Analogija lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryboje. Potenciniai ir okaziniai dariniai

ACTA LINGUISTICA LITHUANICA XLVI (2002), 73 – 80 Analogy in Lithuanian Word Formation. Potential and Occasional Derivatives JURGITA MIKELIONIENĖ Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas The article deals with analogy in Lithuanian word formation, i.e., the derivation of new lexical items on the basis of existing models. An analysis of recent developments in the Lithuanian lexicon shows that the model is more often a productive type of derivation than one particular lexical item. An attempt is made to show the similarities and differences between potential and occasional lexemes as well as to give a structural classification of occasional formations. Examples are cited to illustrate the working of analogy in the derivation of nouns denoting persons, names of tools, abstract nouns etc. The notion of productivity of derivational types is discussed. Finally, analogy is shown to be a source of derivational synonymy, contamination and word play. Active processes in word formation and the ceaseless flow of new words are important features of a language’s vitality and dynamism. The analysis of synchronic word-formation processes is inseparable from the description of the conditions and means by which new words arise. One of the most important goals of researchers who view word formation as a constantly changing system is to identify not only existing derivatives but also those that are potentially possible. When new words are discussed, even in defining neologisms, emphasis is often placed solely on extralinguistic reasons for their emergence (the need to name newly arisen objects, phenomena, and concepts). Internal, linguistic reasons, being less obvious yet no less important, are sometimes forgotten. This article seeks to take a closer look at analogy—one of the most powerful internal mechanisms of language, responsible for the emergence of new vocabulary. In word-formation theory, analogy is understood as the formation of new words according to word-formation patterns already existing in the language. Words may be formed on the basis of a specific existing word (thus, by imitating mėnuleigis, marsaeigis ‘Mars rover’ came into being). Most often, however, this occurs on the basis of productive word-formation types (Motsch 1999, Ferm 1994). An analysis of Lithuanian neologisms based on data from contemporary journalism, fiction, and scholarly literature shows that the ability to coin words on the basis of existing examples is evident in both usual and non-usual (potential or occasional) derivatives; in other words, analogy is used very broadly in forming or creating new lexical units. It is precisely the emergence of words that have not entered general use that demonstrates the particular power of analogy in the language system (Zemskaja 1992: 203); this article focuses primarily on such vocabulary. The concepts of potential and occasional derivatives are interpreted in different ways, as is the relationship between them. There is debate over whether it is useful at all to divide non-usual vocabulary in this way. “Potential derivatives are words belonging to highly productive and regular word-formation types that do not enter the language as individual lexical units, but are merely provided for by those types and may occur in speech 74 | JURGITA MIKELIONIENĖ realizuojami kiekvienu momentu“ (Urbutis 1978: 269). Okazionalizmai „Kalbotyros terminų žodyne“ (1990: 136) apibrėžiami kaip bendrajai kalbos vartosenai nebūdingi žodžiai, pasitaikantys tik kartą tam tikrame kontekste, darybos atžvilgiu netipiški, individualūs. Ne visi kalbininkai linkę skirti potencialinius ir okazinius darinius. Jų argumentai – ir potencialiniai, ir okaz(iniai) dariniai yra tos pačios darybinės sistemos nariai, ir vieni, ir kiti yra dvilypiai – turi griežtai apibrėžiamą struktūrą ir semantiką, todėl jiems suvokti dažniausiai neprireikia konteksto, tiek potencialinių, tiek okazinių darinių daryba remiasi analogija. Šiai nuomonei dažniausiai nenori pritarti tiriantieji atskirų funkcinių stilių okazionalizmus. Grožinės literatūros ir publicistikos neįprastų darinių okazionalumo laipsnis yra labai nevienodas. Publicistinio stiliaus okazionaliniai dariniai daug artimesni potencialiniams nei grožinės literatūros kūrėjų vaizdingi autoriniai dariniai (Ferm 1994: 92–93, Zemskaja 1992: 180–182). Such derivatives are absent from dictionaries, so from a purely lexicographic point of view they could also be regarded as neologisms. This gives rise to considerable debate in neology. In fact, it is extremely difficult to draw a line between a neologism and a potential derivative, since it is not always clear whether an existing word is simply recreated or newly formed each time according to word-formation patterns already present in the language. The striking, noticeable novelty of an occasional derivative is one of its most important characteristics. However, it should be noted that the criteria of transience and individuality, as well as the aforementioned feature of novelty, are not always met. Many occasionalisms, particularly those found in journalism, spread very quickly, are remembered, and become potential words, and sometimes even words in general use. This article adopts the view that potential and occasional derivatives cannot be equated. Their principal distinguishing feature concerns whether word-formation rules are observed or disregarded. An occasional derivative, which, as many researchers emphasize, is individual and authorial, is more often the result not so much of word formation as of creative coinage based on analogy, and it most often violates the general laws of word formation. The formation of a derivative considered potential is beyond reproach: it supplements a word-formation paradigm, type, or category and is systematic, yet is nevertheless not considered usual. Potential derivatives can be formed at any time, without any obstacles, when the need arises to name something; they often occur in written sources, although they are not recorded in dictionaries. To clarify the role of analogy in the formation of potential words and to examine atypical, individual derivatives, the article analyzes derivatives belonging to the most numerous word-formation categories—names of persons and abstract nouns—as well as some less numerous, semantically quite strictly delimited categories (e.g., names of meats), and provides examples of new suffixal derivatives formed according to the most productive word-formation types1. An examination of the mechanism of analogy inevitably involves the concepts of productivity and activity in word-formation types. This article will attempt to answer the question of how the activity of a word-formation pattern or formative is manifested and recognized, using examples drawn from factual material retrieved from the Vytautas Magnus University computerized corpus of contemporary Lithuanian. It should be noted that the productivity of a word-formation type or formative plays a decisive role in analogical word formation. However, it cannot be said that words are not formed according to unproductive word-formation 1 The suffixal method of word formation was selected for analysis as the most productive at present. POTENCINIAI IR OKAZINIAI DARINIAI | 75 types. Grammars list the following as nonproductive suffixes: -eika, -ėnas, -ila, -muo, -išius, -ėlius. However, derivatives are also formed with these suffixes, for example: šnibždeika, svaidmuo, madišius, kirmėlius, žuvenas, and others. Therefore, without disregarding the importance of productivity in research, it is also necessary to speak of the activity or vitality of a word-formation type. Generally nonproductive word-formation types can become active during certain periods and produce established, potential, or even occasional neologisms. I noticed: he knows how to dress, but he’s no madišius. Awakened, Ksaveras, understanding nothing, swept everyone with the gaze of a dramstu menulėnas... Next, we will examine several word-formation types traditionally considered fairly productive2. At present, as the collected material shows, they are also sufficiently active. Most of the formations analyzed are to be regarded as potential derivatives, although occasional examples of word formation also occur. A typical example of a potential formation made on the basis of analogy is a derivative with the suffix -iena belonging to the category of meat names. Dictionaries include the following words, formed from the names of animals and birds and adopted into general usage: briediena, elniena, kalakutiena, kiauliena, stirniena, šerniena, veršiena, vištiena, and others. The following derivatives found in the VDU corpus but not recorded in the DLKŽ, with the same word-formation meaning, are to be regarded as potential formations: kengūriena, kurapkiena, lokiena, nutrijiena, parš eliena, smaugliena, sraigiena, strutiena, stumbriena, šuniena, varliena, varniena, vėžliena, žaltiena, žiurkiena, žvirbliena. Many of them denote the meat of a bird or animal eaten here or elsewhere. She was not a picky eater—... she did not avoid žaltiena or young crows roasted over embers. Sraigiena is suitable for salads with boiled dried porcini mushrooms. Every day, three tons of žiurkiena are brought to the market in the southern province. A few derivatives formed with the same suffix come from fish names, although grammars do not list this meaning: lašišiena, lydekiena, žuviena. Ūsorių žuviena is very tasty, although full of bones... It would be easier to buy smoked or salted lašišiena at the shop. V. Urbutis savo monografijoje (1978: 272) tokių darinių nelaiko net ir potenciniais ir juos traktuoja tik kaip darybos klaidas. Manome, kad akivaizdi tiek semantinė, tiek darybinė analogija leidžia tokius darinius priskirti jei ne potenciniams, tai bent jau okaziniams dariniams, nes „kalbos norma yra pakanti skirtingam okazionalizmų ekstravagantiškumui“ (Lykov 1976: 18). On the basis of the semantic and word-formation structure of the word dveseliena, the words lavoniena, moteriena were formed. In meaning, these derivatives are even further removed from their base words than the names for ‘meat’ derived from fish are from typical examples of the word-formation type under analysis. Genuine 2In determining whether a word-formation type is productive, reference is made to Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika (Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla, 1994). 76 | JURGITA MIKELIONIENĖ Occasionalisms with particularly pronounced structural and semantic deformation include bulvariena, formuliena, laikraštiena, žodiena, žodeliena, žurnalistiena..., since their base words designate neither animal nor bird meat. Sometimes such derivatives are also closer to names of dishes (cf. šaltiena), which are likewise assigned to this category, or to names for the ‘flesh’ of some body or other; cf. uoliena, grybiena,...objects are made from linguistic material—word-flesh. The unusual feature of the occasionalisms mentioned is not so much their formation as their semantics. Our society was fed newspaper-flesh laced with poison....has a dog’s sense of smell and immediately flees from rancid word-flesh, of which there are mountains upon mountains in its forests nowadays. Synthetic raw material is a mastered basket of nonbeing, a condensed formula. We called such material formuliena. The influence of analogy is particularly evident in the category of instrument names. An examination of -iklis suffix derivatives not recorded in the DLKŽ but found in the corpus clearly shows the productivity and vitality of this word-formation type. New computing terms are actively formed with this formant (griebiklis, kauniklis, trumpiklis, valdiklis), as are names for various devices and appliances (delsiklis, gaviklis, kroviklis, lankstiklis, šaldiklis, šildiklis) and for materials characterized by properties expressed by their base words (emulsiklis, ploviklis, raudviklis, rižiklis). Derivatives of this type are also often coined as equivalents for loanwords, for example, instead of konteinerio – talpiklis, instead of mikserio – plakiklis, and instead of polirėlio – blizgiklis. Atypical, even somewhat irregular examples of this word-formation type are derived from prefixed stems, but they are not perceived as unusual or individual in any way and therefore should not be considered occasionalisms: iškasiklis, nuėmiklis, pertraukiklis, pračiūžiklis, pranešiklis, prįdegiklis, susėgiklis. The newer and more unusual forms seem to be kvepiklis, liesiklis, reiškiklis: To make your car smell good, hang a special kvepiklis in the passenger compartment. This liesiklis, prepared for potter’s clay, is of the same coarseness as that found in pots that have already been fired....to emphasize such features: 1) the conception of the sentence as the primary vehicle of thought... The examples presented show that although both types of derivatives are based on analogy, the pragmatics, semantics, and structure of potential and occasional derivatives sometimes differ, even if only slightly. The emergence of the former is often determined by particular circumstances (e.g., the variety of dishes served in restaurants), whereas the latter are products of linguistic ingenuity and the writer’s imagination. Thus, potential derivatives primarily serve a nominative function, while occasional derivatives serve to convey emotional-expressive evaluation. Thus, potential derivatives, which often enter the category of systemic derivatives after some time, arise from the need to name new fields of activity. We will examine new derivatives of the -(inink)ystė type, belonging to the word-formational category of nominal abstractions. For example, the names of economic sectors formed with the productive suffix -ininkystė but not yet included in dictionaries are: grybininkystė, grūdininkystė, jautininkystė, pupelininkystė, sliekininkystė, uogininkystė, žąsininkystė. The bases for these words are names of the animals and plants being bred or cultivated, as well as names of products being manufactured: dešrininkystė, koklininkystė, laikraštininkystė, pašarininkystė, prieskonininkystė. Other derivatives with this suffix also name activities, but here the base word denotes a person’s profession or position: namudininkystė, operatorystė, orakuly stė, oratorystė, popiežystė, sielininkys POTENCINIAI IR OKAZINIAI DARINIAI | 77 tė, šaulystė, trenerystė, virėjystė, žygeivystė. These derivatives often carry an ironic overtone: premjerystė, prezidentystė, rašytojųstė. The productivity of the suffix is also illustrated by derivatives formed from recent loanwords: sponsorystė, sutenerystė. The quality or trait is denoted by derivatives such as autsaiderystė, kekšystė, luošystė, nemokšystė, prisitaikėlystė, verteivystė, and derivatives from nonstandard word roots: šmuklerystė, šulerystė, žulikystė. Almost all of them, except vegetarystę, have negative connotations. Among all these derivatives with the suffix, which have nuances of meaning that vary but are still distinct, quite a few are compounds whose first element names the thing targeted by the action expressed by the second element: niekdirbystė, stikladirbystė, ženkladirbystė; motinžudystė, tironžudystė. Analogy in the formation of these words is apparent in the recurring elements -dirbystė, -žudystė (cf. kryždirbystę, broliųžudystę, found in dictionaries). They are derived from compound stems denoting persons. vaistažolininkystė is different. naujagimystė, aklagimystė are derived from compounds with an adjectival first element. Isolated examples include brokdarystė, knygrišystė, kraugerystė, pilvapenystė, vaizdakūnystė, žiniarinkystė, žmogėdystė. Because of their unusual semantics, they already resemble occasional derivatives. Derivatives with an atypical second element (a noun or adjective rather than a verb) can be considered occasional: saldžiabalystė, suktagalvystė, šleivakreivystė, šventpaikystė. Even further removed from regular word formation are klaidži atikystė, regėjystė, suaugystė, vidursuaugystė, televienvaldystė. And for those who prefer traveling on foot with backpacks on their shoulders, the center offers a variety of hiking routes....had agreed to take on the difficult burden of a short premiership....only the librarians could understand my bookbinding, my younger brother Vytas....belly-eating had become a habit for me, and that is why I wallow in a muddy bog. Sometimes authorial creativity is also apparent in the way occasionalisms are presented in a text: they occur alongside a word that they imitate and are based on: ...snakes slithered up and licked his little eyes, little ears, little head... From this came the seer Prūtas’s clear-sightedness, clear-hearingness, and clear-mindedness. He’ll pull some swine’s trick (or rat’s trick). Here, from the perspective of word formation, aiškiagirdystė should be regarded as potential (it follows the pattern aiškiai girdi, aiškiai regi ‘hears clearly, sees clearly’), whereas aiškiaprotystė may also be occasional, since the second element of its derivational base is a noun (aiškus protas ‘clear mind’). In similar derivatives formed from compound nouns and recorded in dictionaries, the second element of the derivational base is verbal, while the first element is aiškus-/aiškiai-. visaregystė and visagalystė were formed by analogy with ‘omniscience.’ In general, the range of potential and occasional derivatives within a single word-formation type can be illustrated by examples of nominal abstracts with the suffix -ybė. Among the nouns with the suffix -ybė that are absent from the Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian (2000) but recorded in the VDU computerized corpus, many are potential derivatives—that is, they merely substitute for suffix -umas without any difference in meaning, although they sound somewhat more unusual and novel, for example: ribotybė, sodrybė, šlapybė, vaiskybė, vienišybė, žiaurybė: ...let us imagine that we suddenly lose all our knowledge, all our theories about the visible world: what chaos, what loneliness would open up before us....and what blackness, saltiness, wetness of that bread! – 78 | JURGITA MIKELIONIENĖ like shitty soap......at the highest point—the paradise of childhood, and at the lowest—the dark depths of hell....having read so much about the misfortune of our time—countless crimes, indescribable atrocities. The derivatives apstybė, jokybė, nenumatomybė, pažįstamybė, vidybė:, formed from rather atypical base words, have no obvious derivational counterparts. The wit in this little story is a living apstybė. The sole quality and essence of the pure word is precisely its jokybė. …the future is a realm of uncertainty and nenumatomybė. …an object that has entered the field of theoretical inquiry does not lose all its comprehensibility or all its pažįstamybės. More interesting derivatives are švankybė, žinomybė, which in sentences function as derivational antonyms of prefixed derivatives nešvankybė, nežinomybė. The derivative kosmosybė: can be regarded as an individual occasional formation with this suffix. From the very beginning of Lithuanian television, viewers had been accustomed to seeing lemonade-like švankybę coming out of that box… Thus an opposition between the žinomybės and the unknown takes shape in the mind. The Union is something unknown, some kind of “sojūzas,” just not the one the Russians used to launch into kosmosybes. Another noticeable feature of potential formations is that they very quickly expand derivational slots, each member of which can likewise be analyzed by analogy. A verb often arises to name an action performed by the person denoted by the base word: yrininkauti, jūrininkauti, muitininkauti. Often, a name for the action appears as well—pensininkauti, pensininkavimas; turistauti, turistavimas; verslininkauti, verslininkavimas. Abstract nouns sometimes occur even without a recorded verb: kilpininkavimas, kultūrininkavimas, palūkininkavimas, sąmokslininkavimas. It is clear that the appearance of these verbs in print is only a matter of time. It may be observed that potential formations often add to series of derivational synonyms. However, they are neither particularly expressive nor stylistically marked, and should be considered merely a kind of linguistic redundancy or even ballast: for example, the dictionary lists the derivative vynininkystė, while in the press, alongside it, forms with the same suffix are also recorded: vyndarystė, vyndirbystė: The year was especially successful for vynininkystei: nature was especially kind to grape growers and wine producers. Natural caprices—rain, hail, and storms—have a huge impact on vyndarystei, ravaging the vineyards… The Ahr River valley is one of the northernmost vyndirbystės regions. Derivational synonyms involving other suffixes are even more common, in this case the suffixes -ybė, - (išk)umas, -izmas: bergždystė, luošystė, modernystė, patriotiystė, savanaudystė (cf. bergždumas, luošybė, modernizmas, patriotizmas, savanaudiškumas). This type of synonymy even occurs within a single sentence: We are convinced that without a spiritual foundation blaivystė is weak; at best, supporters of passive blaivybės may emerge. POTENCINIAI IR OKAZINIAI DARINIAI 79 There are quite a few hybrids between potential and occasional formations. Analogy in hybrid formation is evident when a productive foreign affix is attached to native roots: grammars present the suffix -ism as one of the most productive borrowed affixes. Analogy is especially clear when derivatives are formed with it from proper nouns associated with political, social, or cultural life: lukašizmas, miltin'izmas, stašaitizmas, tomkizmas, urkinizmas, vydūnizmas, žiugždizmas. When the base word is a common noun denoting names of movements, systems, forms of government, or some other qualities, the derivatives may be potential (mieščionizmas, paminklizmas, raidizmas, rūšizmas, sarmatizmas, žodizmas), but their semantic and derivational unusualness often associates them with occasional word formation (izmas, skliautizmas). The derivational bases include both old and new loanwords (švogerizmas, ubagizmas; snoumenizmas), as well as an atypical base word (pliugžmizmas, saldžiahy rizmas). To yearn for a miracle is no snoumenizmas....the fear of being accused of švogerizmu also prompted the inclusion of such provisions in the Law on the Bar....the account of Teklė’s life is tinged with the saldžiahy rizmo characteristic of Lithuanian prose (“the two of them stopped and gazed for a long time at the red sunset”). Analogy also affects formations that arise by blending parts of two words. These, too, include many hybrids. To be sure, some scholars (Urbutis 1978: 301) do not regard contamination, even when deliberate, as genuine word formation; but when discussing occasional formations, we would consider it an atypical method of word formation: darboholikas, muzikoholikas, seksoholikas, šokoladoholikas; pilvokratija, pornokratija, seimokratija; maustizacija. In the democratic world, pilvokratija has become dominant. The breed of our strapping, enlightened young people—the kriukiai, recognizable by their low foreheads and identical bumps, which show that the little brains needed for the kriukiai’s insolence in the age of maustizacijos are well developed, which is more than one can say of the brains in the right and left hemispheres smegenis; consequently, their intellect has slid down into the lower part of the body... Wordplay, a kind of paronomasia, also arises through analogy; it relies not only on word formation but also on the sound similarity of words with different meanings. Such formations usually differ by just one sound, e.g., pliuralizmas – pliurpalizmas. ...history recalls and helps us recognize simple things. And only then—pliuralizmas, pliurpalizmas and other amusing “little things.” An agreement with industrialists requires clarifying what was meant, lobizmas ar lubizmas, when talking about business interests....privatizacija in the hands of shrewd fellows turned into “prichvatizacija.” The history of Europe in the twentieth century is the history of all kinds of Bolshevisms, fascisms, Nazisms, “our-isms,” gadinimai, and threats to democracy. Thus, the Lithuanian lexicon is continually enriched with examples of new vocabulary, among which are many potential formations. Productive and currently active derivational formatives also lead to the emergence of occasional vocabulary. The unusualness of Lithuanian occasionalisms is expressed both in atypical meaning and in word formation that does not conform to the rules, although they do not always have the characteristic of 80 | JURGITA MIKELIONIENĖ everlasting novelty and non-everydayness. Among occasional formations based on analogy, several structural types can be distinguished: 1) occasional formations created by analogy with a word existing in the language do not violate word-formation rules, e.g.: aiškiaregystė – aiškiagirdystė, uogautojas – vabalautojas, statyba – emyba; 2) occasional formations created on the basis of existing derivational models, with some violations of the derivational rules characteristic of them: naivizmas, šuneliukizmas, pažadukizmas; 3) occasional formations made not only by analogy with a derivational model but also drawing on the sound similarity of the imitated word, e.g., nacizmas – našizmas; 4) occasional formations created by contamination: kauko­dromas, seksodromas (cf. kosmodromas); seksozauras, sportozauras (cf. dinozauras). The influence of analogy is evident in the formation of both potential and occasional words. It is precisely this influence that accounts for the emergence of many new lexical items in both usual and non-usual usage. LITERATŪRA FERM, L. 1994: Особенности развития русской лексики в новейший период (на материале газет), Uppsala. (Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis. Studia slavica Upsaliensia, 33.) GAIVENIS, K., KEINYS, S. 1990: Kalbotyros terminų žodynas, Kaunas: Šviesa. LYKOV, A. G. 1976: Современная русская лексикология (русское окказиональное слово), Москва: Высшая школа. MOTSCH, W. 1999: Deutsche Wortbildung in Grundzügen, Berlin–New York: de Gruyter. (Schriften des Instituts für deutsche Sprache, 8.) URBUTIS, V. 1978: Žodžių darybos teorija, Vilnius: Mokslas. ZEMSKAJA, E. A. 1992: Словообразование как деятельность, Москва: Наука. Jurgita Mikelionienė Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas S. Daukanto g. 28, 3000 Kaunas, Lietuva [email protected] Gauta 2002 04 15