Lietuvių kalbos subjektiniai ir objektiniai veiksmažodžiai

ACTA LINGUISTICA LITHUANICA XLIV (2001), 145-166 The two semantic types of verbs distinguished in this paper, subject-oriented and object-oriented verbs, reflect the two main types of sentence perspective in Lithuanian. Both define a number of semantic roles which are subsumed by the hyper-roles of subject and object. The hyper-role of subject includes the semantic roles of agent, patient, percipient, result, beneficiary, content, modus, source, directive, instrument. The hyper-role of object comprises the semantic roles of patient, causator, counter-agent, finitive, motive, comitative and retributive. INTERPRETATION OF SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE VERBS Verbs according to their meaning are divided into two larger groups by some researchers: subjective and objective. Subjective verbs are those verbs that denote actions that are related to the subject and do not go beyond its sphere. OBJECTIVE verbs denote actions directed at an subjektinius ir objektinius veiksmažodžius (Ufimceva 1980: 41, Jakaitienė 1988: 114, object, but maintaining a connection with the subject. In other words, subjective verbs in sentences presuppose subjective relations and do not presuppose objective ones. In contrast, objective verbs assume primarily objective, but also subjective relationships. Compared to objective, subjective relationships are prototypical (Holvoet 1991: 50-51). About impersonal verbs, it should be said that some i$ jy used in impersonal sentences are associated with subjective verbs (He is not doing well), others — with objective verbs (My head hurts. When there is no subject in the sentences (West. Temsta), the subject can be implied from the whole speaker's experience. This could be the environment of the speaking situation, the visual field of the speaker. From all that has been said, it is clear that the division of verbs into subjective and objective corresponds to the old linguistic tradition of dividing verbs into transitive and intransitive and especially into transitive and intransitive verbs in the broad sense. Such a classification of verbs is based on the concepts of the subject of action and its object. In addition to the most general meanings of verbs — action and state (in the broad sense), subject and object can be defined in terms of semantic functions (actors). In this case, the subject is the agent of the action predicate, less often the instrument, and the predicate of the state is the patient, the percipient, the beneficial, the result, the contentive. The object of the action predicates is the patient, the result, the beneficent, 146 | STASĖ KRINICKAITĖ instrument, contentive, finite and state predicate contragent, percepient, possessor, contentive, result, aspect. The semantic functions of subject and object are clearly distinguished from the syntactic functions of factor and complement, which depend on the syntactic structure of the sentence. For example, in the passive sentence The letter was written, the parent subject's semantic function is performed by the complement (the parent), and the object function is performed by the clause factor (the letter). When classifying a verb as subjective or objective, it is necessary to take into account its use in a particular sentence in a literal or figurative sense. Verbs are often ambiguous, and some of their meanings can be subjective and others objective. It should also be emphasized that verbs of different lexical and semantic groups provide different semantic functions. However, even taking into account the lexical and semantic groups of verbs, it is not yet possible to explain all the variants of use of verbs or their synonymy. It should be remembered that the predicate of each sentence also corresponds to certain situational characteristics, and not all of them are determined by the meaning of the verbs alone (Rosen 1996: 191-223). This article refers to the closest verb environment in sentences recorded in the Contemporary Lithuanian Language Dictionary (*1993), Lithuanian Language Dictionary (1-XIX, 1956-1999) and N. Sližienės Lithuanian Verb Conjugation Dictionary (1, 1994; II(1) 1998). Examples of subjective and objective verbs are also analyzed, which the author of this article collected from journalism, science and science popularization works, colloquial language, folklore and fiction. The sources of common spoken language examples are not given. By comparing all the cases of subjective and objective verbs, it is clear that different lexical groups of subjective and objective verbs have different semantic functions. Various lexical groups of subjective and objective verbs are characterized by certain peculiarities of the immediate environment, and some groups have not only certain characteristic actants, but also free members. It can be said that the semantic functions of verbs depend on their lexical meaning (or lexical semantic group) and on their immediate environment, in which not only the actants, but also the free members play an important role. When speaking about a verb as a polysemantic lexicon and having in mind the totality of Zodzi’s meanings, the groups of SUBJECTIV—OBJECTIV and OBJECTIV—- SUBJECTIV verbs are also distinguished. Subjective-objective verbs are those verbs whose direct meanings are subjective, and the transitive — objective, or those verbs whose more frequent and usual meanings are subjective, and the rarer — objective (e.g.: kimti, šalti, šnipšti, šviesti). The direct meanings of objective—- subjective verbs are objective, and the figurative- —subjective, as well as the more common and usual meanings are objective, and the rarer—subjective (e.g., speak, hold, win). Since the same verb, used in different meanings, is either subjective or objective in each case, therefore the main groups of verbs are subjective and objective verbs. Subjective-objective and objective-- subjective verb groups are relevant to distinguish only when verbs are classified as lexems and studied in more general aspects of the theory of transitivity, polysemantic, typology, etc. It must be said that both subjective and objective verbs as a more general group have not been studied much in linguistic works so far. In addition, the terms subjective and objective are rarer than intransitive and transitive. Thermal baths with a long tradition of use SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE VERBS | 147 nai franzitive, intranzitive verbs are still used in both narrow and broad senses. In the broad sense, franzitive names objective verbs, and intranzitive names subjective verbs. Since modern linguistics is aware of the complexity of verb meaning, transitive and intransitive phrases, transitive and intransitive constructions, transitive and intransitive clauses, and transitive and intransitive structures are common in descriptions of various languages of the world. Transitivity and intransitivity of verbs are important semantic, i$ part and grammatical characteristics, useful for typology. Those meanings that are represented in any of the languages of the world by means of morphology are considered to be significant for each language (Majsak 2000: 10). Subjective and objective verb terms, associated with the semantic aspect, are more frequently used in Russian and Lithuanian linguistics (Ufimceva 1980: 44; Jakaitienė 1988: 114; Krinickaitė 1997: 39-41). In verb sentences, where subjective and objective verbs are often used as predicates, subject-oriented predicates and object-oriented predicates are also used (see Veenstra 2000: 882). The latter groups of predicates, apparently, in Lithuanian language are two largest groups of predicates — the predicates of ACTION and BUSINESS (in the broadest sense). This general distribution of predicates is sufficient to link the concepts of subject and object with semantic functions. The semantic functions of action and state predicates taken separately are part of the more general groups of subjective and objective relations (Ambrazas 1986: 27). The semantic function of the agent is usually associated with the predicates of action, and the semantic functions of the patient, percipient, beneficiary are associated with the predicates of state. The subject is defined as the agent of the action predicates and the patient, percepient, beneficent of the state predicates (Ambrazas 1986: 27): TABLE 1. TYPES OF SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE RELATIONSHIPS Semantic relationships With action predicates sie-Semantic functions associated with state predicates jamas semantic functions Subjective A (There came guests. P (The glass broke) The rain shook the rye) Pce (Everyone heard the noise) B (The parents had ground) Objective P (The girl broke the glass) CON (I don't know the way. R (The neighbor dug a ditch) B (I sent a letter to my parents) R (Money turned into coal) I (Cut the violin) Thus, an object can be defined as the patient, result, benefactor, instrument, and state predicates of the action predicates. Compared to objective, subjective relationships are prototypical (see Holvoet 1991: 50-51). 148 | STASĖ KRINICKAITĖ Subjective verbs of action meaning usually anticipate the semantic function of the AGENT, e.g. : You're working day and night. (KONDR AZL 50). Everyone is working, in a hurry. Mother is diligent without respite. The children are wandering around the yard. The Commission meets. Subjective verbs, when they denote not specific physical actions (instance of action), but generalized activity, the nature of activity (activity), approach in their meaning the objective verbs used without an object (in cases of so-called absolute use), e.g.: the child speaks, the mother cooks, the father plays the violin. The degree of agency is not the same for all, and the context of consumption also plays a significant role. Language users have different perceptions of whether a verb denotes a voluntary action or a state. This is explained by the fact that in certain contexts the contradiction between subject and object is irrelevant and neutralized, because sometimes the subject and object correspond to one object in the reference field, not two (Krinickaitė 1997: 41; Ono 1999: 16). It can be said that this is also a consequence of the structure of the language, because the discretion of the language units and the non-discretion of the semantic continuity lead to gradual transitions from one meaning to another (Lykova 1999: 54-55). The function of agent is characteristic of nouns that denote both living beings and inanimate objects and forces of nature. Two main types of agents are distinguished — the agent, [A,], characteristic of living beings, and the agent, [A.], characteristic of inanimate objects, natural forces and other phenomena of nature and society, various devices, machines, devices that have a certain energy and therefore can perform or cause an action, but do not have their own initiative (Sližienė 1994: 19). The noun of the factor with the function of agent may not be stated separately in the sentence, but is assumed by the verb form itself, e.g. : Why are you sad? I was blind in the dark. We drove all night. I barely crossed the threshold. He's lying through his eyes. We bowed carefully. He gasps in surprise. The function of the agent is also provided by verbs denoting mental activity or behavior, e.g. : The child smiles. The guests laughed happily. What's he doing? The girls open up. What are you crying for? The student fantasizes. The guy is arbitrary, he doesn't follow the law. The mother is still suffering, she says nothing. My sister was offended. Uncle's kidding. The girl did nicely. These are verbs denoting actions characteristic of a person as a living being and a person as a personality. In sentences where the verbs smiling, laughing, crying, grieving, hurt, etc. are predicates, the other sentence members often indicate the way of performing the action, its qualitative and quantitative characteristics, place or time, but they are usually not actants (i.e., valence conjunctions), but free members. In sentences with verbs denoting the nature of the activity (try, work, care, etc.) in certain cases actants with semantic functions of object, instrument are possible. Free members, which indicate the space and time parameters of the action, do not distinguish one action from another and are possible in all verb sentences. SUBJECTIVITY AND OBJECTIVITY OF VERBS | 149 The actions considered characteristic of a person as a representative of a civilization and a certain culture can be divided according to the objective: (1) administrative actions; (2) processing operations; (3) extractive actions (doers): (a) material, (b) material—- spiritual actions, (c) spiritual (mental) actions (Stepanov 1997: 210). Such a classification is more suitable for objective verbs, although not alien and subjective. The verbs of motion (sliding), providing the semantic function of the agent, denote actions characteristic not only of man and all living beings, but also of inanimate objects, various devices, natural direktyvas (pradinis taškas, galinis taškas, kelias). Lokatyvas ir direktyvas sakiniuose su forces. In addition to the agent, other possible actants — the locative, the movement verbs help to distinguish the meanings of the verbs. For example: : Returned all back. Who's running there? He continued to ride on the water. Where's he gonna go, with his nose down? Children are skating on ice. Shamelessly, he walks out. The disciples went along the road. The child is hiking up the mountain. Where are all of Zioplinéja now? In sentences with movement verbs (as in other verb sentences) the semantic coordination of various sentence components plays an important role (Stepanov 1989: 16-17; Krinickaitė 1989: 167-168). In sentences with movement verbs, actants performing the semantic functions of locative and directive are common, as well as free members having various mobility and orientation meanings (see Valiulytė 1998: 23-25). Bees humming around the hive. They sailed from the far edges of the Nemunas (Cv). And I, sitting in the elevator, went up three more floors. Where are those people? The mice just swarm around the straw. The birds are flying south. The cat sits near the sparrows. A rabbit is scraping through the fields. The only window opened onto a gloomy, full-blown courtyard (BUBN K 106). If not, get out of the house! (BUBN K 105). When the agent is a person, the verbs of movement are often accompanied by actants having the semantic function of an instrument (sailing on a windsurf), as well as by free members denoting the second agent (we will fly with my brother), motive (go for me), purpose (we will drive wood), reward (I drove for two litas). Sentence parts denoting modal, quantitative, locative, and especially directive functions (AB, AD, VIA) are common in sentences with all movement verbs. For example: : He's not coming back for a long time — I started worrying. I'm going home. Where you penetrate, do you not see that there is no space. I ran out the door. Then he jumps on the bike and descends back (Avyž STM 353). We drove to the lake on a hilly red earth road. Wandering the wide world. If you're in the dirt, you can go outside. Three men and one woman, accompanied by Balis Adamon, slowly walked away from the closed door of the hall (BUBN K 91). He runs to the yard, but is stopped by a hill (BuBN NRŽ 280). The use of verbs denoting movement of humans and other living beings and objects shows that it is often important for the speaker to indicate only a certain section of the movement or other parameters of the movement, e.g. : 150 | STASĖ KRINICKAITĖ Chickens are lying in the coop. Let's get under shelter so it doesn't melt. The shadow of the warrior under the bench (FLK). Since the meaning of the verb is complex, a strict boundary between the lexical groups of verbs is absent in most cases. The verbs of movement are closely related to the verbs of positional change, e.g.: sit, lie, climb (to the second floor), as well as the verbs of positional space (lying, sitting, hanging, hanging, turning), which presuppose the agent and the locative and directive. For example: : He himself stood on his head for an hour every day, hoping to follow his example (SIR GIR K 20). He did not sit on my neck (BUBN K 105). This group includes a number of conjugative verbs, which are characterized by the meaning of changing position in space (kabarotis, kartis, susirieti, etc.). For example: : The child would sit on a bench and sleep during the night. We'll tie ourselves to a spruce at the root of something, you'll attach your head to the spruce and you'll be asleep. Bend over so you don't get caught. The subjective verbs of action only rarely provide the semantics of INSTRUMENT. Somewhere far away the harmonica was playing. Back the trumpets. Subjective verbs have an tinę funkciją. Pvz.: agent, semantic function, which is characteristic of inanimate objects, natural forces, natural and social phenomena, various devices, machines, devices with energetic properties and capable of performing or causing an action, but without their own initiative, e.g. : Jupiter was visited in August 1988. The spacecraft will separate from the orbital block (SP). The wind clock is turning. The rocket took off. The bus is going. The ship is approaching the shore. The words denoting this function can be divided into subclasses, depending on what — an inanimate object, a force of nature, a cause or a means of action — is the agent, cf. : Water flows in streams. Lightning flashes. The wind is blowing. The spring breeze is blowing. The cold is pressing. There is only silence. The common cases are when an agent is a living being doing something involuntarily, without initiative. Therefore, we can talk about certain DEGREES OF AGENT ACTIVITIES, depending on the extent to which the situation is perceived as controlled or uncontrolled by the agent (Holvoet 1991: 164). The uncontrollable situation of the agent is indicated by self-evident recursives. For example: : Subjective and objective verbs | 151 He wanted to deceive another, and [A] was deceived himself. I got all stained on the street. I've made a terrible calculation. The child splashed water. The most characteristic of the subjective verbs of the state is the predicted semantic function of the PATIENT, the function of the recipient of the effect of the action or the holder of the state, characteristic of both living and inanimate objects, as well as abstract things (Sližienė 1994: 20). Especially this is true of the so-called spontaneous verbs. For example: : The patient chokes without recovering smell. My son has a fever. The girl is sick. When the patient function is specific to a person, regardless of the context, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish it from the agent function, e.g. : The child is already sleeping. It is tested all from the cold. She's crying in pain. The baby is crying. The child calmed down. I woke up early. The boy is bored. A significantly more defined patient function is typical of inanimate objects. However, sometimes, for example when talking about plants, there is also a certain shade of agenticity. For example: : The grass has begun to grow. The rye is already sprouting. Uosis leaf. The Shoots Medya. Rye grows in the woods. There are no trees in the shade. The rye is already belting. The cabbage is in bloom here. The grass is vibrating. The grass is burning. The apple tree is blooming. The shade of agency is also noticeable in those cases where the patient’s function is provided by variable-- state verbs, also called dynamic self-state verbs, e.g. : The tower moves to the side. Even the branches are leaning from the apples. Daisy gets into her clothes. Inside the tree is dull. Smoke is coming out of the chimney. The car got stuck in the dirt. The stone is drowning. The earth opened. The verbs of the REGIMOJO BŪVIO also assume the semantic function of PATIENTO. For example: : Behind the garden there were fields. A stone cracked in the middle of the road. The boat is drowning in the lake. Empty branches of styro. Mountains rise in the distance. The branches of the tree are falling down. Among those hills are lakes. There was a deep abyss right in front of us. The mushrooms between the trees are marbling. Blue Lines. The forest in the distance turns blue. These verbs are close to self-evident, plg. : Already your hair is graying. In cases where the verbs denote the states of animals, the function of the patient approaches that of the agent. For example: : 152 | STASĖ KRINICKAITĖ Something is hidden in the hut. It smells like something from the dark. The fox is in the cave. In sentences with adjectives denoting a change of state, the patient function is typical of nouns denoting inanimate objects or substances, e.g. : The river is twisting. The river is falling. Our rivers are shallowing. From the heat, honey becomes liquid. An unpainted machine wears out very quickly. His bones are already in the ground. The teeth are decaying (decay). The foundations are there. Tomatoes are red. The lamp spark is angled. The sugar melts. The pace is freezing. October is falling apart. The milk's already pouring. A beautiful old glemba. Moist flour will burn quickly. Ice melts from the sun. The mercury in the thermometer column did not rise (Avyž STM 478). Similarly, the semantic function of the patient is assigned to parts of the human body, e.g. : Hands shaking. Wrinkled hands. The face is pale. Eyes tear in the wind. From the potato arm band. Lips suffer in the hot sun. The head is flat. There's work. The semantic function of PATIENTO is also assumed for self-verbs denoting meteorological and other natural phenomena, e.g. : The cold is gnawing. The wind is cooling. The fog is rising. The race is falling. The weather is warming, it's raining. The snow cover is thinning. The sky began to shine. The night was getting darker and darker. Gradually, the light of the day began to fade (BUBN K 94). In sentences with sound verbs, the patient function is quite close to the agent function. For example: : A voice echoes in the forest. Shnara leaves. The bells ring. Weapons are shining. From shooting even windows candle. The forest is buzzing. The ice was cracking. The cupboard is full of dishes. The apples bubble as they fall. When the wind blows, the forest smells. When it is important to distinguish between the agent and the patient in a speech process, these two semantic functions are sufficiently defined. There are cases where situations are interpreted as syncretic in this respect, the semantic functions of 0 agent and patient are distinguished from the wider context. If necessary, the speaker may use additional expressions to help distinguish the agent from the patient. The semantic function of the patient is characteristic of nouns denoting abstract things, e.g. : It's getting worse. The point is clear. Moods are constantly changing. His health is deteriorating. Weakness of vision. And Maria’s appetite grew proportionally to the number of days he was hungry (Avyž STM 483). In sentences with verbs of existence, the semantic function of patient is obvious (existing verbs are also considered verbs denoting occurrence, cf. Valeika 1998: 63). For example: : There were three brothers who lived in a small town. There was a blacksmith and it fell over. Absolutely pure water in nature is not at all. In the evening, mosquitoes appeared. There are mice in the chamber. The semantic function of the PERCEPTOR—the experiencer of a mental state—is implied by the verbs of perception. For example: : The mother was delighted. The narrator is worried. The dog is sick. The girl was upset. The father shook his head. The child was sad. She's really serious. The horse is scared. Kittens already see. The percipient function in sentences can be described not only by the nominative but also by the noun, e.g. : I can't see. He likes detectives. We didn't like the bacon. What do you think? Subjective verbs of state meaning also imply the semantic function of BENEFICIARY — the addressee of the action, the recipient — which in sentences is usually realized by the beneficiary vowel. For example: : Time per second. The children are doing well. How are you doing? It's not going well with him. The semantic function of RESULT is relatively rarely provided by subjective verbs. It can only be detected in sentences with verbs with a variable state, e.g. : There was noise. There was a war. We started talking. The Earth's crust has been stratified. When burning gas, fines are formed. The confusion began. Mushrooms are sprouting. The semantic function of the result is more often provided by objective verbs. Also, only the verbs with the meaning of the variable state assume the semantic function of CONTENTIVE, which is also quite rare, e.g. : A song is played. There was a misunderstanding. There was an accident. In summary, it should be said that subjective verbs going as predicates, the hyperfunction of the subject includes the semantic functions of the agent, the agent, the patient, the percipient, the result, the beneficiary, the contentive, the instrument. Each of these functions is provided by verbs of more or less defined lexical semantic groups. The groups of subjective and objective verbs are not equivalent and symmetrical in relation to each other. Subjective relationships are more often predicative. However, the expression of objective relations is also important and specific to each language. The most well-known linguistic universals are syntactic subjects and transitive sentences, or, more precisely, their conceptual and functional equivalents or archetypes (Beck 2000: 277). But to systematize all this 160 | STASĖ KRINICKAITĖ And he was silent; just listened and sometimes even nodded unwillingly. Probably someone else nodded his head (MIKEL LL 385). Then he suddenly shook his head and pushed a heavy marble ink-pen (MIKEL PK 193). The feeder [cow] puffs with satisfaction, sighs deeply, and wags her tail like a lazy dog, then shakes her head (MIKEL LL 394). Why are you measuring your head like a mare, grandma? —he [the child] asked without suffering once (MIkKEL PK 191). The variability of the final and the indefinite participle allows to convey the semantic nuances of purposefulness of the action (final) and unwillingness of the action (indefinite). When the semantic function of the instrument is characteristic of nouns denoting parts of the human body, this function can be described both as patientas (when realized by the final form) and as instrument (when realized by the indefinite form) (see Sližienė 1994: 396-397): Nudrėskė kaip vėjas lapą nuo medžio, —palingavo galvą Vizgirdiené (RADZ PV, 76). Each of them tried to stroke his hair, and turning to something squeaky, heads clapping (BUBN 266). Verbs of action and state meaning, denoting desire, striving, searching, etc., often have a semantic function of FINITIVE, e.g. : In that maze of streets I was looking for one house (SIR GIR K 93). Aspired to a compote glass (BUBN K 115). Later I will miss that music (SIR GIR K 211). The sensitive, thoughtful young generation longs for a complex, unembellished truth in literature that activates and educates it (IR 491). The semantic function of the finite is also assumed by verbs of movement, intellectual activity, e.g. : Even fox and mongoose tissues are removed (SP). Or is your conscience not quite clean, so that you avoid the body? (MIKEL LL 378). At first, I was reluctant to take on that responsibility (Q&A 54). When will I finally get rid of those randomly met people (SIR GIR K 329). Such creations have a greater resonance (IR 257). The semantic function of the finite in sentences is usually realized by the genitive, less often by the adjective. In such sentences, the ordinal and the objective originator with the communicative, e.g. : You also swayed and dropped to the other shore to collect pinecones (KUNC MMP 95). The girl forgets everything and urges her grandfather to see the train faster (BUBN NRŽ 283). The verbs of the action meaning may also have the semantic function of CONTRACTOR, e.g. : Group I competes with Group II. The boys fought the thieves. SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE VERBS | 161 In sentences, the counterpart is usually represented by a noun with a preposition with, a suffix with a preposition against, a noun. It is also possible to distinguish the semantic function of the COMPOSITIVE, which is provided by the acting verbs denoting the extracted actions, e.g.: (to) do, (to) weave, (to) knit, (to) immerse, (to) weave, (to) synthesize (from what?). For example: : I knitted a mat from cotton and silk yarn. He was a member of the 557th Battalion. I took my gloves from the garbage. Ethanol was synthesized from rapeseed oil and spirit. However, this semantic function can also be used in a much broader source function, e.g. : They received a loan from the bank; asked his uncle for a horse; convey to him from our best wishes; deducts income tax from the salary (Sližienė 1994: 22). Verbs of intellectual activity provide the semantic function of COMPARATIVE. Other researchers also refer to this function as the aspect semantic function (Jakaitienė 1988: 63). It is a function of the comparison standard, the approximation point. For example: : Their speech is different from ours. It does not distinguish wheat Dovanų kalnas prilygo piramidei (Sp). Triūbininkas M. Andrė prilygsta nacionaliniam didvyriui from grain. The daughter resembled her mother. (sp). He overtook his mother in height. Further uncertainty would outweigh its powers (MIKEL LL 176). In sentences, the comparative is realized by the noun, the adjective, the genitive with the preposition from, the adjective with the preposition with. Which not which verbs of the action meaning provide the semantic function of BENEFICIARY. The beneficiary is usually the beneficiary, e.g. : I got a squirt. He'll accompany me. When the semantic function of the beneficiary is implied by verbs of state, the beneficial is usually realized by the final, part-originator, sometimes - the utilitarist. In these cases, the semantic function of the verbs is more difficult to define, and other researchers also call it a separate semantic function of the possessor (Jakaitienė 1988: 63). For example: : We had places there (SIR GIR K 44). We have a house. I don't have time. We lack sharper generalizations (IR 289). I'll answer all the questions if I know enough. The manuscript will be useful for further research. The verbs of action and state also have the semantic function of PERCIPIENTS. Plg. : Don't scare the horse, you won't catch it. The long journey did not grow them. A grudge pressed his throat (sp). The percipient is usually realized by the rear end. Verbs implying the semantic function of the percipient are usually causative, e.g., irritate, frighten, annoy, scare, 162 | STASĖ KRINICKAITĖ hurt, confuse, hurt, curse, curse, curse, mislead, educate, sadden, teach, mock, angry, calm, hurt, intoxicate, deceive, chase, drive, vent, deceive, humiliate, and so on. For example: : Those words ją made me sad. Such distrust is enraging. The jį unprepared reader is only initially confused by the iš sudden transitions, jumps from one theme to another (Sp). Movement verbs, less often action verbs, provide the semantic function of DIRECTIVE. For example: : — They crossed the stormy North Atlantic (SIR GIR K 153). He followed her from room to iš room į until he walked all the rooms (Avyž STM 500). The collector of folk art walked all corners. He always got up the first, coughing and walking ir around the |...) farm (MIKEL LL 185). I lived through a fairly interesting part of our century (IR 141). In sentences, directives are usually realized (starting point) by the prepositions su from, from; (terminal point) adverbs and adjectives with prepositions on, until, until, to, after, adjectives with prepositions pas, adjectives with prepositions po; su į, su (way) with the final ir prepositions su per, pro, about, around, after. Verbs of action meaning, less often states, foresee — ir We paid ten litas. tinę funkciją. Pvz.: I negotiated a hundred litas. He's gone down twenty percent. In sentences, the quantitative usually corresponds ir to the final su prepositions. Some action ne verbs assume the semantic function of MODUS, sometimes also called qualitative (Jakaitienė 1988: 63). For example: : The house was painted yellow. The student described the experiment in detail. The results of the work were evaluated favourably. Stylishly decorated the entrance. The mode is usually realized in sentences by adverbs. Also mentioned is the COMITATIVE function, implied by verbs of mutual action, e.g. : He rebelled father su mother. They stirred them up against each other. He divided the land between his brother su and sister. Redistributed the property to all the children with grandchildren. In sentences, this function is usually corresponded by the prepositional construction of the su indefinite noun su or the prepositional construction of the prepositional su suffix. The verbs of remuneration, purchase, negotiation have the semantic function of RETRIBUTIVE, e.g.: We paid for the Už purchase in cash. I bought bricks už du thousands. I paid off už the debt. SUBJECTIVITY AND OBJECTIVITY OF VERBS | 163 In sentences this function is realized by the inaginino, the preposition za with the finite, as well as the preposition iz with the genitive. The semantic function of ONOMATIVE should also be distinguished, although it has not been discussed in Lithuanian linguistics so far. Plg. : If he were among us [Juze of Palanga] —what would he call these clothes? Shorts, coats, jackets? (SP). This semantic function is provided by the verbs of intellectual activity to name, to call, as well as the verbs of state change to become, to change [the named object], to replace. The onomatopoeia usually corresponds to a noun, rarely to a noun, adjective, or adverb. Until now, the semantic function of onomatopoeia has been perceived as part of the broader semantic function of contentive, e.g. : That tree is called oak (see Sližienė 1994: 22). The broader semantic functions reflect the possible limits of generalization of language facts, but the narrower and more specific semantic functions, envisaged by smaller and more compact groups of verbs, are closer to everyday language, easier to understand and distinguish from each other. For example: : In the village, the women called him a poor boy from a young age (BUBN NRZ 266). People call him a wise man. David was called David in America. The border residents call the Zemgalians coming from the other side “friends” (1. SIMON). These plants are named relatives. "I Don't Want to Be Alone" (264). In summary, it should be said that when objective verbs are predicates, the hyperfunction of the object includes the semantic functions of patient, result, contentive, beneficiary, percipient, contragent, instrument, causative, finite, comparative, directive, mode, source (compositive), which are provided by verbs of certain lexical semantic groups. CONCLUSIONS 1.The hyperfunction of the subject includes the semantic functions of the agent, the agent, and the instrument, when the predicates are subjective verbs of the action meaning. When the predicates are static verbs, the hyperfunction of the subject includes the semantic functions of patient and percipient, and when the predicates are variable verbs — the functions of patient, result and contentive. The semantic function of the beneficiary, which is provided by the subjective verbs of the state, also falls into the sphere of the subject hyperfunction. 2.Object hyperfunction, as predicates for objective verbs, includes semantic functions of patient, result, contentive, contragent, beneficiary, instrument, finite, comparative, directive, source (compositive), mode, motive, comitative. When the predicates are objective verbs of the state, the semantic functions of the perceptive and causative fall into the hyperfunction of the object, and when the predicates are variable verbs of the state — the semantic functions of the contentive and the result. 164 | 3. In the group of subjective verbs, predicates of state have more semantic functions, and in the group of objective verbs, predicates of action. Both subjective and objective verbs provide the semantic functions of agent, patient, percipient, result, contentive, beneficiative, source (compositive), instrument, mode, motive, comitative, contragent. In addition, only objective verbs can assume the semantic functions of causative and finite. There are no semantic functions that can be implied only by subjective verbs and not by objective ones. Apparently, this is why objective verbs are used much more often with subjective meanings than subjective verbs with objective meanings. 4.Different semantic functions are assumed by verbs of different lexical semantic groups, both subjective and objective. The closer the lexical semantic group is made up of verbs, the more likely it is that they imply the same semantic functions. The closest lexical semantic groups are synonyms, and they usually assume the same semantic functions. 5.The inventory of lexical semantic groups and semantic functions is not strictly defined and final. Both lexical semantic groups and semantic functions can be divided into narrower and broader, depending on which aspect is perceived as more important by the researcher. It is also important to study the individual verbs, what semantic functions they entail — especially because the meaning of each verb contains components that relate only to the process that the verb denotes. 1 SCHEME. SEMANTICAL FUNCTIONS OF SUBJECTIVITY AND OBJECTIVITY VERBS sK k NR] Fl— 7 S P ps geo oon 7 (Pcp) ~ [Coy] [Dir [Cause] [0] [Mop] [M] action predicate state predicate SAE Prat statiSk busenos predicate ———variable state predicate Subjective and objective verbs | 165 6. By examining the semantic functions assumed by certain lexical semantic groups and individual verbs, it is possible to better define what remains explicit in speech and what constitutes the presupposition of the sentence. Such an aspect would not only deepen the knowledge of language, but also create prerequisites for the most formalized — computerized — description of language. Abbreviations ANDR T —Pulgis Andriušis, Tipelis, Vilnius: Vyturys, 1991. Avyž STM -Jonas Avyžius, The time of emptying of country houses, Vilnius: Vaga, 1973. BALC — Juozas Balčikonis. BALTR SG —Aleksas Baltrūnas, The Birth of Light, Vilnius: Vaga, 1985. BuBN K —Vytautas Bubnys, Kvietimas, Vilnius: Vaga, 1983. BuBN NRŽ —Vytautas Bubnys, The flowering of unsown rye, Vilnius: Vaga, 1984. Dictionary of Modern English, ed. S. Keinys, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla, Dovyp NK -Liudas Dovydėnas, Naktys Karališkiuose, Vilnius: Vyturys, 1992. FLK —folkloras. GRAN —Romualdas Granauskas. IR —Interview with writers, Vilnius: Vaga, 1980. 1981: The Drama of the River Užupio, Vilnius: Vaga. Jov - Jovaras. "Jonas Juškaitis". KONDR AŽL -Saulius Tomas Kondrotas, And they will be disgusted looking through the window, 1, 2, Vilnius: Vaga, 1985. KUNC MMP -Jurgis Kunčinas, Menestreliai maksi paltais, Vilnius: Lithuanian Writers' Union Publishing House, LKŽ -Lithuanian Language Dictionary. Mac - Vincas Maciūnas. MART MD -Vytautas Martinkus, Hunting in the reserve, Vilnius: Vaga, 1983. MIKEL LL —Jonas 1993. Mikelinskas, Where are the even fields?, Vilnius: Vaga, 1987. MIKEL PK —Jonas Mikelinskas, The Last Card, Vilnius: Lithuanian Writers' Union, 1993. MIKUL —Ema Mikulėnaitė. Myk Pur — Vincas Mykolaitis-Putinas. pp. 195–201. pp. 195–201. pp. 195–201. pp. 195–201. pp. 195–201. pp. 195–201. RApz PV, „,—Bronius Radzevičius, Priešaušrio vieškeliai, 1, 2, Vilnius: Vaga, 1985. RASC — Prana Scripture. 1998: Vytautas Rimkevičius. SIMON —Ieva Simonaitytė. SIR GIR K —Vytautas Sirijos Gira, Kanarėlės, Vilnius: Vaga, 1983. SLucK R —Mykolas Sluckis, Writings, 4, Vilnius: Vaga, 1989. SP — press. STAN —Simonas Stanevičius. 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