Forma „tai“ ir jos variantai lietuvių kalbos tarmėse

LIETUVIŲ AREALINĖS LINGVISTIKOS KLAUSIMAI LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA A. VALECKIENĖ THE FORM tai AND ITS VARIANTS IN LITHUANIAN DIALECTS 001. The form tai is known in the standard language as a neuter pronoun and as a particle. This form is also used quite widely in the dialects. Besides the form tai, the dialects have many other forms: tatai, ta, to, tei, tę, tę, ti, tei, which constitute variants of the form tai. They are distributed across the dialects geographically. Most of these forms had not previously been identified by anyone, or, if they had been given by someone in dialect texts, they were normalized to tai. In fact, the identification of at least some of these forms is unclear. Therefore, the aim here is to consider how to identify dialect forms more precisely; to examine how they are distributed across the dialects, what their functions are, and how they relate to one another. 1. DISTRIBUTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF THE FORMS 002. Of all the forms, the form tai is used most widely in the dialects. It has also become established in the standard language. This form is known throughout the Aukštaitian dialect area, except among the Panevėžys dialect speakers (where the unclear forms tę, tę, ti are used), and is also found in the Raseiniai Samogitian area¹. In all the rest of the Samogitian area, the form tai is unknown. The form tai has two functions in the dialects, as in the standard language: 1) as a particle and conjunction, and 2) as a neuter pronoun (for a fuller discussion of these functions, see 013 ff.). However, the distribution of the form tai in these functions differs greatly between the dialects and the standard language. In the standard language, the form tai is widely used in both functions: as a particle and conjunction, and as a neuter pronoun. In the latter function, the form tai is primary here in comparison with other forms². In the dialects, by contrast, throughout the area specified above, the form tai is widely known only as a particle and conjunction. The form tai rarely functions as a neuter pronoun, generally only among the western Aukštaitian Kaunas dialect speakers, the Aukštaitian speakers of the Klaipėda region, and the southern 1 The principal material used to compile maps of the forms’ distribution and determine their functions was taken from “Lithuanian Dialects,” a publication prepared by the Language History and Dialectology Section of the Institute of the Lithuanian Language and Literature (the reader was compiled by E. Grinaveckienė, A. Jonait y tė, K. Morkūnas, B. Vanagienė, A. Vidugiris, edited by E. Grinaveckienė and K. Morkūnas). The forms were collected from dialect texts. Also consulted were the material for question 139a in the card index of the Institute of the Lithuanian Language and Literature’s “Atlas of the Lithuanian Language” and the material on the corresponding forms in the Dictionary card index; some material was taken from other dialect texts published earlier and from dialectological theses by students of Vilnius State V. Kapsukas University. Part of the material was checked by the author herself through individual interviews. Straipsnyje laikomasi Z. Zinkevičiaus (Lietuvių dialektologija, Vilnius, 1966, p. 446; 1 žemėlapis) tarminių klasifikacijos. 2 See A. Valeckienė, “The Neuter Form tai and Its Relation to Other Pronoun Forms,” LKK XV 61, cf. tables 1, 2, 3, pp. 51, 58, 62. 55 In the Aukštaitian dialects, alongside forms used much more productively for this function—tas (nominative position), tą (accusative position)—the form tai is, one might say, hardly used at all as a neuter pronoun in the East Aukštaitian dialects. It occurs only in transitional cases between the functions of a neuter pronoun and of a particle or conjunction (see 016a, b). The forms tas, tą are used here almost exclusively with the clear function of a neuter pronoun. Thus, the form tai has become established as a particle and conjunction much more widely and firmly in the dialects than as a neuter pronoun. It should be noted that in old writings the form tai is likewise used more frequently only in those monuments written on the basis of the Aukštaitian dialect3, for example, those of K. Sirvydas (almost exclusively tai), M. Daukša, M. Petkevičius (alongside tatai), and others. In those monuments where a greater or lesser number of Samogitian features are clearly evident, tai is not used at all (M. Mažvydas), or occurs rather rarely alongside tatai (in the writings of B. Vilentas, S. Vaišnoras, and also J. Bretkūnas). Thus, the use of the form tai in old writings accords with its present-day distribution in the dialects. Form tatai 003. The form tatai is used only in the Samogitian dialect, but even here it is not predominant; other forms are much more frequent. In the Samogitian dialect, tatai is pronounced with a long final -ā (tātā), corresponding to the standard Lithuanian diphthong ai. The form tatai now most often functions here as a particle and conjunction. It occurs only rarely as a neuter pronoun. The form tatai is now unknown in the Aukštaitian dialects. In the present-day literary language, tatai occurs only occasionally in the writings of some authors. In old writings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the form tatai is very widespread, especially in monuments written on the basis of the Samogitian dialect. As mentioned above, only tatai (not tai) is used in M. Mažvydas’s writings, whereas in the writings of B. Vilentas and J. Bretkūnas, tatai is predominant alongside the rare tai4. Thus, both the particle/conjunction and neuter-pronoun functions of the form tatai are now disappearing from Lithuanian. Other forms are displacing it. Form ta 004. The form ta is used throughout the Samogitian dialect area, except among the Raseiniai subdialect speakers. The vowel in this form is the short ă, so the form ta cannot be identified in the Samogitian dialect as standard Lithuanian tai. The form ta is used as a particle and conjunction. No clear examples have been found in which ta functions as a neuter pronoun. Thus, Samogitian ta corresponds to only one of the functions of the form tai. The neuter-pronoun function in the Samogitian dialect is usually expressed by tas, ta. The form ta, with the same function as it has now in the Samogitian dialect, is recorded in a collection of folklore texts from the village of Dargužiai, in the Kretingalė area, Klaipėda district, “Mitteilungen der Litauischen Litterarischen Gesellschaft”, II, 1887, p. 31: if you do not— 3 For the connection between old Lithuanian writings and the corresponding Lithuanian dialects, see J. Palionis, Lietuvių literatūrinė kalba XVI–XVII a., Vilnius, 1967, pp. 51 ff. 4 Eino Nieminen (Der urindogermanische Ausgang -ăi des Nominativ-Akkusativ Pluralis des Neutrums im Baltischen, Helsinki, 1922), noting that M. Mažvydas’s writings use only tatai, whereas tai occurs in later writings, concludes that tai arose in place of tatai relatively late, only during the historical period of the Lithuanian language (see pp. 35, 43). In our view, the use of the forms tai, tatai in old writings depends on the distribution of these forms among the dialects mentioned above and cannot serve as an argument in explaining their origin. 56 sörgósit m̀ane tą princėse, ta jums ės szlėktai. The explanations indicate that ta here is probably derived from tai (p. 35). The same form ta is found in a text written in the Samogitian dialect (c. 1636–1705) published by Z. Zinkevičius5 (a total of 5 examples were found in the text, which comprises 162 lines): 1) Pryimk S. S. Sakramenta ben wyna karta ont metu. O ta ape Swięte Weliku (86 eil.). 2) prysaka tapag idant Wy o oe Baznicie ie butu kieykty, o ta dielto idant mokietu aſtrazne giwe(n)ty (112 eil.). 3) Pyrmiauſj tada Baźnicie Swięta kieyk Wysus Heretykus, ta ir, Lutherus, Kalwinus, Sysmatykus yr kietus koriu jus nepazinſtat̄ie (120 eil.). 4) Pyrmiauſj kie[n]k Baznicie S. Wyſus Heretykus, ta ir Luthrus, Kalwinus, Syzmatykus Yr kietus korie no Baznicies S. kokio noris ſpaſabo ir atſjydalieje (125 eil.). 5) Tapag kiek tus korie kokius noris da kius, pywas, dyrwas, Bodijſtie (= Bondiſtie), jawus, pyn[y]gus, priegolinc ius ont Bazies (= Baz[nič]ies) aba ont Aſabu duchawnu Tu Baznic[i]u, kap ta funduſus, legac yies [Wysu tokie] Wysus tus Ir kietus korius c'le neys[z]goldziaw kap przysztarawnikus Baznicies S. (152 eil.). The same form ta is used in S. Daukantas’s writings alongside the tai form, for example: Wiedliá gaspadine, ta yra: wyjszne DB 54. nebígalenis sóbatos dijno pakuta-wodamis kunū sawo rąmdytí, ta yra, pertijis. DB 276. The same form ta, it seems, also occurs in B. Vilentas’s “Euangelias bei Epistolas… Ischſpauſtas Karalauczui… Metu MD. LXXIX”, p. 65 (pagination of the original held in the Manuscripts Department of the Vilnius State University Library): Ir mes eſma ludinikais wiſſa / ką ghiſſai dare Sӡidawos ſžeme ir Jeruzaleie. Thą eſti vſchmuſche ir ant medzia pakabine. Here thą is written with a nasal ą, but functionally it is the same as the Samogitian ta. B. Vilentas, like many other authors of old texts, varies in his spelling of ą and a7. In F. Bechtel’s edition, thą in this sentence is emended in a footnote to tha (see Bartholomäus Willent’s litauische Uebersetzung des Luther’schen Enchiridions und der Episteln und Evangelien… herausgegeben von Fritz Bechtel. Göttingen… 1882, p. 81). Thus B. Vilentas’s thą, here, can probably be identified as ta. In contemporary Lithuanian writing, the form ta, as a dialectal form, is not used. An analogous form ta occurs in Latvian, for example: Ja gribi, ta nāc! LV IV 120. Forms tę, tę, ti 005. Instead of the literary-language tai , forms tę, tę, ti are used in the Eastern Aukštaitian Panevėžys dialect. They also have only the function of a particle and conjunction, like the Samogitian ta. The forms tę and tę are used in the northern part of the Panevėžys dialect. The form tę occurs more often in the far north (approximately between Joniškis, Smilgiai, and Nemanėlis Radviliškis). The ę in this form is short, somewhat close, lax, and non-palatal; t is soft. The form tę is found farther south (approximately between Baisogala, Raguva, and Smilgiai). The ę in this form is short, close, palatal, and tense; t is hard. In the southern part of the Panevėžys dialect and along its outskirts (approximately between Krakės, Širvintos, and Anykščiai), the form ti is used with the same function; its i is short, 5 Z. Zinkevičius. A significant Samogitian manuscript text, LKK XV 171 et seq. 6 E. Nieminen (op. cit., p. 51) restores ta in S. Daukantas’s writings to tai: ta< tai, 7 Cf.: J. Palionis, op. cit., p. 44. 57 lax, non-palatal, t – soft. Thus, farther south the vowel of the forms in question becomes closer. Identifying these forms—that is, comparing them with the corresponding forms of the literary language—poses considerable difficulties. First of all, it is unclear whether these forms can be identified as the literary-language tai or the tei used in some dialects (see below), or whether they are forms with some vowel rather than a diphthong. Therefore, we will review the phonetic features of the dialects that have the forms in question, which allow or argue against their having developed from tai or tei. Dialects with the forms tę or tę 006. In dialects that have tę or tę, in the unstressed or circumflex final syllable of disyllabic or polysyllabic words, from which stress has usually been retracted to the root, the diphthong ai > ę (after a hard consonant) and ei > ę (after a soft consonant), for example: masculine plural nominative: ùʽse “moustaches” Ps, dūʽme “smokes” Gst, vaikę “children” Krš, lėnė “flax” Kri, darʽbiniʽke “workers” Mgč, berʽnʽoʽke “boys” Pdž, pāʽtale “bedding” Slč; miėžė “barley” Jrgn, paũkʽšʽčė “birds” Jnšk, aʽrʽkle “horses” Šd, rȯge “rye” Gln, medēʽle “saplings” Kri, mōʽkešʽčė “taxes” Gst, obolēʽ “apples” Krs, ešere “perch” Ps; masculine plural instrumental: visēs “with all” Užš, vėses “with all” Šd, mēʽtes “with years” Rd, dūʽmes “with smoke” Gst, jāves “with spring crops” Sdb, vakāres “in the evenings” Mkn; trāʽktoresʽ “with tractors” Ps, parʽtʽšesʽ “with sleds” Šd, tʽrʽobēʽsesʽ “with rooms” Vdln; karālesʽ “with kings” Pš; feminine singular dative: ōʽske “to the goat” Pbr, rāʽgane “to the witch” Užš, māmė “to mother” Rgv, dūone “to bread” Ps; sēʽsere “to the sister” Bsg; adverb forms in -ai, -iai: gėre “well” Mgč, mažė “little” Gln, lʽābe “very” Pin, kʽāʽure “through” Gražš, graite “quickly” NmjP, gerōʽke “considerably” Jrgn; lʽābe “very” Jnšk, sōʽče “heartily” Pn, gražē “beautifully” Užš, bāise “terribly” Slč, skōʽrdže “poorly” Gst, pérʽne “last year” Šd; adverb forms with ai, ei in a closed final syllable: ketēp “otherwise” Ps, vesēp “entirely” Nj; šl.tep “like this” Užš; present indicative singular 2nd person: žēne “you know” Sml, išglōʽste “you smooth out” Šd, bije “you are afraid” Bsg; past habitual indicative singular 2nd person: neuždīʽrbe “you did not earn” Krs, negālʽdave “you could not” Gst, bōve “you were” Pš, negālēʽdave “you could not” Gst; matē “you saw” Ps; nējautē “you did not feel” Všk, vāʽlʽge “you ate” Pbr; singular nominative pronominal forms with the particle -ai: gēʽrase “the good one” Krs, tȯksē “such” Pn, āše “I” Gst, tasē “that” Rgv, jī.ne “she” Ps; masculine singular vocative in -ai: pōʽne “sir” Dkn; conjunctions: kōle “so that” Mgč. In monosyllabic words in these same dialects, ai > ę and ei > ę are not found everywhere. For example, alongside the disyllabic forms mentioned above, the following conjunctions are also used: kė “when” Kri, Pdž, Gln, Pin, Vdln, Jnšk, kep “how” Žml, Slč, Ps, Nj, Pn, ne “nor” Jr, Vsk, the adverb tep “thus” NmjP. However, in other locations where gėre “well” is used, 58 Įžė “flax,” baišė “terribly,” ãrklė “horses,” etc.; in monosyllabic words the circumflex diphthongs ai, ei are retained: kai Bsg, Šd, kaip Dkn, Rm, Pš, Šd; teip Pš, Šd, Rm, Sdb, Pin, Pdz, Sml, Gln, Vdln, Pn, Krš, Slč, Mkn, Gst; leĩ “so” Gln, Slč, Žml. Circumflex diphthongs ai, ei are also retained in monosyllabic forms of full-meaning words, for example: future tense 3rd person aiš “will go” Gst, reĩks “will be needed” Rgv; likewise in the following prefixed forms, for example: nebeĩs “will no longer go” Žml. These diphthongs are also retained in shortened monosyllabic forms (derived from disyllabic forms by dropping the ending), for example: present tense 3rd person aĩn “goes” Kri, Užš, Vdln, Mkn, Sdb, kaĩst “is heating up” Žml, reik “is needed” Jnšk, p’reĩn “comes up” Pš, vaĩks “child” Šd. In the dialects under consideration, circumflex diphthongs ai, ei are always retained in non-final syllables of disyllabic and polysyllabic forms, for example: present tense 3rd person (where the ending is not dropped) reikė “is needed” Sdb, aĩnas “is going” Pš, pasėtaĩsa “gets fixed” Mkn; past habitual tense 3rd person reĩgdava “used to be needed” Ps, eĩdava “used to go” Kršš; present tense plural 1st person žeĩdžem “we are playing” Gržš; imperative plural 2nd person aĩkit “go!” Stm; plural nominative ap’sitaĩsė “got dressed” Mgč. In these dialects, ai does not change to e nor ei to e in disyllabic and polysyllabic words when unstressed before a stressed syllable, for example: masculine singular nominative vaidinuokli.s’ “actor” Brž, past habitual tense 3rd person neũžlaik’dava “would not hold back” Všk, vaidī.nda-vas “would act” Brž; compare the phrase: lei bū’n “let it be” Slč. In the dialects under consideration, acute diphthongs ái, éi do not undergo monophthongization, either in the final syllable of disyllabic words or in monosyllabic words, for example: tená i Ps, Vdln, Žml, Pin, Pn, Jrgn, jéigu Bsg, jéi Šd, Všk, Rm, feminine singular dative tái gīvái Pbr, jái Užš, Ps, Dkn. As the material presented shows, in the dialects under consideration ai > ę and ei > ę occur most often in the final, generally unstressed syllable of disyllabic or polysyllabic words, following a stressed syllable (often after stress has been retracted from the ending to the root). This suggests that the change of ai > ę and ei > ę in the dialects under consideration is probably related to the reduction⁸ of final vowels and diphthongs, and partly also to stress retraction. In these dialects, the long vowel ē < en in an unstressed ending has also shortened and narrowed, becoming ε, ę, for example: singular accusative saujėlė “a small handful” Kri, kepù.rę “hat” Rd, kráutovę “shop” Pš; masculine singular nominative nušā.les “having caught a chill” Nj, išpū.tęs “having blown up” Ps, įki.šęs “having put in” Rd; masculine plural nominative sąsispáudę “having squeezed together” Šd, ap’sitaĩsė “got dressed” Mgč. Short vowels are also reduced by being narrowed, for example: tšė “here” Šd, Pin, Kršš, Jnšk. It is difficult to say whether the vowels in the forms tę, tę are reduced from the diphthongs ai, ei, or from some other vowels. On the basis of gėrę “well,” baišę “terribly,” and the like, tę should be identified with tai and tę with tei. The latter form occurs in some dialects (see below). However, diphthongs ai, ei generally do not undergo monophthongization in monosyllabic words. The positions of forms tę, tę do not quite correspond to those of forms in which the diphthongs ai > ę, ei > ę occur. The forms tę, tę are generally used as unstressed proclitics, intonationally attached to the stressed word that follows them, for example: 8 For the reduction of endings in the north of the Panevėžys dialect area, see Z. Zinkevičius, Lietuvių dialektologija, pp. 119–120. 59 Tei... (LKT 219).... (LKT 239). Meanwhile, ai > ε, ei > ẹ usually occur in a word or phrase after a stressed syllable. In terms of position, the forms tę, tę correspond to forms in which ai, ei do not monophthongize; compare: vaidi.n-davos ‘they used to act’, lei bū'n ‘let it be’. In addition, there are places where the forms tę or tę are used, but the diphthongs ai, ei do not monophthongize at all in the cases mentioned above. For example, in the vicinity of Taujėnai the form tę occurs, but the diphthongs ai, ei are retained (kaip, kai, pijautuvaĩs, duõnaĩ LKT 279); likewise, in the vicinity of Joniškis (according to S. Karaliūnas’s testimony), the form tę is used, while the diphthongs ai, ei likewise do not monophthongize (gėrai, kai, etc.). Thus, it is possible that in the forms tę, tę, whose isoglosses do not clearly distinguish them, the monophthongs ε, ẹ derive not from the diphthongs ai, ei, but perhaps simply from short e (cf. tę ‘here’), which later merged with the monophthongs ε, ẹ characteristic of these dialects and reduced from various vowels and diphthongs. In that case, the forms tę, tę should be identified as tę. In the collection of Lithuanian folklore texts “Mitteilungen der Litauischen Litterarischen Gesellschaft” (II, 1887), the form tę is recorded with the same function as the forms under consideration: Then the fox says: Tė czi nègiare, let’s run (p. 165). However, this is probably the same tę, tę of the northern Panevėžys dialect. 007. The form tę (with short ę) has the same particle and conjunction functions in Latvian as Lithuanian tai and our Panevėžys dialect forms tę, tę (also ti) (cf. 025, 027)⁹. For example: Te nu bija! (Pļaviņas) (cf. Lithuanian Va tai tau! Te nu bij! tik iss, tik garš. Te tev nu bija pa(r) tavi septiņi zeseri! Te nu biji, pārbrauci mājās. (Jelgava Latvian Society Writers’ Section collection, 1890–1901). A short Midsummer night... here it grew dark, here it dawned. Here the sun was, here it disappeared into the blue clouds. LV IV 151. The places mentioned, Pļaviņas and Jelgava, lie directly north of the Lithuanian dialect areas where the corresponding Panevėžys forms tę, tę are used. This use of Latvian te is probably genetically related to the aforementioned Panevėžys forms tę, tę. Dialects with the form ti 008. In a small number of localities (on the eastern edge of the Southern Panevėžiškiai area), unstressed or circumflex ai > bl and ei > ii occur in the final syllable of disyllabic and polysyllabic words, as well as in monosyllabic words. For example, in the environs of Ukmergė and Kavarskas, the following forms are used: masculine gender, plural nominative vĩ'rbl “men,” luukbĩ “fields,” “adverbs” labbi “very,” amžinbl “forever,” present tense, singular, second person matbl “you see,” conjunctions kbl “when,” kbp “how”; masculine gender, plural instrumental t'řini'čiĩs “with trinyčiai,” particle ni “nor.” In these localities, the form ti can be identified with tei, tbi—with tai. However, throughout the rest of the area where the form ti occurs, there is no such change of ai, ei. In most of the area where the form ti is found, ai, ei in the cases indicated either is not reduced at all— 9 Latvian te, corresponding to Lithuanian tai, should be distinguished from Latvian te < *tē, used as an adverb meaning “here”; compare Lithuanian ten and Eastern Aukštaitian ti. 60 —or ai > ε, ei > ε, as in the dialects mentioned above, which have the forms tę or tę. Unstressed or circumflex ai, ei are often preserved in the southern part of the area where the form ti is found, in the final syllable of disyllabic and polysyllabic words, e.g.: adverbs: labāi Čb, gerāi Pbs, Manč, visaip Vp; skubēi Pbs; masculine gender, plural nominative: pinigāi Pbs, kraštāi Pg, baravī-kai Krk; vukecēi Manč, paal’k’s’nei Krk; masculine gender, plural instrumental: kel’virtāis Manč, vaikāis Čb; masculine gender, singular nominative of pronominal forms: jisāi Čb; present tense, singular, second person: žināi Ssk; imperative, second person: nuveik “go away” Pbs; conjunction and particle: tiktāi Nvrn; in the non-final syllable of disyllabic and polysyllabic words, e.g.: present tense, third person: nebelaika “does not keep any longer” Ssk. The diphthongs ai, ei are also generally preserved in monosyllabic forms in these dialects: conjunctions: kai Vp, kaip Vp, Pbs, Krk, jei Manč; adverbs: teip Pbs, Ssk, Manč, Čb, šēip Glv; future tense, third person: ais “will go” Glv. Unstressed or circumflex ai > ε, ei > ε are found in the northern part of the area where the form ti occurs, in the final syllable of disyllabic or polysyllabic words, e.g.: adverbs: stō·re “thickly” Ėr, garē “well” Srv, labē “very” Ėr, labē “same” Srv; pē·r’ne “last year” Ėr; masculine gender, plural nominative: darbini·ke “workers” Srv, špō·ke “starlings” Srv; mē·dže “trees” Ėr; masculine gender, plural instrumental: nuōdes “with poison” Ėr; compare forms in the non-final syllable of disyllabic and polysyllabic words, e.g.: present tense, third person: laika “keeps” Srv, reiki “is needed” Ėr. In monosyllabic words the diphthongs ai, ei are preserved, e.g.: teip, kaip, jei, future tense, third person ais “will go,” but ki “when” Ėr. On the basis of the indicated features of the dialects under discussion, the form ti cannot be identified with tai or tei; that is, in these dialects ti is probably not reduced from tai or tei. The form ki “when,” found in some localities alongside ti, may also be an analogy based on the latter. In the southern part of the Panevėžiškiai dialect, word-final short e > i, e.g. the vocative form vilk “wolf”¹⁰; compare nibi “no longer” Trs. In dialects that have ti, the monosyllabic form tšì, “here,” is used in some places: Ėr, Srv, Trs, And, Čb, Glv. In these dialects, the final-syllable -ia of disyllabic and polysyllabic words is pronounced i after a palatalized consonant, e.g.: ali “but” Ssk, the neuter form unksč’ā’u-si “earliest” Srv, pres. 3 sg. klā·usi “asks” Vdšk, Pbs, Pg, rē·ki “cries” Ėr, lā·ku “flies” Vp, rēiku “is needed” Ssk, trā·uku “pulls” Manč. 10 3. Zinkevichius, On the Development of Baltic Vocalism, — Baltic-Slavic Collection, Moscow, 1972, p. 7. 61 As with these, perhaps the vowel i in the forms ti is narrowed from e, as in the northern Panevėžys forms tę, te. Since these dialects border one another, they may derive from the same original form te, like the Latvian te mentioned above; only farther south its vowel is more narrowed, by analogy with other forms found here with i. Form tei 009. In the northern part of the Panevėžys dialect, usually along its margins, where the area of use of the forms tę, tę borders the area where the form tai is used, the form tei occurs, often alongside the forms tę, tę. In places where the form tei is used, one finds, though not consistently everywhere, an unstressed or circumflex diphthong ėi < and ai and ẹi < ei in disyllabic and polysyllabic, as well as monosyllabic, words, e.g.: adverbs: labéi “very” Ltk, lâbei “also” Rd, Jkn, mâžei “little” Krb, kàškeep “somehow” Der; šęnei Jkn, but teip Ltk, Jkn, Rz, Nrv, Der; masc. pl. nom.: darbei “works” Ltk, šęmtei “hundreds” Rd, liėknei “slender ones” Krb; š'n'u.r.ė.lei “little ropes” Vrš, vaiduoklei “ghosts” Jdž, rugei “ryes” Ltk; masc. pl. instr.: lō'peis “with boards” Der, gereis “with good ones” Krb; dal'geis “with scythes” Ltk, s'tip'reis “with strong ones” Krb, but jeis Krb; conjunctions: kèi “when” Jkn, Krb, Vrš, Dknn, keip “how” Rd, Jkn, Vrš, Jdž, Der, Nvrn, Dknn, tiktèi “only” Vrš; fem. sg. dat. māšinèi “to the machine” Jdž; pronoun-like forms, masc. sg. nom. āšenei “oneself” Vrš. On the basis of the latter forms, the form tei should also be identified with tai. This is a form with a diphthong that is not fully reduced. Form tei 010. The form tei is found in the Samogitian and Western Aukštaitian dialects south of the Samogitian area, as far as the Nemunas. This form occurs rarely and sporadically alongside other forms with the same function. It usually functions as a particle and a conjunction. Sometimes it is also used with a function more or less close to that of a neuter pronoun. In the dialects mentioned, the form tei cannot be distinguished from tai, since in some of these localities both are used in parallel. In old writings, the form tei is widely used in S. B. Chilinskis’s Bible. There it has both the meanings of a particle and conjunction and of a neuter pronoun. This form also occurs in other old texts (by K. Sirvydas, B. Vilentas, S. Vaišnoras, and others). For example: Supratotegu tey wis? ChB 31. aβ tey eſmi, neſibijokite. ChB 33. tey man regiji. SD 153. Pirmaghi kalbeghima mielas Theophile padariau apie wiſ ką pradęia tei dariti ir mokiti Jeſus. Vln¹ 190. tei Skaitlumi, tei pakilemis toli didžiaus praſineſch. MT 26ᵃ. The form tei is not used in contemporary writings. It is disappearing from the dialects. Form to 011. Very rarely and sporadically, alongside the form tai, the form to also occurs in some localities of the Eastern and Western Aukštaitian dialects. The Eastern Aukštaitian form to has the meaning of a neuter pronoun; it is used only in certain expressions, for example: 62 Anyone with money would pay off the debt, but that is just it: he has none. Trgn. This is not about that: they are not dividing it up out of spite. Trgn. That is hard to do. Kpčn. When that is no longer of concern, one leaves the kliesas. Kp. He no longer cares about that. Dglš. Cf. vis tó viena “all the same” Ds. In Western Aukštaitian, the form to is used as a particle, usually at the beginning of a sentence. What am I to do now, when it turned out like that (= just so)? Jrb. You got up at a strange time this morning. Jrb. — Did you take that wire off? — Of course (indeed, yes), what are you waiting for? Jrb. So how do you think? Jrb.11 She apparently wants to marry that man. (Juška’s Dictionary manuscript, under the headword to beróds.) Perhaps the same form to also occurs in C. Jurkšaitis’s tales: And would you perhaps also like to see that? (German: Und Ihr wollt gewiß auch solches sehen?) Jrk 82. However, this may also be a partitive genitive. In present-day written texts, the form to is not used. Forms tas, tą 012. The forms tas, tą are used throughout the Lithuanian-speaking area only as neuter pronouns. The form tas is used in the nominative position, the form tą in the accusative position, and both stand for 1k. tai, used in the corresponding positions. In the Samogitian dialect, where the form tai is absent, while tatai, tei are rarely used and usually function as particles and conjunctions, the forms tas, tą are practically the only ones used with the meaning of a neuter pronoun. In the Aukštaitian dialect, especially Eastern Aukštaitian, the forms tas, tą also predominate as neuter pronouns. In the Western and Southern Aukštaitian dialects, the form tai is used as a neuter pronoun more readily than in Eastern Aukštaitian, but even here tai is not common in this function. Across the Lithuanian-speaking area, the predominant forms used as neuter pronouns are tas, tą. The forms tas, tą are already found in the old written monuments. In present-day written texts, unlike in the dialects, the forms tas, tą are secondary compared with tai. Tai is the primary form in present-day written texts12 2. FUNCTIONS OF THE FORMS 013. The aforementioned forms differ across dialects in their geographical distribution, frequency of use, and functions. Throughout the Lithuanian-speaking area, the neuter pronoun function is generally performed by the forms tas, tą. Alongside these, other forms are used that function as particles and conjunctions. Some of them are also used as neuter pronouns. Thus, in one locality, several forms are often used as particles and conjunctions, and several forms as neuter pronouns. One of them predominates, while the others are less frequent. The approximate distribution of the aforementioned forms across dialects according to their functions can be represented by the following diagram: 11 Recorded in Jurbarkas by E. Grinaveckienė. 12 See A. Valeckienė, cited article, pp. 61, 65; cf. tables 3, 4, pp. 62, 63. 63 Dialects | Particle and conjunction function | Predominant forms | Less frequent forms | Neuter pronoun function | Predominant forms | Less frequent forms | Samogitians (except the Raseiniai dialect speakers) | ta | tatai, tei | tas, tą | tatai, tei | Western and Southern Aukštaitians and Samogitian Raseiniai dialect speakers | tai | tei, to | tas, tą | tai | Eastern Aukštaitians (except the Panevėžys dialect speakers) | tai | — | tas, tą | tai, to | Eastern Aukštaitians, Panevėžys dialect speakers | te, tę, ti | — | tas, tą | — Since many of the aforementioned forms are used as particles and conjunctions as well as neuter pronouns, the functions of the forms are described below by identifying their usage types, with particular attention to transitional cases that could testify to the development of the forms’ functions. The frequency of use of the forms is also compared according to their usage types. Neuter pronoun function 014. Throughout the Lithuanian-speaking area, the forms tas, tą function as neuter pronouns. The form tai is used in this function over a smaller area (it is not used by Samogitians, except for speakers of the Raseiniai dialect) and much less frequently than the forms tas, tą. The forms tatai, tei (among Samogitians and in bordering areas) and to (among Eastern Aukštaitians) are very rare as neuter pronouns. No clear instances of the neuter pronoun function were found for Samogitian ta or the Panevėžys dialect forms te, te, ti. (See Fig. 1.) In their neuter pronoun function, the aforementioned forms occur in the nominative and accusative positions of nouns. The form tas occupies the nominative position, while the form tą occupies the accusative position; the other forms are used in both positions alike. All these forms are used anaphorically. They refer in a general, non-specific way to a phenomenon or thing mentioned earlier or immediately after the form. Their antecedents are usually entire phrases. Nominative position 015. The form tas is used in the nominative position of a noun when the predicate form is: a) The neuter form of adjectives and adjectival words. This type is characteristic of all dialects. It’s not that easy, don’t say so. Pj. That’s important—to keep a person (=a person) going. Grd. What is red is beautiful. Ckn. That is my bridge (=bridge). Slč. 64 Fig. 1. Forms used in the function of a neuter-gender pronoun: 1 – tai; 2 – tatai; 3 – tei; 4 – to 5. Užs. Nr. 1026 62 b) Adverb. This type is more characteristic of the Samogitian dialect, where neuter adjectives are often replaced by adverbs. In Aukštaitian dialects (as in the standard language), in this context only well, poorly and a few other adverbs are more commonly used. Oh, girls, studying for so many years is terribly difficult. Kl. What’s there to study after getting married? It’s hard. Dr. It’s fun to thresh with flails. Eig. It’s terrible that they won’t let me send it. Pp. Ten rubles—it’s expensive. Šrk. And the craftsman, if he’s capable, isn’t that good?—Well, yes, yes, he says, that’s good. Kav (LKT 166). It’s not good that it hasn’t been tried at all. But you mustn’t lie down, lad; that’s good. Nair. c) Masculine singular nominative of adjectives and adjectival words. This type arose through agreement with the form tas and is generally found in the Samogitian dialect and along its borders. It is not characteristic of Aukštaitian dialects. There, the neuter form is generally used instead of the masculine singular nominative. It’s as if it were written on my forehead. Ms. What is forgotten is what one no longer has. Krš (LKT 95). That isn’t made up like that. Krg. It’s a lie that the heart is healthy. Nd (LKT 146). That’s no good at all. End. What is red (=red), that is excellent (=excellent). Zst. Whatever is good is precious. Mdn. d) Third-person form of the verb. You have to think about what that will lead to. Nmš. It’s already about eight years; my legs haven’t hurt once, and I could dance. Vndk. That was during the war. Bbr. — You’ll get little this year. — That’s how it is. Trk. I fell from a height; perhaps that’s having an effect. Jd. That won’t pass so easily for you, don’t worry. Kt. That is what he wants, and that is what concerns him. Grž. That doesn’t concern him. Plv. I just don’t remember what year that was. Sv (LKT 301). That’s the thing: I didn’t know. Ktk. e) Nominative of a noun or a word used as a noun. This type is more characteristic of Samogitians and their border dialects. To be an educated person—that is a great blessing. Grg. Splitting firewood—that’s no joke. Als. When they started wishing each other good health, that was a good thing. Varn. The carriage ride costs ten rubles; that’s nothing. Lnk. Ten kopecks—that’s something. Klk. If it rains a little, that’s nothing. Kerv. That gypsies used to snatch children is true. Ktč. I don’t know whether that’s good luck or bad luck. Žg. That would be the greatest joy for a mother. NnJ. As the types listed above show, the form tas is used much more widely in the Samogitian dialect than in Aukštaitian. Where Samogitians use the form tas, Aukštaitians often express the same thing without the form tas or use various particles, the nominal phrase tas dalykas (‘that thing’), and so on, in its place. Cf.: Žem. That cannot be, what they give so much. Srp. Highlanders would say without that: It cannot be that they give so much. Žem. That is good that he taught such a rascal. Pp. Highlanders would say: Good that he taught such a rascal. And here it is good that he taught… and so on. 016. The form tai is used in the nominative position of a noun when the predicate form is: a) The nominative of a noun or a word used substantivally. This type is common; it is used in all Aukštaitian dialects and in the Raseiniai subdialect of Žemaitian. 66 That is happiness. Vs. That is my daughter. Šlčn. That is a real fool. Vdk. And it seems to me that that is my hen. Knk. That is my mother-in-law. Jknč. Then she asks: “What is that?” The witch answers: “Those are my bread peels, those are my pokers. Všt. I’m looking—and up in the sky there are some red poles. What can it be? Will it rain? Škl (LKT 389). They understood that this was a very good thing (that ox). Msn (LKT 286). Those are my daughters. TrškV. The form tai in expressions of this type is very close to a particle. This form merely points to an object, while the predicate nominative describes the object. In the Žemaitian dialect, the form tas is used in these cases; compare: Žem. What is that, you don’t understand? Varn and Highland. What is that, I don’t know. Pvč. Žem. Where the shed is, that is a barn. Plkn and Highland. That was a granary. Nm. (Compare also examples 014 e.) b) The neuter form of adjectives and adjectival words. The type is unproductive. Expressions of this kind occur in the western and southern Aukštaitian dialects and in the Raseiniai subdialect of Žemaitian: The flax needs to be pulled, but that is not very hard for me. Čbt. That is difficult. Pkp, Knr, Nmk, Bt, Jni. In the eastern Aukštaitian dialects, the form tai is used with the neuter form of adjectives in the main clause of a complex sentence, for example: Whatever is red is beautiful. Krns. Whatever is sweet is also tasty. Spt. In the sentences above, the form tai is more of a particle than a pronoun. c) Adverb. The type is unproductive. “You’re making a fence out of reed stalks!” “Well, you see,” he says, “I’ll soon be dead, so that’ll be enough for me.” “Oh, that’s no good,” he says, “old man: someone else will need it, if you make it properly.” Tlt (LKT 365). I can already feel that it’s not right. Skr. d) Third-person verb form. This type is also unproductive. Such examples occur alongside the corresponding, more frequent form tas in the western and southern Aukštaitian dialects. Say what you will, he does not care at all. Alk. Perhaps that matters to me. Slv. That was from the time of Smetona. Grv. 017. The form tai, functioning as a neuter pronoun in the nominative position, is used in similar contexts to the form tas; however, some types with the form tai are rare. The form tas is used much more often than the form tai. The form tai occurs more often when it functions as a particle. Cf. utterances of various types in the same dialect, with the form tai and with the form tas: 1) That is all my work, 2) That is all nonsense, 3) That is good. Pšk. In the first example, tai is used; in utterances of this type, it functions much like a particle. The second example is of the same type as the first, but here the form tas is used; it is supported by the following form viskas, where tas viskas forms a compound subject. In the third example, an adverb functions as the predicate; in utterances of this type, the form tas. is characteristic. Sometimes both the form tas and the form tai are used in parallel in the same dialect; cf.: 1) What is sweet is also tasty, 2) What is sweet, that is also tasty. Skp. 018. The form tatai, functioning as a neuter pronoun in the nominative position of a noun, occurs rarely, e.g.: That was a long time ago—I was ten or eleven years old. Vt (LKT 115). 5* 67 This form occurs somewhat more often with a predicative nominative complement, when it is close to a particle, e.g.: This is a (special) calf. Žbn. This is a tale from olden days. Gršl. 019. The form tei also occurs very rarely in the function of a neuter pronoun in the nominative position. E.g.: It is all that is left to a person: live, look around, until you close your eyes. Erž. It is great good fortune. Dž. 020. The form to has been found only sporadically in the function of a neuter pronoun in the nominative position in East Aukštaitian dialects, alongside other forms; see the examples in 011. Accusative position 021. The form tą is used in the function of a neuter pronoun in the accusative position, where the form tas is used in the nominative position: a) When the predicate or part of it is a verb that takes the accusative: Anos pasako tą mano mamai (as if they had run away frightened). Kik (LKT 45). Leisl vaiką į mokslą kainuoj. Aš gerai tą žinau. Škt (LKT 159). With an accusative-taking verb, the form tą is often used in the main clause of a complex sentence, correlating with the form ką in the subordinate clause, e.g.: And you did what I told you. Škn (LKK XI 198). He’ll arrive; let him do whatever he wants. Dkšt. What you’ve already hammered into my head, I remember. Gdė. b) With accusative prepositions: Aš gavau ne už tą, ne už knygų nešimą. Kdn. 022. In certain expressions, the form tas is also used in the function of a neuter pronoun in the accusative position in the same dialects, e.g.: That is difficult to do. Grl, Mrs, Lb. All that—they wouldn’t want to tell the children. Mrp. 023. The form tai is used in the accusative position in the same dialects as in the nominative position: a) With verbs that take the accusative: I think, my father used to tell stories, (recount). Gdš (LKT 369). It is not so easy to do that. Brt. If only you had not said that. Jon. Then the girl went and told all that to the witch. Mrk. b) With prepositions governing the accusative. Give a penny for that, because he takes it without asking. Vngr. And again they took them in and, by force, forbade them to ride his little cart. At night the old woman could not resist again and kept asking them to give her a ride. And they began taking the old woman around. A tremendous clatter arose. God ordered him to climb down from heaven to earth for that. Svl (LKT 376). 024. The form tai is used in the accusative position alongside the form tą. In some places, both are said in the same way: Tai sunku padaryt ir Tą sunku padaryt. Arml. Particle and conjunction function 025. The form tai. is most widely used as a particle and conjunction. It is found throughout the Lithuanian-speaking area, except among the Samogitians (excluding the Raseiniai subdialect), where ta, is used, and among the eastern Aukštaitian Panevėžys subdialect speakers, where te, tę, ti. are used. It is also characteristic that the Aukštaitian particle and conjunction tai is much more frequent than the Samogitian ta. Other particles are often used instead of the latter. In addition to these, in certain places one also encounters— 68 Fig. 2. Forms used as a particle and conjunction: 1 – ta, 2 – ta, 3 – tai, 4 – tai, 5 – to, 6 – ta, 7 – tę, 8 – ti, 9 – tei ko tatai, tei (in Samogitian and in its border areas), and very rarely to (recorded in the Western Aukštaitian dialect). (See Fig. 2.) These forms do not essentially differ in their types of use, so they are discussed together. 1. Tai and other forms are very often used at the beginning of a sentence, especially when telling something. Tai jūs13 you asked me, those nurses: “will he die?” – “Well,” I say, “it looks like he’s going to die now!” – “Then leave him until morning!” – “So I say: ‘He won’t live to see tomorrow!’ I say: ‘Let me carry him.’” Then she says: “No, I won’t let you carry him while he’s weak, leave him!” So I say: “Let me stay with him”… Grl (LKT 199). Tė there were more of those meadows. Tė we used to graze the cows. Tė there were three such cows. Grž (LKT 219). Earlier, bees used to travel through the village. Tė [he] would cover some [man] with a blanket or put him in a tub. (…) Tė he goes and pours water into that tub. Mkn (LKT 241). That [father] says: “Tear off the roofs; there’ll be straw. Thresh that straw and sow it un winnowed in the fields.” Tatai he sowed all the fields. StirL (LKT 104). Tei I asked mother to sew the shirt as soon as possible. Stak. To tū, dyvai, atsikėlė širy. Jrb. The same occurs at the beginning of an independent clause. They used to say, tai there was a castle here on that hill. Vlkš (LKT 176). If I take up the work, tai what will I take it up with? Ar (LKT 181). He says: “Here, give me a hand!” Nrv (LKT 243). The child will get all mussed up like that, crying as he wipes his nose. Als (J.). The same occurs before a parenthetical expression. Well, the barley, you know, crumbles while being carried. Vdk (LKT 121). Last year, you should have seen what the rye was like! Glč (LKT 210). But my father said that it had bitten (a snake). Bsg (LKT 219). Well, the young woman, they say, screamed terribly. Klm (LKT 107). These forms can also begin any kind of phrase. They may occur before an interrogative sentence introduced by an interrogative particle, for example: So where are you going? Užg (LKT 233). So what are you doing here? Plm (LKT 226). To kai (=like) you’re guessing. Jrb; before a subordinate clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction, for example: So when one is shot, they divide it up, as much as they hunt. Pšč (LKT 160). Those roosters are all grown, so when you pluck them, there’ll only be one leg each. Jrb (LKT 179). And with this [fishing rod], if the [bait] is right, it bites; if not, the [fish] swims away. Zp (LKT 192). In indirect speech, tai and other forms may begin a subordinate-clause phrase after a subordinating conjunction, cf.: People say that there is supposedly an enchanted castle here. Lauks (LKT 173). 2. Tai and other forms, when occurring at the beginning of a sentence, clause, or phrase, form groups with other particles and conjunctions. The forms under discussion may occur before other particles and conjunctions (a), after other particles or conjunctions (b), or between other particles and conjunctions (c). These groups are also often unstressed and are intonationally attached to the following stressed full lexical word. a) These are no longer jokes, if the leg is swelling. Drg. We all started shouting and celebrating! So the [wolf] smoked, and smoked away. Slv (LKT 189). As long as the music is playing, it’s fun. Klm. This year it’s been raining already. Knb. You’re always leaving your door [open]! Vg (LKT 102). 13 In the sentence, the forms under discussion are usually unstressed. They are proclitically attached to the stressed form that follows them. Here and below, the words to which the forms under discussion are attached are marked as stressed in the sentences. The forms tė, tę, ti in the examples are left untranscribed. 70 b) Well then, that’s fine; go on now (=now), you go into the bunk. Užg (LKT 233). When they went to pick cranberries…, well, there are snakes =there. Pšs (LKT 159). Well, it’s his good fortune that I didn’t find him; I’d have slapped his ears. Brš. Throwing stones at an old person—is that really a good thing? Skl. That’s what I’m saying: how can one eat onions and stay healthy? Vg. I led them by the semu, and they carried that. BdS (LKT 113). What foolish people! Vrd (LKŽ V 362). Well, they put such wreaths of birch branches on those cows. Well, then they come back wearing those wreaths. Rgė (LKT 183). Well, I stayed there for three years. Žml (LKT 239). c) Well, I stayed a little longer and then I ran out of there. Lkč (LKT 191). But at least the fur was still (=though) undamaged. Slv (LKT 189). It pierced right through the [fish] net and got away—what a [big] one! Kriu (LKT 188). Well, when they meet, they drink a bottle. Pvk (LKT 181). And what if I’d gone there earlier. Mžš. 3. As with particles, tai and other forms are also used with adverbs. The adverb occurs at the beginning of a sentence, clause, or phrase, followed by the form under consideration. Some adverbs used in this way are very close to particles and conjunctions (where, here, how, etc.). Where has it ever been seen that children disobey their parents? Skp. How could it be that everyone thinks I stole one rabbit? Pv (LKT 365). At first she used to lie with me often, but now she doesn’t set foot here. Srv. 4. Tai and other forms also form initial groups with particles and adverbs. Well, after that I don’t remember where they took them. Ktč (LKT 167). And nowadays, the further you go, the better the machinery gets. If there were cartridges so you wouldn’t have to tie things up—now that would be the life. Well, as for living well there now, it could never be any better. Well, now they go there when the flax has already been pulled up; then they turn it over to the other side. Stkn (LKT 164). Mgč (LKT 245). Kri (LKT 238). 5. As with adverbs, tai and other forms occur with any form that has an adverbial function. The forms under consideration immediately follow the adverbial. In spring I went off to learn tailoring. Kav (LKT 166). At the front of the village there’s a barn. Užb. Well, in the evenings, the beggars would fix themselves up there. Mkn (LKT 241). 6. Tai and other forms are used immediately after a noun and its syntactic equivalent, which usually occurs at the beginning of a sentence, clause, or phrase and functions as an object. Tai and other forms are followed by a predicate with its accompanying words. The subject is often absent or merely implied. Sometimes the subject occurs before the object at the beginning of the sentence. As for the horse, he has it on the wagon, but the ox, well, that’s different. Blk (LKT 190). You see, everyone has their own inclination: one is drawn to guns, another to drinking, and I’m drawn to fishing. A man like that is hard to find. We haven’t caught any big ones, but we have caught little ones like these. Kriu (LKT 188). He knows how to fool around. Kvl. I’m afraid of those oxen. Skt (LKT 159). I’d go mushroom-picking day and night. Krk (LKT 162). That’s how we became like that. Gd (LKT 73). I won’t touch the tears; you won’t scare me away! Urk (LKT 97). And those pails of milk—you have to give them to the animals every single day. Klm (LKT 106). Cf. cases where the forms under consideration follow the object together with another particle or adverb: It’s much better for me there now. Mgč (LKT 244). That’s already hard to do. Vnt. 7. Tai and other forms are also used after a noun and its syntactic equivalent (which may have dependents), occurring at the beginning of a sentence, clause, or phrase 71 and performs the function of the subject. The predicate following the forms under consideration may consist of various forms (a noun with descriptive meaning, an adjective, the neuter form of an adjective, an adverb, or a verb). A person without resolve is a fool. Plv (LKT 200). Well, the wedding is like that, son. Pvk (LKT 181). I am not afraid. Raud (LKT 184). Sitting like this is good, but there is work waiting. Sdl. Science is good. Stl. Father died a very long time ago. Jkn (LKT 245). That one has a little difficulty breathing. Įp (LKT 63). The finest hair arrangement is a braid. Klm (LKT 107). In these cases, tai and the like can also occur with other particles. My brother is still plowing with oxen. Blk. (LKT 190). A heifer is already small, but a bull is big. Bjr (LKT 193). There are three little bulls, and one is already a bull, you know. Škt (LKT 159). To cut—that is already hard for me. Krtv. 026. In all the cases listed above, tai and the like have a structural, not a semantic, function. These forms do not even have a clear emphatic meaning. They begin a sentence, clause, or phrase. Together with other particles and adverbs, they form initial groups. These forms reinforce the segmentation of phrases, sentences, and sentence constituents in context. This is especially characteristic of colloquial speech, where people speak in whole phrases that are difficult to divide into sentences. In the middle of a sentence, the forms under consideration reinforce the segmentation of sentence constituents. For example, in cases 6 and 7, where a noun or its syntactic equivalent occurs first and the form under consideration follows it, this form separates the preceding noun from the other sentence constituents. The noun is set apart and emphasized in the sentence, while the form under consideration attaches intonationally to the independent word that follows it. In this way, the noun is foregrounded to a greater or lesser extent. Sometimes, to foreground the noun or its equivalent even more and emphasize the importance of the referent it denotes to the meaning of the sentence, another pronoun form (tas ‘that’, jis ‘he’, visi ‘all’) is additionally used after the form under consideration; it corresponds syntactically to the noun and its substitute (agreeing with them) and seems to echo them. For example: The wooden plough he would have to know how to make and use, the ploughman, but these iron ones the blacksmiths would make. Blk (LKT 190). As for the nightingales, in those bushes in the evening they sing very beautifully. Tkn. The younger ones are all out in the field. And those buttons of his are all dripping from one another, how they shine! Krn (LKT 228). In their purely structural function, the forms under consideration are, synchronically, closer to particles. However, they may also be treated as conjunctions: especially when they occur at the beginning of a sentence or clause, these forms do in fact connect stretches of text. What matters here is only that, in addition to their structural role, these forms have no other functions in the cases indicated. 027. In addition to the purely structural function mentioned above, tai and some other forms (ta, të, tę, ti) also have other syntactic and semantic functions, which are determined by a particular context. 1. Tai and the like are used at the beginning of the main clause in a complex sentence and correlate with subordinating conjunctions and connective words in the subordinate clause (tai… kad, tai… kiek, tai… kas and the like). Such pairs of forms are called correlative conjunctions14. The clauses express relations of cause, condition, consequence, and so on. 14 Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, II, Vilnius, 1971, p. 657. 72 Last year, when you come by, the berries are red, red. Bršn. Whenever there is harder work, then he turns into the biggest old man. Tt (LKT 108). How much scolding I used to get, I can’t even tell. Lkč (LKT 191). What is on the belly, everyone sees; what is in the belly, no one does. Kbr (LKT 203). Those who are red are beautiful. Lm. If you go stealing on Easter night, then you can save yourself from death. Skrp (LKT 71). If everyone had such children, then no one would cry. Škt (LKT 159). When I was already twelve years old, then I went out as a shepherdess. Žml (LKT 239). 2. Tai and other forms are used in a coordinate sentence and occur with coordinating conjunctions. The relations between the clauses are the same as in the first case (only here there are no subordinating conjunctions). The first person to die of something, they would say it was a worm. Kbl (LKT 107). Just give the pig its head, and it’ll soon be snapping at your eyes. Lau (LKT 163). Well, I wasn’t going to live alone, so I got married. Prn (LKT 231). Give me some money, and I’ll bring it back. Žgč (LKT 122). He feeds them himself, milks them himself, and that’s the way it is with the herd. Lc (LKT 43). There’s porridge in the cottage and milk in the granary, so they rush to dye. Psd (LKT 222). It’s hot—where are they supposed to go?! Gst (LKT 243). We’re playing, so those animals are no longer even on our minds. Gržš (LKT 219). [The husband] is better than the devil, so we can live together. Rdn (LKT 74). 3. Tai and other forms are repeated at the beginning of each clause of a coordinate sentence when listing things. In these cases, tai... tai is a correlative conjunction. And those jobs—well, what kind? One day you feed the pigs, another day you wash the tubs (=dishes) after coming home—those are easy jobs. Vlnč (LKT 187). They raise this animal, then that one, then another, and so they get by. Všn. That’s left over for one, then for another—so it all gets used up. Trk. All these uses of tai and other forms are related to the uses of the same forms mentioned above in a purely structural (non-semantic) function. What they have in common is that in both cases tai and the other forms begin a clause. The latter cases differ from those discussed above only in their semantic-syntactic function. In the latter cases tai and the other forms not only link clauses but also express the relations between them. By contrast, in the cases mentioned above tai and the other forms do not even have such a generalized meaning (indicating relations between sentence clauses); they merely divide the clauses of a sentence. The marking of relations between clauses is determined by the relevant context. The forms mentioned acquire this syntactic-semantic function in the latter cases only because of the context. This shows that the use of the forms under examination in the latter cases is the result of their later development. The oldest stage in the use of these forms is reflected in those cases where the forms mentioned have a purely structural function. 028. Tai and other forms also have an intensifying function—they emphasize the meaning of the words they precede. In these cases the forms in question are often stressed. They also begin a sentence, clause, or phrase (often together with other particles). Tai and other forms intensify the meaning of: a) a noun: Such health (poor health): when among the hens (=of the hens). Grk (LKT 168). It’s a good thing I didn’t go anywhere. Dm. It’s a real calamity for someone—the last cow has died. Gdm. Such darkness of night! Škt (LKT 159). It’s a good thing they didn’t kill him. Dkn. b) various forms of the adjective and adjectival words: Such bulging eyes (very bulging). Jrb (LKT 180). It’s so hard in old age. Jtk. It’s the most beautiful thing that you’re such a man and afraid of a gander! Alk; c) an adverb: 73 That’s good, what we threshed in the daytime (in the light). Erž (LKT 126). That’s good, that everything ended up being settled. Užv; d) verb: That went as well as a dog’s whip. Plm. That girl struck lucky—she got such a husband. Vlkj. These and other uses are likewise determined by the context and by a certain intonation of their minimal forms and of the other sentence constituents. They too are more recent than the cases in which the forms under consideration are used in a purely structural function. 029. In individual cases, tai and certain other forms, used alone or with other particles at the beginning of a sentence, clause, or phrase, depending on the context and the speech situation, come very close in function to the neuter pronoun. They have a more or less clear demonstrative meaning. These are transitional cases between the structural function of particle and conjunction noted above and the function of the neuter pronoun. When the wind blows, that axe handle goes bam, she says: “That’s my dear father chopping wood.” Auk (LKT 362). Get up early in the morning: before the sun rises, go and drive the animals, then come back, eat, and go out again for the whole day to tend the livestock. That’s not yet (=now); everyone still works together. Dg (LKT 367). It wasn’t very far. Ker. I piled up a wall from the stacks; from the little stack there’ll be a little wagon. Oh, that’s all the work of my own little hands. Lš (LKT 383). Here, that’s a short [thread] end. Dkš (LKT 210). A shad is a man’s fish, not one of those scraps. Plv. The bearded fish is very good. That used to be the most expensive fish. Zp (LKT 192). There were no ploughs when did they appear! Šaukl (LKT 65). They built such houses—not to be laughed at. Vg (LKT 102). What a beautiful balcony that one has! Vg (ibid.). That’s the end of it! Vg (ibid.). Cf. also examples 016 a, b. 030. From what has been examined, the following generalizations can be made. 1. In Lithuanian dialects, tai and its variants are more often particles than neuter pronouns. Tai, used in almost all Aukštaitian dialects, most often functions as a particle; its neuter-pronoun function is comparatively rare, usually occurring only in transitional cases. The Samogitian form ta, and the forms of the northeastern Aukštaitian Panevėžys dialect te, te, ti function only as particles. The forms tatai, tei, to are altogether rare and occur in both functions. Across the Lithuanian language area, the masculine singular forms tas, tą are most commonly used in the neuter-pronoun function. 2. The neuter-pronoun and particle functions of the forms tai, tatai, tei are closely related and may have developed from one another. The basis for the convergence of these functions is that neuter pronouns refer in a very general, indefinite, abstract way. The relationship between the particle and conjunction, on the one hand, and the neuter pronoun in nominative position, on the other, is particularly close. In the nominative position, the forms in question, functioning as neuter pronouns, also often occur at the beginning of a sentence or clause, just as when they have a purely structural function as particles and conjunctions. 3. The oldest function of these forms as particles and conjunctions is purely structural: to begin a sentence or phrase and to reinforce the division of sentences and phrases within the context. This is especially characteristic of spoken language, where speech proceeds in whole phrases that are difficult to divide into sentences. The other functions of particles and conjunctions—to intensify the meaning of words, connect clauses, and express their relations—are later developments of these forms (depending on the context). 74 4. The forms tas, tą do not function as particles or conjunctions, since they derive from the masculine paradigm and remain closely connected with it (in another meaning, they are used as masculine forms). The expansive spread of the forms tas, tą probably also prevented some particles from becoming established in the function of neuter pronouns (cf. Samogitian ta, Panevėžys-dialect tę, tę, ti, alongside which the forms tas, tą are generally used as neuter pronouns), although, in terms of their semantics and usage types, those particles fully correspond to other forms (tai, tatai, tei), which function as particles and conjunctions and also serve as neuter pronouns. 5. Since there is no impassable boundary between particles and conjunctions, on the one hand, and neuter pronouns, on the other, many forms known in Lithuanian as particles and conjunctions can be compared with Indo-European neuter pronoun forms. Samogitian ta < *to; Panevėžys-dialect tę, tę, ti, if these do not derive from tai, tei but are reductions of te, like Latvian te, could be considered an old form *te of the *e/o stem, preserving the reflex of e. Thus ta and te would be parallel forms of the same *e/o stem. Just as ta relates to te, so tai relates to tei. The form to is an extended form of Indo-European *tā (Ntr. Pl. Nom.-Acc.). A separate article on the origin of these forms is to be published at a later date. A. ВАЛЯЦКЕНЕ THE FORM tai AND ITS VARIANTS IN LITHUANIAN DIALECTS Abstract 1. Besides the form tai and the occasionally encountered tatai, ancient particles-conjunctions are also used in Lithuanian dialects: Samogitian ta (<and Indo-European *to), in the Panevėžys dialects tė, tę, ti, cf. Latvian te (most probably Indo-European *te — a form with e from the Indo-European *e/o stem), in some cases to (Indo-European *tā, cf. Nom.-Acc. Pl. Neut. -ā), and tei, which relates to tai as te relates to ta. 2. The oldest function of these forms is purely structural: they introduce sentences, sentence components, and phrases, and divide sentences into their constituent parts. 3. Some of these particles-conjunctions (tai, tatai, tei, to) have also acquired the function of neuter demonstrative pronouns. In this function, they are used comparatively rarely in the dialects, most often only in cases where they approach particles-conjunctions. 4. In the function of neuter demonstrative pronouns, the forms tas, ta are most widely used throughout the territory where Lithuanian is spoken. The other forms are distributed geographically as follows: in Aukštaitian dialects, except those of Panevėžys, and in the Raseiniai Samogitian dialects, the form tai (as a particle-conjunction, and more rarely as a neuter demonstrative pronoun); in Samogitian dialects, except those of Raseiniai, the forms ta (as a particle-conjunction) and tatai (as a particle-conjunction, and occasionally as a neuter demonstrative pronoun); in the eastern Aukštaitian Panevėžys dialects, the forms te, tę, ti (as a particle-conjunction). The forms tei, to occur sporadically in various locations as particle-conjunctions and also as neuter demonstrative pronouns.