Naujas žvilgsnis į lietuvių kalbos daiktavardžių giminės kategoriją

ACTA LINGUISTICA LITHUANICA XLVI (2002), 39-47 The article deals with the interrelationship between morphology and semantics as factors defining the grammatical gender of Lithuanian nouns and its syntactic manifestations. Gender, as a grammatical category, is defined in terms of inflectional paradigms and agreement features. Most Lithuanian nouns are not inflected for gender but exist in one gender form. Human nouns denoting occupations as well as agent nouns are usually inflected for gender. The gender of indeclinable nouns (usually of Joreign origin) is based either on their natural gender or on convention. Lithuanian also has nouns whose morphological and semantic gender do not coincide. In the case of human (or animate) nouns, agreement is usually determined semantically. Certain agent nouns and nouns denoting occupations allow both semantic and formal agreement. 1. The genus category of Lithuanian nouns is expressed by their conjugation forms and their relation to conjugative words (see Laigonaitė 1961: 122, 1965: 164; Stundžia 1979: 82, 1980: 81; Paulauskienė 1983: 174). This allows this category to be examined in terms of morphology and syntax, which are closely interrelated (see Stundžia 1979: 82-83). 2. The category of noun genus examined from a morphological point of view is hereinafter referred to simply as morphological genus (cf. the terms morphologiné masculine vs. feminine genus, which are identified with the masculine vs. feminine conjugation type in T. Bulyginos study (1970: 28). The morphological genus includes only conjugated nouns, since non-conjugated nouns do not have the morphological characteristics of the genus category (see Balkevičius 1976: 24). 2.1. The conjugation forms of nouns are grouped into regularly repeating sets – conjugation paradigms. The morphological family of nouns consists of two opposing classes of conjugation paradigms. They can be called traditional terms of the masculine and feminine gender. The paradigm of conjugation is a necessary and completely sufficient basis for determining the morphological genus of a noun. In the present common Lithuanian language, the morphological masculine genders are nouns that are conjugated according to paradigms 1—5 and 10-11 (paradigms are numbered as in the grammar of the present Lithuanian language: Laigonaitė 1994: 69-79) (langas, kelias, brolis, sūnus, sodžius, dantis, vanduo, etc.). Some of the statements presented in this article were discussed at a theoretical seminar organized by the Grammar Department of the Lithuanian Language Institute on March 12, 2002. I would like to thank Dr. Daiva Murmulaityte and Dr. Rita Miliūnaite for their help in preparing this publication. 40 | ARTŪRAS JUDŽENTIS (hand, cherry, bee, heart, sister, daughter, etc.) are morphological female genders. The noun žmogus, whose singular varies according to paradigm 4 and plural according to paradigm 8, is heterogeneous in contemporary Lithuanian: it has masculine singular forms and feminine plural forms’. The plural nouns of the I verb (durys, sultys, etc.) are feminine and belong to paradigm 9, while the consonant verbs pluralia tantum can be both feminine (livers, brains, sermenys) and masculine (blades, weapons, seeds); they belong to paradigm 11. 2.2. In the works of Lithuanian grammar, the formal criterion for the genus of nouns denoting objects and objectively perceived actions or characteristics is usually considered to be the root of the noun and the endings of some verbs (singular noun and genitive), thus — the syllables (Ambrazas, ed. 1997: 98; Laigonaitė 1961: 126, 1965: 167, 1976: 34, 1994: 63; Valeckienė 1967: 109-111, 1998: 234, 1999: 216; similarly also Otrębski 1956: 4). Plg. : The masculine genus are: (a) nouns ending in -(i)as, -is or -ys in the singular noun and in -(i)o in the genitive; (b) nouns having the singular ending -(i)us and the adjective ending -(iJaus); (c) nouns having the singular ending -uo and the adjective ending -en, -n and the ending -s; d) several nouns with the singular noun ending -is, the genitive ending -ies, the noun ending -iui <... >. Female genus are: a) most nouns with the singular ending -(i)a and the plural ending -(i)os; b) most nouns with the singular noun ending -ė and the genitive ending -ė -es; (c) nouns ending in -is in the singular noun, -ies in the genitive and -iai in the instrumental noun; d) several nouns with the singular noun ending -uo, and the stem of other vowels -er. (Edinburgh 1994: 63–64). From the presented classification it is clear that the nouns of the consonants i and é are heterogeneous in terms of gender: some of them are feminine, some are masculine. The endings of other nouns, especially those of the singular noun, are used to determine the genus of these nouns (see Valeckienė 1999: 217). Nevertheless, there is a clear connection between the genus of the present Lithuanian nouns and their conjugation paradigms. In Lithuanian Old Writings, the plural forms of this noun are often combined with feminine gender words (cf. Palionis 1967: 130). The grammatical structure of 41 of the descriptions seems to be insufficiently emphasized (the exception is T. Bulyginos 1970: 27 study). 2.3 In determining the gender of nouns denoting persons and other living beings, semantics is more important than morphology, so in Lithuanian the masculine genders are also considered to be “single nouns having the singular noun ending -a, and the genitive ending -os and denoting persons of the masculine gender: barzdyla, vaidila, viršila” and “rare nouns having the singular noun ending -ė, the genitive ending -ės and denoting persons of the masculine gender, e.g.: dailidė, dėdė, tėtė” (Laigonaitė 1994: 64; similarly —Laigonaitė 1961: 127, 1965: 168, 1976: 34-35, 1985: 82-83; Ambrazas, ed. 1997: 99). The semantics and morphological genus of these nouns do not coincide: their conjugation paradigm is typical of feminine nouns, but they are used to name persons of masculine sex." In many languages there is no direct causal relationship between the biological gender category and the grammatical gender category (see English grammatical category of gender, grammatical gender and notional category of gender, notional gender; German Sexus, natürliches Geschlecht and Genus,grammatisches Geschlecht). For other Lithuanian nouns whose semantic and morphological family do not coincide, see below. 2.4 Most of the names of persons in Lithuanian according to profession, type of activity, etc. have both masculine and feminine forms, e.g. mokytojas — mokytoja, vairuotojas — vairuotoja, tvarkytojas — tvarkytoja, sargas — sargyba. Their masculine forms denote male persons, and their feminine forms denote female persons. The nature of the genus category of these nouns is interpreted differently in Lithuanian grammar studies. A. Laigonaitė considers these nouns forming pairs to be different lexicons and examines them together with such words of different roots that are opposed in relation to the genus, such as tėvas —motina, and with lexicons of the same root of the masculine and feminine genus, such as uošvis —uošvienė (1961: 123, 1985: 81, 1994: 62-63; similarly Ambrazas, ed. 1997: 97). In A. Paulauskienė’s Morphology of the Lithuanian Language (1994) for Lithuanian students, the forms forming pairs are also considered as separate words and the lexical nature of the noun genus category is highlighted: “Pairs of personal names show that the difference in genus is by nature lexical, but formalized” (Paulauskienė 1994: 160). A. Valeckienė’s opinion is similar: such nouns, according to their usage and construction, “are not the gender-alternative forms of one noun, but two separate masculine and feminine nouns” (Valeckienė 1998: 236). The author emphasizes that such nouns “constitute not a grammatical (genus), but an adjective ‘person category’” (ibid.: 239). In the Lithuanian language encyclopedia (1999) the description of such nouns is ambiguous: “In Lithuanian there are persons 2 J. Otrebskis considered such nouns to have the feminine gender form, but the masculine ‘natural’ gender (1956: 5). 3 The semantic genus hereinafter refers to the gender of persons or animals named by nouns. 42 | ARTŪRAS JUDŽENTIS and nouns denoting living beings <...>, whose different [genus] forms form pairs of the same lexical stem” (Valeckienė 1999: 217). A slightly different opinion on such forms of masculine and feminine gender is set out in A. Paulauskienė’s Lithuanian language morphology outline (1983). This study considers the possibility of treating them as two different forms of the same word, “but then the definition of genus should be changed — it should be said that nouns denoting inanimate objects are of one genus, and nouns denoting living (primarily personal) objects have the forms of both genus” (Paulauskienė 1983: 177). The author emphasizes the lawful, consistent and regular relationship of the names of different relatives according to their activities or positions. In her monograph Grammatinės lietuvių kalbos sąvokų kategorijos (1989), A. Paulauskienė describes such correlating feminine and masculine nouns as “reminiscent of the forms of the same word” (1989: 173-174). In solving the problem of the genus of the nouns under consideration, the opinion of V. Urbutis, already stated in the Lithuanian language grammar in 1965, seems particularly significant. In the section on the construction of nouns, they are discussed as names according to gender difference: "The forms of both genders here form one word, one noun having two gender forms (substantivum mobile), e.g.: gydytojas, -a, isklypélis, -ė, kirpėjas, -a <...>. There is no mention here of the formation of such feminine forms of nouns as not belonging to word formation” (1965: 416-417). These ideas are repeated literally in the one-volume academic grammar (Urbutis 1994: 142). Others are the names of some animals (deer — deer, bear — bear, etc.). Their masculine gender forms are considered both general names of the species and individual names of males, i.e. independent names according to the gender difference — derivatives of the ending -ė (Urbutis 1965: 418, 1994: 143). Genus forms of Lithuanian nouns that designate persons according to gender difference, due to their regularity and meaning, can be regarded as variable, and the corresponding nouns — as variable genus. The masculine and feminine genders of these nouns are expressed by different conjugation paradigms. 3. When analyzing the category of nouns in terms of syntax, attention is drawn to the form of their conjugations. Adjectives of the masculine gender, words and pronouns used as adjectives, are combined with some nouns, with others — feminine gender. In some works examining the grammatical structure of the contemporary Lithuanian language, conjugation is considered the main, decisive indicator of the grammatical genus of nouns (Bulygina 1970: 28-29; Valeckienė 1998: 232-233, 1999: 217). The nouns vaidila, tėtė, dėdė and so on are based on the form of the conjugative words, not on the gender of the referents. A. Valeckienė considers them to be masculine rather than feminine nouns: “some masculine nouns have a feminine root; then their kinship is described only syntactically (e.g.: good uncle, good fairy)“ (1999: 217). 3.1. The combination of adverbs with nouns is of two kinds. In some cases, it is combined according to the form of the main word. It is a formal, or simply syntactic, agreement. Syntactically matching are all nouns denoting inanimate objects and phenomena or animals not distinguished by sex. With nouns denoting persons or living beings, dependent words are usually combined according to the gender of the noun's referents. This is the so-called semantic agreement | 43 mas. The genus of nouns of semantic conjugation always corresponds to the genus determined in Lithuanian linguistics in a more usual way — directly based on the semantics of nouns (see Ambrazas, ed. 1997: 97-98; Laigonaitė 1961: 122-125, 1965: 165-167, 1976: 33, 1994: 62-63; Paulauskienė 1983: 176-180, 1989: 174-175, 1994: 158-161; Valeckienė 1998: 234-236, 1999: 217). The difference is that when combining words, the biological gender of the noun referent is not used directly, but through syntactic relationships, which are based on semantic relationships between things marked with words that convey the reality we perceive and interpret. 3.2 There are nouns in contemporary Lithuanian language whose conjugation nature cannot be unequivocally determined. These are nouns that have the forms of one of some morphological genus, but according to negative characteristics of manner or appearance denote persons of both sexes. The gender of the dependent words in combinations with such nouns is chosen according to semantics and in some cases is masculine and in others — feminine. Corbett calls such nouns hybrid nouns (see Corbett 1991: 66t.). He points out that in various languages of the world hybrid nouns are often used figuratively or simply stylistically marked words (ibid.: 257-258). In Lithuanian, such are the nouns of the masculine morphological genus strakalas, makalas, etc. and the feminine morphological genus —akiplėša, džiūsna, mémé, etc.: toks strakalas and tokia strakalas, didelis akiplėša and didelė akiplėša, visiškas mėmė and visiška mėmė. In Lithuanian linguistics, the term bendroji giminė is used to name the genus of these nouns (see Jablonskis 1922/1957: 196; Balčikonis 1982: 17; Laigonaitė 1961: 10, 1965: 169, 1994: 64; Valeckienė 1998: 240); In academic Russian grammar it corresponds to the term obwuit pod (Laigonaitė 1985: 84), and in English — common gender (Ambrazas, ed. 1997: 101)”. Some authors translate the Latin term substantiva communia (Stundžia 1980: 85). The term "common family" has been criticized several times, and it has been proposed to be abandoned. It was based on the fact that the relevant nouns in each specific case were either of masculine or feminine gender (Girdenis, Žulys 1973: 208); the situation, context and conjugated words showing their kinship (Paulauskienė 1983: 181-182, 1994: 166); when the context is unclear, substantiva communia are perceived by Lithuanian language users as masculine nouns (Stundžia 1980: 85). In the opinion of J. Otrębski, substantiva communia has one gender form, usually feminine, but two “natural” genders — masculine and feminine: “w litewskim istnieją rzeczowniki, o dwu rodzajach naturalnych” (1956: 5). A. Valeckienė explains such nouns as a phenomenon of form neutralization in Functional Grammar of Lithuanian Language (1998: 240). 3.3 The type of combination of some hybrid nouns cannot be unequivocally determined even in those specific cases where the gender of the persons named by them is known. The adverbs combined with such nouns may be of one genus, and the predicates of another. Substitutive pronouns of such nouns can also be of different genders than the conjugated ones. 4 The use of this term in Lithuanian linguistics from D. Klein’s grammar to the present day has been reviewed by B. Stundžytė (1980: 79-80). 44 | ARTŪRAS JUDŽENTIS certificates. This type of hybrid noun is also found in contemporary Lithuanian language — such are some names of persons according to the nature of their activity or profession. For example, the noun model, used in the meaning of “a person showing clothes created by modelers” and denoting a female person, can have both masculine and feminine conjugations, cf. : The highest paid model Naomi Campbel looked quite tired (VDU Lithuanian language textbook). In this case, the adverb is combined with the noun syntactically, according to form, and the predicate is combined semantically, according to the gender of the referent. Such cases of coordination in the present Lithuanian language have not yet been sufficiently studied. 3.4 According to the combination of dependent words, all nouns of the modern Lithuanian language, both conjugated and non-conjugated, are divided into two groups. For the latter, the expression of syntactic relationships is the only indicator of family. The family of non-conjugated nouns denoting persons is determined on the basis of semantics. For example, pronouns, adjectives and words used as adjectives combined with the noun ladi acquire feminine forms (dear lady), while words combined with the nouns atašė, konferencijjė may be masculine in some cases and feminine in others (new war attaché, elegant cultural attaché, etc.). Other non-consonant nouns may be assigned a genus attribute based on their meaning or phonetic expression. For example, taxi speakers may associate the word car with the masculine gender (white taxi) or the word machine with the feminine gender (white taxi). Otherwise, the word fojė can be considered a feminine noun because of its ending similarity to the feminine conjugated noun ending -ė (erdvi fojė). In the common Lithuanian language, the genus of non-conjugated nouns denoting objects or abstract concepts is chosen according to the norm established by linguists, i.e. on a conventional basis: nouns ending in -o, -u, -i are considered to be of the masculine genus, e.g., naujas manto, įdomus interviu, geltonas taksi, and nouns ending in -ė are considered to be of the feminine genus, e.g., nauja ateljė, ankšta kupė (see Laigonaitė 1961: 129-130, 1965: 169, 1985: 84, 1994: 64; Ambrazas, ed. 1997: 100-101; Valeckienė 1998: 234; otherwise see Balkevičius 1976: 24—26). A. Paulauskienė does not examine the families of non-conjugated nouns separately, she even doubts whether there are non-conjugated nouns in Lithuanian at all: "if a noun has no conjugated endings, it does not mean that it is not conjugated at all. The endings of the conjugated words show the differences in its vowels” (1989: 171); “they have their own unchanging form <...>, but that does not mean that they are unconjugated” (2001: 6). In the case of conjugation, such words receive endings of one or another genus according to the similarity of their endings to the endings of the conjugated nouns or according to the meaning (see also). In modern common language, there is a tendency to uniformize the use of non-syllable nouns of foreign origin: the masculine gender is assigned not only to nouns with the word endings -o, -u, -i, but also to -ė and -a, e.g. : Accent — wide collar; START A LOOK AT THE CATEGORY OF RELATIVE NOUNS | 45 produce various dragee; The collection of jewellery designed to create the image of a real lady is ir complemented by iš feminine boa fur, decorated with crystals (Vaskelaitė 2001: 48-50). 4. In terms of gender, in Lithuanian the masculine and feminine gender ir words of different roots are opposed: vyras — moteris, oxen — karvė, dogs — kalė, etc. A. Laigonaitė considers such nouns as semantic equivalents of different grammatical genus (1961: 123 and 125). They form meaningful pairs, such nouns "sex difference is expressed only morphologically, but lexical" <...> ne ir (1976: 33, 1994: 62—63; similar ir Ambrazas, ed. 1997: 97). A. Paulauskienė writes about the correlation of such words with respect to the family (1989: 175, 1994: 161). The pairs of nouns are called pairs of person and animal names of different lexical stems, opposed with respect to the genus, by A. Valeckienė (1998: 235). 5. Nouns of the same root, forming pairs opposed in terms of gender, e.g.: cat cat, sheep sheep; father-in-law mother-in-law, Climax — — — — Klimienė; deer — deer, wolf — wolf, etc. ir related to word formation, o ne exchange relationships. The members of the lexical and verb category are the following pairs of nouns, denoting persons and animals by gender: ir A. Valeckienė (plg. 1998: 234—236). A. Paulauskienė also considers such pairs as correlating with respect to the genus as forms or words connected by conjugation or ending. (1983: 179-180, 1989: 173 ir 175, 1994: 158-159 ir 161). A. These words are called the masculine feminine equivalents of ir the Laigonaitės (1961: 125), jų „different genus is indicated only by — the affix o ending, sometimes by the prefix and ending“ (1976: 33, 1994: 63; cf. also Ambrazas, ed. 1997: 97). 6. In brief, the category of Lithuanian nouns can be described as follows: Genus is a grammatical category of nouns, expressed by different conjugation paradigms in relation to ir conjugative su words. Its essence is well revealed by the interactiir on of morphological and syntactic aspects. Only the conjugated Lithuanian nouns have a morphologically defined genus. Most of jų them have a male or o female form of the same genus. — — Many Lithuanian names of persons are changed by relatives according to profession, type of activity, etc., e.g.: mokytojas ir mokytoja vairuotojas vairuotoja, — tvarkytojas —tvarytoja, — sargas —sarge. The semantic morphological family of most Lithuanian nouns coincides. ir Some of these species are ir considered to be synonyms of the same species, other species are synonyms of different species. — Only a small number of person nouns have a different semantic and morphological ir family. There are three groups of these nouns: Nouns of feminine a) morphological gender denoting persons of male sex (vaidila, uncle ir etc.) combined according to semantics; Similarly to non-conjugated nouns, symbolic names of various companies, teams, events are used in modern language. Recent observations of the usage of such names show that adjectively used words are combined su with them according to the gender of the persons named (plg. : "Modern Talking" this time were more original ir What happened to them "Spice girls"), by the morphological genus of known or associativejų ly implicitly related words (It seems no one was late į already buzzing ‘Neoplan’ [bus]; international jury [commission]), endings of conjugated nouns according į to ending similarity (Cosa nostra will probably never be destroyed) (Vaskelaitė 2001: 46—48). 4 46 | ARTISTRY'S MOVEMENT b) nouns of the masculine (strakalas, etc.) or feminine (akiplėša, mėmė, etc.) morphological genus, naming persons of both sexes according to negative characteristics, are also combined according to semantics; c) nouns of masculine (model, etc.) and possibly feminine morphological gender, which individually refer to persons of both sexes according to the nature of activity or profession, are combined both in terms of form and semantics in cases where the gender and morphological gender of the reference person differ. 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