun lightning (or its variant flash of lightning) and the verbs to throw, pour, lash18. By contrast, the expression to throw (pour, lash) lightning ‘to flash with lightning’ is confined to Samogitians, northern western Aukštaitians, and the northern parts of central and eastern Aukštaitian (cf., for example: to throw lightning Antz, Brs, Brž, Grz, Jnš, Jnšk, Kair, Kri, Krs, Krš, Lg, Lnkv, Mšk, Ms, Pbr, Pkr, Pš, Pvn, Rdn, Sk, Skd, Slnt, Škn, Šl, Šts, Šv, Užv, Vvr, Žg, Žml; to pour lightning Pnm, Rk; lightning lashes Škn, to lash lightning Jnš, Mšk, Sk, Šl; to pour flashes of lightning Pvn). The southern western Aukštaitians, the southern part of central Aukštaitian, the Dzūkians, and some easterners, judging from the available material, seem to use the verb to flash with lightning instead of this expression. A variant of the expression with the lexical variant flash of lightning is used in some Samogitian dialects, for example: to throw flashes of lightning Kv, Lkv, Prk, Šll, to lash flashes of lightning Pj. Variants of the phraseological unit žaibus (žiebus) mesti (pliekti…) have also been recorded in written sources, e.g.: žaibus mesti B, M, N, Žem; žaibus pliekti Sln; žiebus mesti JnE, Mit I 72; žėbus (= žiebus) mesti BzF 202, Mit I 72. Thus, this phraseological unit is not new. Its antiquity is also indicated by the exact Latvian equivalent, formed with words from the same root as in Lithuanian; cf.: zibenus meta allaž biežāk ‘there was frequent heavy lightning’; pērkuons rūcis un zibens metis19. Another example of the same type of phraseological unit, formed according to the same pattern and whose variants’ areas depend essentially only on the verb in the second component, is the set of expressions used to describe vomiting (usually by someone drunk or hungover), cf.: Gėrei gėrei, kas iš to, kad gėrei, kad reikia ožius bielyti Vb; Gėrė, gėrė, kol pradėjo ožius draskyt Msn; Tai drėskiau ožius, į tvorą įsikabinęs Btg; Vakar gėrė, dabar ožius gainioja Dbg; Gersi, kol pradėsi ožius ganyt Bgs; Lupsi ožius kaip didelis, tik neik nuo stalo VIkv; Pradėsi ožius nerti, negerk tiek daug Šl; Tol sėdėjo prie stalo, kol ėmė ožį pjaut Mžk; Škn; Prisigėrė, o dabar ožius plėšia Ut; Ožius rauna, ir gana, atsikėlęs Glv. According to the available data, the areas of the various variants are distributed approximately as follows. Ožius bielyti has been recorded mainly north of the line Obeliai – Dusetos – Antalieptė – Daugailiai – Užpaliai – Debeikiai – Troškūnai – Karsakiškis – Šeduva – Pakruojis – Joniškis (cf.: An, Ant, Brž, Dgl, Ds, Jnš, Jnšk, Km, Kp, Krs, Lnkv, Ob, Pbr, Pkr, Ps, Rk, Šd, Užp, Vb). The variant ožius lupti (sometimes alongside other variants) has been recorded in scattered locations south of the area of ožius bielyti, in East Aukštaitian and East and West Dzūkian dialects, as well as in the so-called Priežūkis and southern West Aukštaitian dialects, e.g.: Alk, An, Ant, Brt, Dbč, Dbg, Dglš, Dkšt, Ds, Dv, Grv, Jz, Klt, KzR, Lb, Lp, Lzd, Pls, Pun, Rod, Rš, Slk, Srj, Šlčn, Švn, Švnč, Trgn, Vdš, Vdšk, VIkv, VšR, Vv, Zr, Žl; ožius pjauti has been recorded mainly west of the area of ožius bielyti, e.g.: Erž, Grz, Jnš, Krp, Mžk, Sk, Škn, Trk, Vkš, Žg. Ožius plėšti has been recorded mainly in the eastern part of the Lithuanian-language area, in some places alongside the variant ožius lupti, e.g.: Bgs, Čb, Dbg, Dv, Grv, Ign, Ker, Kvr, Ml, Mlt, Msn, Rud, Šlčn, Ut, Vp, Žl. In individual cases, it has also been recorded in southern West Aukštaitian dialects alongside the variant ožius lupti in Vv. Other variants, also more frequent in the eastern part of the Lithuanian-language area, are likewise used alongside other variants in many places, e.g.: 17 D — noun, V₁, V₂, V₃ — different verbs. 18 The word žaibas is apparently absent only from some eastern Lithuanian dialects; for example, around Daugėliškis, Vidiškės, and other places, bliskavica(?) seems to be used instead. 19 K. Mülenbacha Latviešu valodas vārdnīca, IV, Rīga, 1929–1932, p. 716. 174 to flay goats Čb, Ker, Msn; to drive goats Dbg; to skin goats Glv. In individual cases, such rarer variants are also found in Western Highland Lithuanian and Samogitian dialects, e.g.: to tear goats Ar, Bgt, Btg, Rs; to plunge goats Šl. Among the rarer expressions is to strip the hide off goats, e.g.: You drank well yesterday, and stripped more than one goat’s hide Gdr. A further variant, with a different second component and a modified first component of the idiom (probably even to be regarded as a synonym of the idiom discussed), to buy kid goats, was recorded in individual Samogitian dialects, e.g.: He drank just a few little glasses and already he’ll be buying kid goats behind the corner; Perhaps you too are going into the back room to buy little kids; Well, what is it—are you already buying kid goats Sd. It may also be added that Latvian likewise has an idiom formed according to the same model and with the same first component, with various variants, e.g.: āzi (āžus) dirāt (kaut, plēst) “to skin (beat, tear) a goat (goats)”; āžu ādas spilēt “to pull, stretch goats’ hides”; āžus durt “to stab goats”; ar āžu ādām braukt “to ride with goats’ hides”20. To conclude the discussion of this idiom, it should be noted that Lithuanian dialects also have various synonyms for it, used to describe vomiting, e.g.: to say thank you; to grow backwards; to turn back; to count gold (gold coins); a gold coin is worth two kopecks; the soul is sick (succeeded, twisted); the soul was twisted; to throw into the crust; to transport a calf; to make a bull calf bellow and others. However, their formation and geography are not examined in this article. Sometimes certain variants of this type of idiom form relatively clear areas. For example, Lithuanian dialects have an idiom with numerous variations in its first component, formed according to the model D₁ (D₂, D₃, D₄…) + D, meaning ‘to snow in large, wet flakes’, e.g., women’s | men’s | dog’s | beggar’s | wolf’s bites. Cf.: It is snowing in women’s bites Grk; It’s snowing in men’s bites—it’s awful to go out Ker; Well, it’s coming down in dog’s bites Lk; It was working in beggar’s bites, and it’s still coming down Lk; When it started falling in wolf’s bites (= scattering), my eyes were covered over Kl; J. Of all the variants listed here, the expression beggar’s bites seems to have the clearest isogloss. According to the material currently available, its area of use lies north and west of the Biržai — Pabiržė — Pasvalys — Joniškėlis — Šeduva — Kelmė line, while its further southern boundary beyond Kelmė is no longer clear. Thus, it is used mainly in the northern Samogitian and Highland Lithuanian dialects (e.g.: Brž, Grz, Grž, Jnš, Jnšk, Klk, Klm, Kri, Krp, Krš, Lnkv, Ms, Mšk, Mžk, Pbr, Plt, Ps, Rdn, Rd, Sk, Šd, Škn, Tl, Trš, Užv, Vvr, Žg, Žml). The area of the rarer variant—women’s (women’s) bites—apparently begins roughly around Eržvilkas, Girkalnis, and Raseiniai and extends southward beyond the Nemunas (e.g.: Erž, Grk, Gs, Kb, KzR, Rs, Šil, Šk, Švn, Vl, Vlkj, Vlkv). This variant was recorded in individual locations in the eastern Highland Lithuanian dialects (e.g.: Bgs, Er, Pn), but its precise area of use cannot yet be determined. From one or two records, it seems that alongside women’s (women’s) bites, the variant beggar’s bites is also used interchangeably in some dialects (e.g.: Kps, Plv). The areas of the rarer variants with this meaning—men’s bites, dog’s bites, wolf’s bites—as well as of the idiom bread bites, recorded only once (cf.: It is snowing in bread bites Grz), cannot be described until our idioms have been collected more systematically. 20 K. Mūlenbacha Latviešu valodas vārdnīca, I, p. 246; D. Caubuliņa, N. Ozoliņa, A. Plēsuma, Latviešu—krievu frazeoloģiskā vārdnīca, p. 74. 175 In Lithuanian dialects, other expressions are also used to describe such snowfall. For example, from the sentence printed by Klaipėda-region speakers in the weekly newspaper „Tiesos Prietelius“ Pradėjo sniegas bobos kasniais kristi, tai bus bene gandro kepiai, kaip mūsų tėvai saky liubėjo21 one may infer that the idiom gandro kepiai may formerly have been used in the speech varieties of that region. However, we have no further data that would allow us to define its meaning more precisely or say even a little about the area in which it is used. The word kepis, taken by itself and meaning “a flat bun,” seems to be found only among Samogitians22. The first component of the idiom—the name of a bird, gandras—also seems formerly to have been most widely used in Samogitian dialects23. The geographical distribution of the comparative idiom with the same meaning, sninga (sniegti) kaip vištom (“it is snowing like chickens”), is somewhat clearer. The data available suggest that it is more widely used in the speech varieties of the western Dzūkians, although records also come from eastern Dzūkian and other areas (cf.: Al, Alv, Dbč, Dg, Dv, Eiš, Grv, Kls, Knv, Mrc, Mrk, Nč, Pls, Pun, Rod, Vlk, Vrn). A few of its variants have also been recorded in some places, for example: Krinta kaip viščiukai (kaip viščiukų galvos) Aln, Blnk (“They fall like chicks [like chicks’ heads]”); Sniegti tai sniegti kaip gaidžiais Rud (“It really is snowing like roosters”). Especially many different comparative idioms with the same meaning have been recorded in eastern Aukštaitian dialects, and partly in eastern Dzūkian dialects as well, for example: Nu ir drebia už lango kaip dribsniais Kp (“And it’s really coming down outside the window, like flakes”); Pagada, sergėk dieve, kaip katinais drebia Vdšk; Dl (“Good heavens, it’s coming down like cats”); Sninga kaip kačiukais Dl (“It’s snowing like kittens”); Drobluoja, sninga kaip kačiokais Kp (“It’s sleeting, snowing like kittens”); Tai sninga, kaip lapais Čb; Kš, Ut, Zr (“It’s snowing like leaves”); Lauke kaip lapsiais verčia Ut (“Outside, it’s tumbling down like rags”); Kad sninga, tai sninga, kaip lopiniais Lkm (“Now that’s snowing—like patches”); Kaip nosinėm sninga Aln (“It’s snowing like handkerchiefs”); Sninga kaip pirštinėm Bgs (“It’s snowing like mittens”); Sninga kaip skarom Žl (“It’s snowing like shawls”); Drebia kaip skepetom Aln; An, Blnk, Dbg, Ktk, Kur, Lkm, Mlt, Sdk, Skdt, Sv, Tršk, Užp (“It’s coming down like rags”); Lauke kaip skri duliais sniega Km (“Outside, it’s snowing like …”); Visą dieną vertė sniegą kaip plostais – ir kailinaičiai, ir nešulaitis šlapias Grv (“All day the snow came down in sheets—and both the little fur coat and the bundle were wet”). However, more material is needed to establish the distribution of all these expressions. Besides such expressions, whose two components are words found in all or at least most of our dialects, there are also expressions in which one of the components is a word that, taken on its own, is known only in a very limited area, but the area covered by the expression formed with it is much larger. For example, aitas ‘a restless, mischievous person’ is known only in the vicinity of Kupiškis24. By contrast, the expression to go (go out, go away) aitais; to go away by the roads of the aitai; to go aitom ‘to come to nothing, fall apart, end in failure’ is used across a considerably larger area; cf.: It went aitais, and aitais it ended Lnkv; I worked and worked, and that work went aitais Rm; Alz; No one looked after him, and the man went away by the roads of the aitai Brž; Pbr, Ps; That child of hers goes aitom Ėr. It also occurs in the writings of writers and cultural figures from these places, for example: Wealth and money went aitais P. Aviž. On the basis of this material alone, it is difficult to determine precisely what caused the geographical distribution of the idiom as a whole and that of the word aitas, taken separately, to differ. It is hardly correct 21 „Tiesos prietelius“. Verlag und Druck von G. Trauszies in Prökuls, 1881, Nr. 13, p. 3. 22 Plg. LKŽ V 582–583. 23 Incidentally, possible relatives of the idiom gandro kepiai may include expressions such as Balandis kepį kepa Rt (“April bakes a kepis”); Gegužė kepį kepa KrvP(Tv) (“May bakes a kepis”); Gegužė tur savo kepį atkep­ti, that is, there is to be sleet J; Dar gegužė iškeps savo kepį, that is, there will be frost JI 588, although their meaning is somewhat different. They are used mainly to describe the unsettled weather that occurs in spring. (Cf. also another figurative meaning of the word kepis—something shaken down, “baked,” “excrement”; see LKŽ V 582–3). 24 LKŽ I 44. 176 to explain this discrepancy solely by the great popularity of a narrowly local idiom. It may also be that the word aitas was once more widely known, whereas today its area has shrunk considerably25. Incidentally, sometimes a word that constitutes one component of an idiom may, according to the available data, not be used independently at all, that is, it may have no area of its own. For example, in the Žemaitian dounininkai dialects, the idiom aitais eiti is used in almost the same sense (“to idle, to come to nothing”) as the expression paiparibais (palparybais, papauribais, pauparibais eiti (išeiti, nueiti), for example: Juk anie visi paiparibais daba eita Ms; Tėvas dirbo, rūpinosi, vaikai palparybais eit Grg; Vos ponas atsitrauksi, darbininkai eit palparybais, t. y. vienas in vieną šalį, kitas in kitą J; Pln; Jie gėrė uliavojo — visas jo gyvenimas palparybais išėjo Sd; Eit pauparibais kiauras dienas, nu kas iš tokio gal būti? Slnt. Interestingly, the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language records a sentence from the writings of the poet and cultural figure Silvestras Gimžauskas with a variant of this idiom, for example: Petras nuvėjo papauribais, t. y. nuvėjo keliais nedorybės, nuvėjo ne tuomi keliu, kur reikėjo eiti26. S. Gimžauskas came from the Linkmenys area of eastern Lithuania. It is not entirely clear how a variant of an idiom characteristic of the Žemaitians came to appear in his writings. It is known, however, that he was well acquainted with the works of writers and linguists of his time and earlier periods. Perhaps he too borrowed this idiom from Žemaitian authors. Other Lithuanian-language researchers have also observed that the dialectal character of the language in S. Gimžauskas’s writings is not uniform27. The first component of all these variants (paiparibais, palparybais, papauribais, pauparibais) is the same word, altered to some extent for phonetic reasons. As an independent word, it does not seem to be recorded in any dialect or subdialect. A phraseological expression of a similar type consists of an adverbialized instrumental plural form (su skarduliais) and some form of a verb of motion, such as bėgti, išbėgo, išdumti, eiti, eik, išlėkė, and so on, which is an obligatory co-occurring element of the idiom. This expression denotes the intensity and speed of an action, for example: Bėk su skarduliais, kitaip neužspėsi Žyr; Visi vaikai su skarduliais išdumė pro duris Vv; Kai sykį rėžiau, tai su skarduliais nulėkė Vl; Šuo su skarduliais išbėgo iš kiemo Ilg; Nm. Variants of this expression also occur. It can be expanded with a comparative particle (Eina greit, kaip su skarduliais Vl); the noun component may have a variant form (Nutilk, jei nori, o ne išeisi su skardūneliais Jrb. Kad paimsiu lazdą, tai su skardūneliais išeisi iš virtuvės Jrb); or the verb form—the obligatory co-occurring element of the idiom—may be omitted but understood (Pareina tėvas girtas, tai visi vaikai su skardūliais iš namų Lkš). As the examples show, this idiom has been recorded among the Veliuona dialect speakers, the Zanavykai, and in the very northern part of the Kapsai area; it is occasionally also found in neighboring northwestern Aukštaitian subdialects. It is also attested in written sources, for example, in Juška’s dictionary: Skarduliais ėjom, t. y. šokome smagiai, linksmai; in J. Jablonskis’s writings: Su skarduliais darbas eina; and in P. Cvirka’s work: Kaip šutri voverėlė iššliuožia Simukas iš medžio, pirma nusilaužia liekną ryškštelę ir su skarduliais 25 The geographical distribution of the word aitas had also been studied earlier; cf. K. Būga, Rinktiniai raštai, III, Vilnius, 1961, p. 487. 26 LKŽ IX 351. 27 V. Vanagas, A. Vidugiris, Silvestras Gimžauskas, — Ignalinos kraštas, Vilnius, 1966, p. 218, 221. 12. Užs. Nr. 1026 177 bėga galvijams už akių28. The Devil and Perkūnas thought that a laumė was coming... One jumped out through the window, the other through the chimney, and they dashed off with a clatter29. Some idioms of this type have been recorded in only a single subdialect, for example, pakalstomis eiti ‘to idle’: Pakalstoms eita vaikai, šalinė[ja], nestova numie Šts; drauti atmesti ‘to fall ill’: Užrišk skarelę, a nori drauti atmesti Sk; Pamtysi, kaip Liokadija drauti atmes teip nesisaugodama Sk; They are strictly local in character. In these cases, the geographical distribution of the idiom is determined by its first component, not by the second component—the verb. Alongside idioms whose geographical distribution is determined in one way or another by the area of a word that forms one of their components, there are also many whose isogloss depends not on the word as a whole, but on one of its meanings. For example, the word drevė and its variants cover most of the Lithuanian language area, yet idioms formed with this word, such as storas kaip drevė ‘very fat’, have been recorded only in a few western Dzūkian subdialects (Dbč, Vrn). This is because only in a small part of the western Dzūkian dialect area does drevė mean a thick pine tree, in which bees were usually kept, whereas everywhere else the word means a tree hollow, cavity, or hole. The comparative idiom aukštas kaip drevė ‘very tall’ Mrc occupies an even smaller area, since the word drevė seems to be used even more narrowly in the western Dzūkian subdialects with the meaning ‘a thick, tall pine’. It is possible that the word drevė or its variants once had this meaning over a much wider area; cf. the sentence recorded among the northern western Aukštaitians: Tai merga kaip dravis Jrb30. In turn, in those dialects where the word drevė is used to mean a tree hollow or cavity, idioms reflecting precisely this meaning have been recorded. For example, in some western and central Aukštaitian subdialects near the Latvian border (Jnš, Sk, Škn), the idiom įlindo kaip į drevę is used. It is said when something cannot be found, when something has disappeared (an object, person, or animal). There are also other variants of this type. We will try to discuss one of them here. The regular diminutive form of the word dievas, namely dievaitis, is possible in all Lithuanian dialects that have the suffix -aitis. In written language, this derivative was used with a somewhat more specific meaning, ‘pagan god’31. However, in some southeastern western Dzūkian subdialects (e.g., Arm, Dbč, Nč, Pls, Rod, Vrn), it has an entirely different meaning: ‘moon’. A second meaning, ‘month (the twelfth part of the year)’, follows naturally from the latter. Thus, in this small area dievaitis is used with two meanings, and the areas of the word’s two senses appear to coincide. There are also two groups of idioms formed with this derivative, since their meanings are clearly motivated, that is, the relationship between the meanings of the individual words and the meanings of the individual expressions— 28 P. Cvirka, Raštai, II, Vilnius, 1949, p. 10–11. 29 P. Cvirka, Raštai, V, Vilnius, 1949, p. 39. 30 Cf. also: “Dravies and its cognates originally meant not ‘tree hollow’, ‘cavity’, ‘hole’, ‘hollow’, but ‘tree’, ‘pine’. This is at least what the cognates of dravies indicate...” (K. Būga, Rinktiniai raštai, II, Vilnius, 1959, p. 63). 31Also worth mentioning are comparative expressions that most likely developed from that meaning, such as, for example, Uncle loved [his son] like the apple of his eye and raised him like a little god (very proud, conceited) (I. Simonait y tė, Vilius Karalius, 1939, p. 395). Diksas, that blockhead, swaggering mightily in town and dressed up every day in glittering clothes, shows his crown among the peasants like some little god (K. Donelaitis, “The Joys of Spring,” — Lietuvių literatūros istorijos chrestomatija, Vilnius, 1957, p. 165). 178 Their meanings are fairly clearly distinguished: some are associated with the meaning “moon,” others with “month”; cf.: A poor meal looks like a little god (said of a poor, watery broth) Nč, Pls, Rod; He cannot make ends meet from one little god to the next (the monthly wage is not enough) Dbč; Nč, Pls. As far as can be judged from the available material, just as the distribution areas of the two meanings of dievaitis coincide, so too do the distribution areas of the phraseological expressions in the two groups. This is a case in which idioms formed with several different meanings of the same word share a common area, determined by the overlapping distribution areas of those meanings. To the factors already mentioned that determine the distribution areas of idioms, we should add that in certain cases these areas also depend on the geographical, ethnographic, and other characteristics of a particular region. Thus, the Dzūkai, who in earlier times struggled to make a living from infertile sandy soil, coined the idiom to live off little baskets, cf.: In the past everyone here lived off little baskets—they picked mushrooms, picked berries, and carried them to town Mrc. (The noun kašelė, which forms the first component of the idiom, means ‘basket’ in those dialects.) Elsewhere, where berry-picking and mushroom-gathering were of little importance, idioms formed with this noun generally refer only to begging, cf.: Let him not work if he does not want to; he can take up a little basket in his old age Sk. If you keep loafing like that, you’ll soon be taking up a little basket (Jñš, Lnkv, Žg). In the latter case, the word kašė also has a different meaning—here it more often means ‘small bag’ (“scrip”). The geographical distribution of idioms and vivid expressions that contain a personal name—that is, a person’s given name or surname—as one of their components also varies considerably. Sometimes such an expression is used only in one³² village or in several neighboring villages. For example, in the village of Spirakiai in Joniškis district, when someone is whining and grumbling persistently, people often say Why do you keep grumbling like Marcijana? You’re never happy, never happy—you’re always dissatisfied like Marcė. Older people explain that these comparisons arose because a woman with a very irritating disposition once lived there. They say that at first her surname was sometimes added as well, but in time it dropped out of the expression: apparently the patronymic was needed only until the expression evolved from an incidental comparison into an established idiom in that locality. What most likely prevents a local idiom formed with a personal name from spreading over a wider area is that it is readily understood only in the locality where the person lived whose particular traits of character or appearance gave rise to the expression in question. The same applies when a vivid expression is formed not with a given name, but with a surname. For example, in the Žarėnai–Latveliai area of Šiauliai district, one may hear the expression as slovenly as Šlauštas. The basis for this comparison was a mentally disabled beggar from nearby Kruopiai, who, because of his illness, could not take even the slightest care of his personal cleanliness or clothing. No other poor person in the area could come close to matching him in this neglect. Since he wandered far and wide, he had become something of a local celebrity, so comparisons using his surname, and sometimes also his given name, are found in various places in the area, in different forms, but with similar content—in all of them, some characteristic of the person’s appearance or behavior is highlighted, e.g.: He came, sat down, and just stayed there like Šlauštas Škn; Look, he’s coming, loaded with bags like 32 Cf. also Б. Ф. Захаров, Личные имена и прозвища в составе диалектных фразеологизмов, — Ономастика поволжья, 2, Горький, 1971, p. 96. 12* 179 Šlaustas Vincentas Škn; Ragged and tattered like Šlaustas—don’t you have any better clothes? Žar-Latv. When discussing the geographical characteristics of locally derived phraseological expressions containing personal names, it may also be added that comparisons involving surnames appear to have wider areas of use than comparisons involving given names. This is because a surname distinguishes a person from their surroundings more effectively; a person is known by their surname over a much broader area than by their given name, thereby also giving the “surname-based” phraseological expression a wider range. By contrast, locally derived comparative phraseological expressions with given names, e.g., like Marcė; like Marcijana, even in a neighboring village require additional information—which Marcė, which Marcijana? Marcė, what kind of Marcijana?33 Some idioms and vivid expressions are closely connected with particular ethnographic features. The distribution area of such idioms is determined by the spread of the corresponding ethnographic feature, the realia itself. For instance, in the part of Lithuania where home-brewed beer is made—for example, around Žagarė—the idiom witches are brewing beer has been recorded (said when fog creeps in from marshes, riverbanks, or woodland areas, usually after rain). Such an expression is unlikely in southern Lithuania, where beer is brewed at home relatively rarely. Compare other idioms known in the dialects that describe the same phenomenon without the component beer, e.g.: The hare is heating the sauna Slm; The fox is frying fish Grv; The fairy is heating the oven Tvr. A distinctive layer of phraseology is made up of the so-called terminological idioms. Their geography, essentially determined by the same factors as the geography of the other idioms we have examined, also has certain specific features. Here we will briefly touch on the geographical characteristics of some terminological idioms from the fields of ethnography, botany, and zoology. The distribution area of an ethnographic terminological idiom depends first and foremost on the distribution area of the ethnographic realia (object, custom, or belief). For example, different forms of farming, customs, and various relations with neighboring peoples in different Lithuanian ethnographic regions have led to distinctive ways of preparing food and drink. Consequently, certain vivid food names—terminological idioms—are used in limited areas and are associated with particular ethnographic characteristics. For example, the food name (and, in part, the method of preparation) borrowed from Latvian skaba putra (cf. Latvian skāb-putra34) is widespread only in dialects along the Latvian border. It is a soup made from boiled groats and curd cheese, or from boiled groats and sour milk: In summer, when it’s hot, we eat nothing else; we all keep going back to the pot of skaba putra Sk; Mother will cook up a pot of skaba putra, and we’ll keep gobbling it down (Jnš; Jnšk, Kri, Škn, Žml). A porridge of grated potatoes with groats, or sometimes flour, is cooked only in a certain part of Samogitia and in adjacent Aukštaitian localities. The distribution area of its name šilkinė (šilkinė) košė does not extend beyond the area of the food itself. It has been recorded, for example, around Kušėnai, Lyduvėnai, Luokė, Padubysis, and Pakapė. This type of idiom may also have synonyms or variants. For example, potato porridge with flour is cooked chiefly in the northern part of Samogitia and among neighboring Western Aukštaitians. The recorded forms indicate that its name is pusmarškonė košė 33 Cf. also the article “Phraseological Expressions with Personal Names,” published in that volume, which includes a few remarks on the distribution of this type of idiom (with personal names). 34 Latviešu—krievu vārdnīca, Rīga, 1963, p. 676. 180 is used in the areas around Mažeikiai, Laižuva, Tirkšliai, Telšiai, Rietavas, Kuršėnai, Gargždai, Šakyna, and Šlapgirė. The variant — pusinė košė ‘half-porridge’ — was recorded around Mosėdis, Šaukliai, Grušlaukė, Papilė, Gadūnavas, and Žlibinai. The customs of individual ethnographic regions, arising from certain traditions or reflecting relics of past beliefs, also restrict the ranges of the terminological phraseologisms associated with them. For example, certain figurative expressions connected with wedding customs have clearly defined areas of use. Some, such as piršli karti, are known throughout almost all of Lithuania, while others are characteristic only of particular dialects or even parts of them. For instance, apparently only in parts of eastern Lithuania, chiefly around Kupiškis, alongside all the other wedding customs and phraseological expressions reflecting them, such as suolą pirkti; kertę pirkti; raktus pirkti; vartus pirkti (‘to buy a bench; to buy a corner; to buy keys; to buy a gate’) or suolą parduoti; kertę parduoti (‘to sell a bench; to sell a corner’), and so on, there is also the custom of sodą pirkti; sodą parduoti (‘to buy a garden; to sell a garden’)35. Various terms associated with customs of calendar festivals also have clearly defined ranges, determined by the spread of the custom itself. For example, in the vicinity of Dieveniškės, at the end of the 19th century, on the eve of St George’s Day, the farmer, dressed for the occasion, would go out to plough the first furrow. He would take a slice of bread and a pinch of salt with him. After ploughing one or two furrows, he would return home and give all the members of the household a taste of that bread, called užarinėjimo duona ‘first-furrow bread’36. In the vicinity of Gervėčiai in the Byelorussian SSR, on St George’s Day the farmer would walk around the fields with a small loaf in which an egg had been baked, called derliaus kiaušiniu ‘harvest egg’; compare: Ė kap anas (the farmer) sugrįžta, deda kukelaitę (= a small loaf), pjauto — gaspadorius pats turi derliaus kiaušinį valgyt. (‘And when he comes back, he sets down a little loaf, cut it—the farmer himself must eat the harvest egg.’) Nowadays, both customs and the terms associated with them—užarinėjimo duona ir derliaus kiaušinis, ‘first-furrow bread’ and ‘harvest egg’—are recorded only in those two areas. We do not know what their ranges were in ancient times. The object itself sometimes also restricts the ranges of terminological phraseologisms belonging to the field of botany. For example, pelenėlė raktazolė (Primula farinosa) grows only in northern Lithuania. In southern Lithuania, neither the plant nor its names are found37. Some of these are terminological phraseologisms used in very restricted areas. For example, according to the data available, the expression kregždės ašarėlės is used only around Biržai and Pabiržė, while blezdingos akelės is used around Vegeriai. As we can see, here too the range of the phraseologism in turn depends on the range of the word that constitutes one of its components (that is, the geography of kregždės / blezdingos, ‘swallow’). Sometimes a plant grows throughout Lithuania, yet terminological phraseologisms used as its names are relatively few, because in Lithuanian dialects it is chiefly called by single-word names. For example, the garden flower kurpelė (Aconitum), probably because of the shape of its flower, is most often called bačiuku, čebatėliu, kurpute, sopagėliu, kanteple and other names; only one terminological phraseologism is attested as its name, and it incorporates various forms and synonyms for ‘shoe’; compare: Marijos čebatelis Nj, Pg; Marijos batelis Nm; Marijos batukas Kd, Kur, Vvr; Marijos kantaplelis Krkn; švenčiausios panelės Marijos kantapliukas Ukm. Some plants that grow throughout Lithuania, in addition to their single-word names, also have many names consisting of terminological phraseologisms, characterized by great richness 35 The wedding sodas is an ornamental structure made from straws and artificial flowers, or a small spruce decorated with fruit, sweets, and colored papers, with a doll—the “gardener”—among its branches; see Lietuvių etnografijos bruožai, Vilnius, 1964, p. 497 (hereafter: LEB). 36 LEB 543. 37 J. Dagys, Lietuviškas botanikos žodynas, I, Kaunas, 1938, p. 280 (Toliau: J. Dagys, LBŽ). 181 synonymy. Unfortunately, the very sparse data do not allow us to specify the exact ranges of individual synonyms. For example, kiškio ašarėlės (Briza media) is also called by the following terminological phraseologisms: kiškio ašarėlės Pg, Pn, Rm; dievo ašarėlės Ob, Rk; kiškio kanapės Brž, Pbr, Pn; zuikio kanapės Škn; kiškio kruopos Pai, Pin, Pc, Pn, Šd; Marijos ašaros Pn; Vėjo avižos Brž; žvirblio ašarėlės Jnš, Sk; žvirblių kanapė Grz, Jnšk, Kri, Lnkv, Pkr, Žg. Written sources also attest: zuikio avižos T. Ivan; zuikio rugiai Mit, II 3(9). Terminological phraseologisms whose names refer to animals known throughout Lithuania also have different ranges. For example, the little beetle boružė (Coccinella septempunctata38), in addition to ordinary one-word names, is also called by various terminological phraseologisms, which are unevenly distributed across Lithuanian dialects. Of these phraseologisms, dievo karvytė is the most widespread, along with its variants formed by morphological derivation of the second component, e.g., dievo karvelė (karvikė / karvukė / karvutė). The overall range of dievo karvytė (-elė, -ikė, -ukė, -utė) can be described approximately, on the basis of the available data, as follows: its western boundary runs roughly through Žagarė – Šiauliai – Radviliškis – Dotnuva – Kėdainiai – Vilkija to the Nemunas. It then follows the Nemunas to Smalininkai. The eastern and southern boundary runs approximately through Zarasai – Dūkštas – Ignalina – Švenčionėliai – Musninkai – Aukštadvaris – Birštonas – Simnas – Veisiejai. Dievo karvytė is used most widely in the Eastern Aukštaitian dialects. Less frequently, probably as a more recent form, the name also occurs in other dialects: in the northern and southern parts of Central Aukštaitian, and in the Kapsai-Zanavykai speech varieties of Western Aukštaitian (incidentally, the southern Western Aukštaitians also have various other names for the little beetle—barbulė, barbutė; boruška, poruška, and others). It probably occurs on the eastern edge of the northwestern Aukštaitian dialect as an import from the eastern part of the Lithuanian-speaking area. It is uncommon in the Eastern Dzūkian dialect at the far eastern edge of its range, while in the southeastern margins of Western Dzūkian it has occasionally been recorded alongside the more characteristic one-word name bobuška or alongside various phraseological variants formed with that word. Among the Samogitians it has been recorded only in isolated places, so it appears to be new in those dialects (the prevailing name there is petronėlė and its variants—petrelis, petriukas, and others). The available material suggests that the center of the dievo karvytė range lies in Eastern Lithuania, on the right bank of the Neris, roughly east of the line Pandėlys – Vabalninkas – Kupiškis – Anykščiai – Ukmergė – Čiobiškis, and extends to the eastern boundary of the range delimited by that name. (Virtually no other variants of this terminological phraseologism or one-word synonyms have been recorded in the area indicated.) It may be added that an identical equivalent of our phraseologism exists in Latvian, but only in the form of compounds (cf. dievgoliņa39, dievgūšņina40), and in some Slavic languages (cf. Russian—божья коровка41; Belarusian—божая кароўка42; Polish—boża krówka43; Bulgarian—божа кровица44). 38 In writing about terminological phraseologisms, the holdings of the Atlas of the Lithuanian Language at the Institute of the Lithuanian Language and Literature of the Lithuanian SSR Academy of Sciences were used. 39 A. Bojāte, V. Subatnieks, Lieviškiu–latviešu vārdnīca, Rīgā, 1964, p. 98. 40 K. Mülenbacha Latviešu valodas vārdnīca, I, p. 484. 41 X. Лемхенас, Русско-литовский словарь, Kaunas, 1948, p. 26. 42 Белорусско-русский словарь, Москва, 1962, p. 128. 43 V. Vaitkevičiūtė, Lenkų–lietuvių kalbų žodynas, Vilnius, 1964, p. 182. 44 M. A. Leonova, The Place of the Proper Name in the Lexical and Phraseological System of Language, “Yearbook of Sofia University, Faculty of Slavic Philology,” 1974, p. 110–111. 182 In general, the variants of this phraseologism occurring within the specified dievo karvytės area are rarer, and some reflect second-component suffixal derivatives characteristic only of particular speech varieties. Cf. their distribution: dievo karvė, e.g.: Ign, Kzt, Mrkt, Švnč; dievo karvelė (pondievo karvelė Trš) is used more often on the eastern edge of the area around Dūkštas, Ignalina, and Švenčionys; it is also somewhat more frequent (usually alongside one-word names or other rarer terminological phraseologisms and variants) in the northern part of the Dounininkai Samogitian dialect, and has also been recorded in isolated locations in other dialects, e.g.: Adm, Als, Brn, Btrm, Bržn, Dkšt, Dpš, Dsm, Eidž, Gml, Gnn, Grdž, Grg, Grl, Gršl, Grv, Gržl, Gžn, Kėg, Krtn, Ktv, Kvl, Lc. Ldv, Lž, Ml, Mnšk, Mrg, Mtj, Mžui, NmjB, NmŠ, Onš, Pa, Pčk, Pdv, Pršm, Rdm, Rš, Skd, Slnt, Šak, Ūd, Urv, Varn, Vg, Vl, Zbl, Zst, Žemt, Žlb, Žž, || dievo karvytė Ant, Brš, Ck, Čk, Ds, Erž, Yl, Yš, Jdp, Kkl, Klm, Kmn, Knk, Krsn, Kš, Ktn, Ktv, Kz, Mlt, Mrkt, Ob, Pdg, Piev, Pkš, Pp, KetS, Skrd, Smn, Šauk, Šmn, Šš, Švnč, Švnčn, Trk, Trm, Vlk, Vrk, Zr, Žg, Žsl. The variant dievo karvikė is more characteristic of the Dūnininkai Samogitian dialect, although it has also been recorded in neighboring speech varieties, e.g.: Alj, Aukšt, Gně, Lky, Rgl, Strg, Šll, Šlpg, Trš, Užv, Vg, Žv, || dievo karvytė Ilgž, Skdv, Šauk; dievo karviukė Btg; dievo karvukė is often encountered (relatively frequently alongside other names) in the Western Dzūkian dialect, e.g.: Btrm, Drc, Dsm, Ndz, Pvč, || dievo karvytė e.g.: Brb, Dg, Jv, Krsn, Lp, Lpln, Pv, Rdm, Vngr, Vs. It occurs relatively rarely in individual speech varieties of the southern Western Aukštaitians, e.g.: || dievo karvytė KzK, Lbv, Pšlv; and also in the southernmost part of Central Aukštaitian (the subdialect adjoining Dzūkian), e.g.: || dievo karvytė Brb, Jz. The variant dievo karvutė is almost always found alongside dievo karvytės or other names, and is more characteristic of Southern Aukštaitian and southern Central Aukštaitian, although it has also been recorded here and there in other dialects, e.g.: Alv, Alvt, Až, Brč, Dt, Grl, Grv, Jtj, Kriū, Lkč, Lnkv, Mčč, Pšlt, Rgn, Rt, Slp, Slv, Šlpb, Ūd, Varn, Vn, Všt, Žgr; || dievo karvytė, e.g.: Al, An, Antk, AukšP, Auk, AžB, Bj, Čkn, Dg, Dsm, Erž, Grv, Ig, Iš, Antr, Kbr, Klvr, Kngš, Knk, Kps, Krk, Krn, Krsn, Kš, Kt, Ktk, Ktv, Kulv, Ldvn, Lnkv, Mlt, Mrč, Mrg, Mrkt, Mrs, Msn, Mzr, NjŪ, Ob, Pc, Pdv, Pjv, Plut, Plv, Prn, Prv, Pšlv, Pvč, Rdm, Rgn, Rk, Rmš, Skrd, Slk, Ssk, Strg, Šnk, Šnp, Št, Varn, Vdn, Vygr, Vlč, Vlkj, Vn, Vp, Vrk, Zp, Žsl, Žž45. Around Kupiškis, alongside dievo karvytės, a variant has been recorded formed with the children’s word for “cow” used there, būbė – dievo būbė. In a small area, the second component of the phraseologism takes a diminutive form of that word—dievo būbytė (Kp, Nrn, Skp, Šmn). In addition to dievo karvytės and its other morphologically varying forms, variants of this phraseologism with an altered first component also occur, e.g.: Petro karvytė (Tvr); švento Petro karvė (Urv, Zst); švento Petro karvelė 45 In some places, variants of this phraseologism are used to name another small, bright-red beetle living in the soil—a particular developmental stage of a mite (Trombidium holosericium). For example, around Skaistgirys and in the northwestern part of the Joniškis area, the beetle Tromb­idium holosericium is called dievo karvytė, while boružė (Coccinella septempunctata) is called barbolėlė. Thus, the terminological phraseologism dievo karvytė (karvelė, karvikė, karvukė, karvutė) may have two meanings. Since the collected material does not make it possible to determine precisely where each of these two little beetles is called by one variant or another of this terminological phraseologism, the ranges of the phraseologism variants used in the sense of boružės presented in this article may still need substantial revision. Incidentally, it may be noted that a water-dwelling beetle (Gyrinus natator) is also called dievo karvukė (Rdm); in some places it is called dievo jautelis (NdŽ, Kps). 183 (Antk, Brn, Klk, RdN, Grd, Tvr, Ždv); Saint Peter’s little bug || God’s little bug (Brkl, Klvr). The change in the first component may have been influenced by one-word names for the ladybird, such as petrelis, petrukas, petronėlė. Other, likewise rare, terminological phraseologisms of the same meaning and similar construction, formed with common nouns, have been recorded only in individual localities, for example: God’s little granny Všt, || God’s little bug Kpr, Skrd; God’s granny || God’s little bug Vb; God’s mother || God’s little mother Bič. Alongside God’s little bug, and less often its variants, various “hybrid” terminological phraseologisms of the same meaning are frequently used. They are formed by adding the genitive form of the noun God to one-word names, most often of personal-name origin (probably following the model of the terminological phraseologism discussed above). Names formed in this way are most widespread in the Central and Eastern Aukštaitian dialects, that is, east of the line marking the range of the aforementioned western form God’s little bug and its variants (Žagarė — Šiauliai — Radviliškis — Dotnuva — Kėdainiai — Vilkija). Cf.: God’s little Barbora Er; God’s little Katrytė Rm, Vrš (|| God’s little bug); God’s little Petrelis Pašl; God’s little Petriukas Ob (|| God’s little bug). In addition to these, around Žeimelis, Biržai, Linkuva, Joniškėlis, Pasvalys, Vabalninkas, Pakruojis, and Šeduva, God’s little Marytė has a particularly extensive range, for example: Dkn, Er, Gst, Jrgn, Ljn, Nj, Rgn, Rgv, SmlB, Srk, Stgv, Stpr, Skt, || God’s little bug Bčn, Der, Dknn, Gtč, Jnšk, Jrgn, Kngš, Kri, Krš, Lpč, NmjP, Nrn, Nrš, Obl, RdN, Pbr, Pkr, Ps, Šd, Škns, Šlčn, Šln, Užs, Vb, Žml. The frequent coexistence of two terminological phraseologisms with the same meaning in one geographical area may perhaps be explained by the vigorous expansion of the more widely used phraseologism God’s little bug into the area of older one-word names. One-word names are still recorded in that area today, for example Marytė, and less often Marusytė, Marusia; their antiquity is also attested by analogous names for the ladybird in other languages, cf. Latvian mārīte46, German Marienkäferchen, Marienkäfer47, and Bulgarian мáричка⁴⁸. On the other hand, it is also possible to suppose that the names of two different creatures have been conflated here: Coccinella septempunctata (God’s little Marytė) and trombidium holosericium (God’s little bug). These creatures were probably once distinguished in that area and had their own separate names, but over time both the creatures and their names may have come to be identified with one another. In southern Lithuania, terminological phraseologisms that are not widely used occur, in which one of the components was probably introduced solely for rhyme and rhythm, for example: babuška — rabuška Alv, Dsm, Kb, Ndz, Pvč, Škl, Tlt; rabuška — barabuška (old. || God’s little bug) Jz; babuška — rapuška Dsm; boruška — poruška Šk; marška — pomparška Pls. Sometimes the second component of such a terminological phraseologism is a personal-name derivative, for example: babuška — mariuška Gnn, babuška — maruška (|| God’s little bug) Mrc, Seln; babuška — maruška (|| God’s little bug) Lpln; or, conversely, the personal-name derivative is the first component of the terminological phraseologism, for example: mariuška — babučka (|| God’s little bug) Mrc, Smn; maruška — babuška Avž; petronėlė — poruškėlė (|| God’s little bug) Skrd; petriukas — broliukas (|| God’s little bug) Ds. There are also terminological phraseologisms of this kind in which both components are personal-name derivatives; for example, around Joniškėlis, Panevėžys, and Ramygala, in some places alongside God’s little bug- 46 A. Bojatė, V. Subatnieks, Lietuviešu — latviešu vārdnīca, p. 98. 47 J. Elisonas, Zoologijos sistematikos terminų žodynėlis, Kaunas, 1928, p. 19; D. Slapoberskis, Vokiečių-lietuvių kalbų žodynas, Vilnius, 1963, p. 602. 48 M. A. Леонидова, мин. veik., p. 111. 184 vytės is used marytė – katrytė Ėr, Jrgn, Nj, Pn, Rgv, Rm, Sml, Spr, Srk, Trs, || dievo katrytė Aukš, Brž, Gražš, Jnšk, Kvr, Pbr, Pšš, Srv, Ši, Tršk. Rarer variants also occur: katrytė – marytė || dievo karytė Kngš, Lnč, Pg; katriušytė – mariušytė (||dievo karytė) Vb; katriūtė – mariūtė (t. katriūta – mariūta) || dievo karytė Nrn; mariušytė – katriušytė Vb; marytė – karusytė Vb; marusytė – karusytė (|| dievo karytė) Pc; marusia – petrusia (|| dievo karytė) Pg; maruška – petruška⁴⁹ Slvk, || dievo karytė Psd, Jkt; petruška – maruška (|| dievo karytė) Kngš. As the examples show, in terminological phraseologisms formed for the sake of rhyme and rhythm, one component is relatively often a one-word name for the ladybird used in that dialect, while the other was probably added because of a custom that existed among the people⁵⁰. Lithuanian dialects also have various other phraseologisms for the ladybird, used in fairly limited areas, for example: Saint Peter’s little beetle Svb; Saint Peter’s little beetle Aks, Jdr, Šv, Tv, Tvsk; Saint Peter Brn, Klt, Ml, Tvr, Varn, Vsn; and its variants, for example: Saint Petrelis Krkl, Pšt, Ptk; Saint Petrukas Kv, Vn. Other forms recorded in individual localities include: God’s little beetle Vndk; the flying bug Skd; little Barbora Vndk. However, terminological phraseologisms used to name a creature known throughout Lithuania are not always as varied as the ladybird names discussed above. For instance, the synonymy of names for the marsh bird perkūno oželis⁵¹ (Capella gallinago) is quite limited, and there are likewise few terminological phraseologisms. Among these, the more widely used morphological variants of perkūno oželis—perkūno ožys, perkūno ožiukas, and others—probably arose through association with the impression made by a voice reminiscent of a lamb bleating. Perkūno oželio and its morphological variants cover most of the Lithuanian-language area. Only its eastern and southeastern fringes are distinct, where one-word names are more commonly used. The approximate boundary of use of this terminological phraseological expression in the eastern and southern parts reaches roughly Obeliai, Dusetos, Utena, Ignalina, Dubingiai, Musninkai, Kaišiadorys, Prienai, Alytus, Simnas, and Veisiejai⁵². Within the area of Perkūno oželio, one-word names are sometimes used alongside this terminological phraseological expression: ožys, oželis, ožiukas (e.g., Brž, Grl, Jnšk, Mrk, Ps, Smn, Vlk). Samogitian dūnininkai speakers between Varniai, Kelmė, Tauragė, and Vainutas use perkūno oželį alongside the one-word compound form perkūnožis (e.g., Drb, Grd, Klm, Lkv, Pašl, Skdv, Strg, Šll, Šlpg, Tn, Varn, Vdk, Vn, Žv). ⁴⁹ Cf.: (maruška — petruška “with spotted wing-cases, while God’s little bug is a small, bright-red beetle that cannot fly”). ⁵⁰ For example, while herding the flock, children would relieve their boredom by placing a little beetle on their palm and saying: “Little Boruškėlė — Poruškėlė, fly up to the sky, ask God whether it is lunchtime yet Šk; Petriuk — broliuk, if it will rain, fly; if it won’t, don’t fly! Ds. Maryte — katryte, show the truth: if it rains, stay put, but if it’s clear, fly away! Jnšk. Marška — pomparška, when it’s warm I’ll let you go; when it’s cold, I’ll hang you Pls.” It may also be added that a similar custom exists in Bulgaria, although there people believe that when a ladybird flies off a girl’s palm, it shows the way to her fiancé (cf. Калинке — малинке, покажи ми пътя (М. А. Леонидова, cited work, p. 111). ⁵¹ The component perkūnas, which functions as an attribute, may be connected with the name of a god in the old faith; therefore, the use of terminological phraseologisms formed with it may date back to the distant past. ⁵² Beyond the indicated eastern and southern boundaries of perkūno oželis and its variants, this terminological phraseological unit is also found, but there the one-word names are more characteristic: the borrowing bekosas, or, less often, meketys, tekutis and their variants. 185 The morphological variant perkūno ožys (hybrid perūno ožys Prvn, Sug) does not form a continuous area. It has been recorded in various locations, most often alongside the main variant perkūno oželis (e.g., Adm, And, Dkn, Gml, Iš, Jc, Jknn, Jnšk, Jrgn, Krč, Kzk, Ljn, Lkš, Lpr, Lzd, Mrs, Mžč, Nj, Pd, Pj, Pkr, Prv, RdN, Rgv, Rk, Paśl, Pkl, Pn, Pp, Sug, KetS, Skrd, Ssk, Strg, Svn, Šauk, Šln, Tršk, Vdln, Žg, Žml). The same applies to the variant perkūno ožiukas, with the addition that it is almost entirely absent from the northwestern part of the Samogitian Donininkai dialect (cf. Auk, Alvt, AžB, Až, Brd, Brt, Čk, Ds, Erž, Gml, Grd, Jdp, Kb, Kč, Kkl, Klm, Kpr, Kps, Kri, KzR, Lbn, Ldv, Ldvn, Mln, Mnšk, Mrč, Mrg, Mšk, Mtl, Mzr, Nj, Nmk, Nrn, Nv, Ob, Onš, Pbr, Pbs, Pd, Pg, Pjv, Pkp, Pkrž, Plm, Pp, Prn, Prvj, Slm, Smn, Srj, Stpr, Škns, Ši, Šln, Šmn, Tn, Tr, Trš, Užš, Užv, Varn, Vb, Vg, Vn, Vrk, Vs, Zp, Žl, Žml, Žv). In the southern Lithuanian dialects the variant perkūno ožiukas occurs (e.g., Dg, Glč, Gnn, Mrs, Smn, Srj). Relatively rarely, alongside perkūno oželio (and sometimes alongside its variants), recorded variants occur with an altered or entirely different first component, e.g., perkūnijos ožys (Šlpg, Varn); perkūnijos ožiukas (Strg); dangaus oželis (Brč, Klv); deguto oželis (Trs); dievo ožys53 (Kdn, Ml), dievo oželis (Ant, Dgl, Dkšt, Ilgn, Antr, Kd, Šlpg, Št); dievo ožiukas (Ds, Ig, Klvr, Kps, Mlt, Mnkn, Prvn); velnio ožys (cf. Velinio ožiai kai ožiukai šauk gerklę paleidę: rodos ka tę avių pilna to [je] pelkė[je] Jrb), velnio oželis (Alz, JnšM), velnio ožiukas Aln. In addition, other rare terminological phraseological units with the same meaning have been recorded in individual locations, e.g., dievo avinėlis (Prv, Sug); perkūno baronas (Kpč). Having reviewed some features of the geographical distribution of phraseological units, we can conclude that their areas are influenced by the following factors: a) the geographical distribution of individual words that make up a phraseological unit; b) the geographical distribution of the distinct meanings of a word that forms part of a phraseological unit; c) the geographical distribution of the morphological elements of words that make up a phraseological unit; d) a personal name occurring in phraseological units with local meaning; e) in certain cases, natural conditions that determine distinctive features of everyday life among the inhabitants of a given part of Lithuania, or differences in flora and fauna; f) ethnographic characteristics of various regions of the Lithuanian SSR, on which depend the distribution areas of phraseological units associated with everyday life, various traditions, customs, and beliefs; g) the influence of other languages. Й. ЛИПСКЕНЕ THE MOST CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE GEOGRAPHY OF PHRASEOLOGICAL COMBINATIONS Summary The article examines the causes that determine the geography of phraseological combinations. To this end, it analyzes in detail the geographical distribution of a certain number of phraseological combinations belonging to different types. The first type comprises combinations- 53 Dievo ožys / oželis / ožiukas, and the names for the ladybird—dievo k arvy tė / karvelė / karvikė / karvutė—probably took shape later than perkūno ožys / oželis / ožiukas, because the first component in the singular form dievas, occurring in their structure as a generalized name for many deities, is probably a later creation. 186 nations whose components all form words used across almost the entire territory where Lithuanian is spoken, e.g., ožius bielyti (piauti, lupti, drėksti, plėšti) ‘to lamb’; the second type comprises combinations in which one component forms a word used only in a greater or smaller part of the Lithuanian-speaking territory, e.g., kiški pagauti, zuikį pagauti (sugauti) ‘to fall’; the third comprises combinations in which one component forms a word not used outside that phraseological combination in any Lithuanian dialect, e.g., pairabiais (palpabiais) eiti ‘to be lazy, to deteriorate’. These main types are in turn divided into smaller structural and semantic groups. On the basis of the conducted analysis, it is established that the geography of phraseological combinations depends not only on linguistic but also on extralinguistic factors: 1) the geographical distribution of individual words included in a phraseological combination; 2) the geographical distribution of individual meanings of words included in a phraseological combination; 3) the geographical distribution of morphological elements of words included in a phraseological combination; 4) nomina propria forming one component of locally originated combinations; 5) the influence of other languages; 6) in some cases, natural conditions that shape people’s distinctive way of life, as well as differences in flora and fauna; 7) the distinctive character of Lithuania’s various ethnographic regions, which determine the areas of distribution of phraseological combinations associated with people’s everyday life, beliefs, customs, and rituals.