Etymologische Bemerkungen zu lit. „kãmanos“, „kamíenas“, „kumẽlė“

ACTA LINGUISTICA LITHUANICA XLIX (2003), 5-31 Etymological remarks on lit. kamanos, kamienas, kumele BERND GLIWA Sargeliai New material is provided for an etymology of Lith. kamanos ‘bridle’, kamienas ‘stem, butt-end (of a tree, timber)’, kumėlė ‘mare’, kamantinis ‘riding horse’; hop’ etc. Special attention is given to the practical, ethnological side of the problem, neglected by earlier etymologists. The semantic derivation of these words in relation to distinct IE roots *(s)kem-- ‘press, hinder, squeeze’, *(s)kem- ‘bend, curve, bow’, is discussed. The correspondence of Balt. k-, Germ. hand SI. ch-, probably from IE *(s)kis outlined. Kamanos is seen as a deverbal derivation from Balt. *kam- ‘domesticate’ < IE *(s)kom-- ‘press, hinder’ with an initial meaning *‘domestication; tool used for domestication’. It is argued that Lith. Zabtas (pronounced ) is the Greek word for'mouth'. zaboti 'put a bit between the horse’s teeth, curb, check' is related to zabtas'- mouth...'. rather than to zäbas 'twig...'. Based on the same verb Balt. *kam-‘domesticate’, kumélé ‘mare’ could have originally meant *‘domesticated horse’. Kamienas ‘stem, butt-end’ could refer to the concave curve the stem’s surface shows in axial direction near the root < IE *(s)kem-- ‘bend, curve, bow’. 1. Būga compares lit. kamanas ‘Zaumzeug’ mit lett. kamanas ‘Schlitten’ und begründet dies: “In ancient times, kamana was called in Icelandic the trunk of a kastini tree together with the roots […] Du stumenu ar šaknim, as if two horns (hence: rages or rogės ‘Schlitten')” (Būga 1959: 295). The technical side of the matter is simply brilliant, as far as the sledge is concerned, the trunk gives a straight skid and the root gives a durable curvature. Suitable trees are easy to find, and you do not have to, like the fox in the fairy tale, summon a tree to take the appropriate shape: “Pakump kumpk, viso misko medelis, pakumpk kumpk... Ir pakumpes. The fox and the rattlesnakes." (Slančiauskas 1974: 65). This is only as an indication that kumpti ‘becoming crooked’ is suitable to describe the shape of the sled, as is lerike ‘sleigh sled’ (more examples: Morkūnas 1977: 101). Bügas further explanations are less convincing: „That the ancient horseshoes had nothing to do with shiksna and iron, shows the saying ‘kamanoms reykia Zaboty', i.e. to put Zabq in the horse's mouth: Zaba 'Zagar'...' (Būga 1959: 295). It is certainly always possible and usual that on the basis of a noun derivatives or verbs are formed that describe actions to be performed with the concrete object. In individual cases, however, this is always to be checked, especially in the case of semantic difficulties and possibly. To question homophony. Bed. Zabas 6 | BERND GLIWA “Silence; stem; Barley; shrub, shrub; *Gebiss'; übertr. : what is dry @ (KZ, 151.) is the basis for e.g. Zabaras’ thin twig, sticks; stem; shrub; Barley; Splitt (KZ... 11f.), as well as for Zabyti ‘to strike, strike’ (LKZ,, 18), Zabuoti ‘to cover with branches; beating with tools; To chop branches’. It is questionable, however, whether Zabas’ branch; stem; Gerte...” also for Zaböti ‘push the bit into the horse’s mouth; tame, dominate, control; putting a rope or straw in the mouth of a tame ox; ride the bike against what; stretch the net; klaffen’ (LKŽ, 19f.) and žabinti ‘embracing, securing- ’, ‘Zabuoti ‘fence horse’, Zabangai ‘trap; bite on the bridle; Intrigen’ (LKZ 9) forms the basis. Words in which the dentition is certainly indicated (possibly alongside other meanings) are now, however, at best derivatives of Zaböti and not of Zäbas: Zabökliai, Zaböklai, Zaboklis, Zabökles and others (LKZ,, 19), as well as Zabotine ‘a kind of rein’ KZ, 23). If it were a specific type of branch, for example for a specific purpose, one should expect a naming by a direct formation starting from Zabas. Apart from that lies with Zaslai ‘bite; Schnauze’ (LKZ, 208) a widely used term for the designation of the dentition. This is compared with Zända’s ‘chin, jaw, cheek’ (Fraenkel 1965: 1289, cf. Pokorny 1994: 381f.). Because you also read. Zabta ‘snout, mouth, edge thereof; "Zäbtai 'ds. ; tool with which something is pressed together; Part of the bridle to which the reins are attached’, ‘Zabta’s muzzle, mouth; cheek, face; Nahrung’, Zabüciai ‘gasket for the piglet to be weaned from breastmilk’ Zabükas ‘bite, bridle’, Zabitkliai ‘bite’, Zabüklai ‘ds. ; Trap’, Zabulai ‘mouth’, *2abtas “devouring; ‘intrusive person’, *žabtas ‘greedy, intrusively speaking’, žabūs ‘questioning’, Zabtus ‘sharp-tongue; much speaking; schneidig’ (LKZ, 23ff.), Zaple gums’, Zaplos ‘bite at the bridle’, Zapseti ‘greedy picking, sling, overt. : eat’ (hardly onomatopoeic) (LKZ, 162) and with nasal: Zamba ‘snout’, Zambai ‘tonsils, adenitis colli’ (LKZ, 151), it is very obvious to assume here a semantically analogous formation, as it is for žąslai ‘bite; Schnauze’ as secured. So it would not be any branches as supposed teeth, but that the teeth are put into the mouth and connected to the side of the mouth with the rest of the bridle and rein. Either a verb is balt. *Zab-‘to flap, to tear open (e.g. from the mouth)’ to be assumed, on the basis of which lit. Zabta’s **Klaffendes, Aufgerissenes’ would be a deverbal *-to formation close to the passive participle. To this I would also like to add Zabdngai, contrary to Fraenkel (1965: 1282f.), who puts this to Zäbas’, and that in an analogous meaning of *open-up’, because no matter whether it is a sling, a net or a folding-up -The meaning of *bite at the bridle? is reconstructed and derives from the linguistic, i.e. metalinguistic, writings of Büga and Salys and thus does not represent a linguistic fact in the actual sense. See also Pokorny (1994: 369, 382), whose question “whether gembh-‘- bite’ belongs as a nasalized form to [gep(h)-, gebh-‘jaw, mouth; eat, devour’]- ?” (1994: 382) here receives an affirmative indication. How to construct a trap from branches is beyond my practical understanding, unless one has in mind a pit covered with branches, which would be named after the pit or the fall into it (see also Kluge 1999: 247) rather than after the branches. LIT. kämanos, kamienas, kumele | 7 pende Trap, this is initially open. Or one considers *žabri ‘to press firmly’ and reconstructs *Zab-‘to press strongly, to bite’ > Zabtas * Zubitzendes, Drückendes’ > ‘snout’, whereby a similar development could also lead to ‘trap’. Especially for Zabta’s “Schnauze...”, the *-to formation speaks rather against such a development. At this point I would like to mention two Prussian words, sbeclis —veder (E 539) and slango —gebys (E 452), for which a new etymology has recently been proposed, namely as a borrowing from German (Smoczynski 2000: 198201). Reason for the criticism of the so far established comparison with lit. Zaboklai ‘bite’ (cf. MaZiulis 1997: 78) are on the one hand semantic considerations, since if one accepts the above-criticized course of Zäbas ‘branch, stick’ > Zaböklai ‘bite’, a development from here to sbeclis ‘feather in the castle’ remains difficult to explain. Secondly, the initial phrase group sb (with German sound value), phonologically corresponding to zb-, is explained as having no parallels in Baltic and therefore interpreted as spi (see Smoczynski 2000: 198). I would like to contradict this argument, because it is not justified to first attribute sbeclis as a single case for the occurrence of sban, if one shortly afterwards also presents slango as a spelling error from *sbango (Smoczynski 2000: 201). Thus, there are two cases for sbthat support each other. The fact that there are no parallels in other Baltic languages can, in my opinion, be explained by a Prussian peculiarity, the absence of the (unemphasized) vowel of the first syllable, as for example in the place name Parengel (1298) > later Prengel (Smoczynski 2000: 24, 43). As for the semantic development, it follows from the above considerations that morphologically pr. slango lit ‘bite’. Zabangai ‘trap’ corresponds and pr. sbeclis ‘feather in the castle’: lit. *Zabeklis (Mažiulis 1997: 78), with an almost diametrical distribution of meaning. Lets you lit. Zabas puts ‘branch, stick’ aside and compares it semantically with lit. spésti ‘to stretch; Falle stellen’, spąstai, spaslai ‘Falle’, speridelé ‘Feder am Schloss’ < ig. *(s)pen-d- -‘to tension, to pull, to spin’ (Fraenkel 1965: 862, 865), so one sees that such a development is quite common, whereby the above *Zab-‘to flap, to tear open (e.g. from the mouth)’ might be better than ‘(to) tension’. Thus, the traditional comparison with the lit. Maintaining correspondences, but strictly separated from Zaba’s ‘branch, stick’. Lit. ‘Zabuoti ‘to set up the horse’ and Zaböti ‘to put the bit into the horse’s mouth; tame, dominate, control; putting a rope or straw in the mouth of a tame ox; ride the bike against what; stretch the net; belong to the family of Zabüs ‘to ask’, 'Zabtas ‘mouth..- .’, while *žabiūoti ‘to cover with branches; beating with tools; Branches actually chop a formation to Zaba’s branch; stem; Gerte' ist. I would also like to point out that the transferred meaning Zaböti ‘to tame, control’, Zaboklai ‘2. Verbot, Hemmnis’ does not necessarily have to go back to the ‘to put a bit on the horse’, but also from Zäbyti ‘to strike, to punch’, *žabūoti ‘to strike with gears’, thus from the use of the gears as a means of holding, with which animals were driven and possibly killed. be beaten, can come here. If there is such a derivation, proceeding from Zabas’ branch; stem; Gerte...” should be given, then this must be justified. 8 | BERND GLIWA So if one pursues the idea that the sledgehammers were made from a tree dug up with one of the main roots, one sees that the curvature in the sledgehammer is exactly at the point where the root has bent away from the trunk. Therefore, it is quite interesting to check whether lit. kamienas ‘thick end of the trunk’ does not refer to exactly this place on the trunk, because beginning roots lead to a thickening of the trunk, which removes it from the otherwise approximately conical shape of the trunk and provides for a hollow (concave) curvature of the trunk surface in the direction of growth. Concretely, it could therefore be a formation on the basis of a verb balt. *comb-‘- bend’ action? Simas Karaliünas has shown the closeness of the meanings ‘bend, turn’ and ‘thick stump, trunk’ with these pairs: Zuolis ‘thick tree, trunk, railway threshold’: Zvilti ‘bend, bend’, küke ‘wooden stick, log, piece of the trunk...' : kükti ‘bending, bending back’, giioga, guögas ‘knife, knife with a thick end’: gügti ‘to lean’, lat. gudzėt ‘to sit in a bent position’ (Karaliünas 1987: 12-13). The entries in the manuscript Lexicon Lithuanicum from the 17th century also show that lit. kamienas did not actually mean the whole trunk, but only its thick end. Jh. : kamiena —from the tree and liemü —trunk of a tree (Drotvinas 1987: 357), even if the editor notes in the index: „kamiena, medžio liemuo: kamiena“ (Drotvinas 1987: 509). Da dieser auch schreibt „When doubts are raised about the reliability of the reconstruction, a question mark is written, and the meaning of such words is interpreted according to the meaning of German words“ (Drotvinas 1987: 481), man kann ersehen, dass hier an der Bedeutung nicht gezweifelt wurde, vorläufig. Further kamėna ‘end of the trunk; thick end of a felled tree’ (Nesselmann, LKZ, 175), kamblys ‘trunk, stem; thick end of the trunk’ (LKZ,, 174). A reviewer of an earlier version of this essay had objected that lett. kamanas ‘sleigh’ initially with lett. kamans ‘thick end of a beam’, as well as with ¢ech. kmen, pol. kien, etc. to be compared. To this traditional view Fraenkel also adds russ. kom ‘Klumpen’ bei (1962: 212). This is not acceptable, because firstly the sledges are crooked and not thickened and secondly the thick end of a beam is identical with the thick end of the felled log, because beams from the sawmill have not been around for a long time, even if they had no thick end. While for example kampa ‘growth on the wood, grain...’ (LKZ,: 179) can still be considered as tuberous, such an interpretation is somewhat far-fetched in the case of a trunk or stem. Since these are not lumpy and have not been packed together, one would have to assume a transfer in the meaning, perhaps starting with Klotz or Stumpf, but which are not so much lumpy either. My counter-- proposal: the meaning starts with balt. *kam-‘curve’ and refers to the place of a trunk or stem where it passes into the root or also where branches branch off. Generalized, pars pro toto, the whole trunk or stem can be named. Stump and stump remain. A stump is obtained by cutting the trunk at exactly the same point as the concave curvature. Thus have LIT. kamanos, kamienas, kumele | 9 so both, trunk and stump, part of the curvature and the right to carry this name. The fact that later a lexicalization and a limitation to stem or stump occurs is to be expected and does not contradict this. As far as the log is concerned, some practical remarks may be appropriate here: a tree is cut down for building timber or firewood. Crooked and astride sections, branches are unsuitable as timber. Branches are now also difficult to chop and thus, like root bales, unsuitable as firewood (except in an open campfire or for pitch production). Now, however, such branchy sections, precisely because they cannot be split and the wood here is particularly dense and durable, are exceptionally suitable as a log for chopping, butchering, etc. Thus, the curvature of branching branches or roots can also be the basis and the og. Objection as such is null and void, or even in full accordance with what is presented herein, insofar as all terms to a basis ig. *kom-‘curve’ can be set. Aside from that, the comparison of kamienas with čech. kmen ‘Halm, Stamm’, poln. kien ‘Klotz, Stumpf, Stange’ umstritten. ESSJ reconstructed sl. *came from where Cech. kmen ‘Stiel, Geschlecht, Sippe’, < ig. *kn-men with suffix -men-(ESSJ, 196) and related with formans -n-*kans/- ksns (ESSJ xm 196, 205), whereas poln. where ‘Klutz, Stumpf, Stange’ (ESSJ,, 205), which in turn is compared with lit. kūnas ‘body’ both semantically ‘body’ —‘Klutz’ and formally *kü ‘swell, swell up’ (ESSJ, = 205), to which possibly aruss. kunamuca, Kbinamuca ‘to gather in one place’, kunaxyca ‘to swarm (especially of bees)’ (ESSJ, 264). According to ESSJ lit. kamienas probably belongs more to sl. *coms (ESS) 196) > poln. dial. come ‘Klumpen, Knäuel’ and others (ESSJ, 179f.). Fraenkel denies the connection of künas with poln. kien because of the lit. @ and replaces kien with kämanos, which in turn with kamuolys, kamuoti etc. and sl. *kamy (Gen. *komene, n-stamm) russ. come ‘Klumpen’ (1962: 214). The semantic development presented is not convincing in either case. The idea that kamienas, kamiena ‘trunk, thick end of the trunk’ was originally adjective, with the ending -iena-< *-eina-(Skardžius 1996: 287f.) and thus sensibly represent a nomina attributiva (Ambrazas 2000: 152), does not contradict the presented view, but is semantically the connection to balt. *kam-‘crimp’, instead of preferring an *kam-‘pack together’. Kamienas is therefore the place on the trunk that has a curvature. Kamanos, kamana, kämana refers to ‘leather bridle with teeth’ (LKZ, 167-169), whereas the separate mention: [arklys] nuog kamanų ir Zgsliy tuoj nurimsta (LKZ, 169), relativizes this statement, because if kämanos unequivocally refers to the would include teeth, such a statement would be unnecessary’. The usual indication in songs: iš Silky kasų kamaneles (e.g. ¢ LKZ, 169) is probably to be understood as translated i The terms in the familial context are secondary transfers of vegetative (pre)images, such as e.g. also nhd. trunk, family tree, have its roots somewhere, shoot, gender. 5 You do not say *I drive with the car and four wheels, because the car necessarily includes the wheels. 10 | BERND GLIWA and refers to zirgas ‘horse, riding horse’, if it stands symbolically for the young man (e.g. Sruoga 1957: 307-312), nevertheless the term kämanos also subsumes the reins: kamanuzes rankuäelej jojau (Juška 1955: II 160ff., No. 564). The bridle without teeth is called, for example, apinastris as one can deduce from the statement kamanos su Zabokliais, 0 apinastris be Zabokliy —jis tik art (IKZ_ 19), or also apinasris (LKZ, 216), apygalvis (LKZ, 205, 1063) and it is pointed out that this also replaces the kamanos in a good, here in the sense of well-trained, horse. On the other hand: a good horse is not worth the apinastrio (LKZ, 216), whereas a good horse here probably stands for ‘strong horse’. A teeth can be attached to this belt system, and at the same place where the teeth are connected with the belts and the reins are also attached, a piece of the jaw, lit. laužtūkai, can be attached (archaeological material with reconstruction for illustration, e.g.: Volkaité-- Kulikauskiené 1999: 316-327, Kulakov 2002: 215f), which exerts additional pressure on the horse's cheek when pulling the reins and thus forces it to change direction. Such a bridle is called either plestinés or lauztines: pleßtinnes —Brechzaum (LEX 19a, in: Drotvinas 1987: 102), kamanos pteßtines | zuflay /vditay —monßtuk konfki (SD, 179, in: Lyberis 1979: 277), lauztinés, lauZtiniai, lauztinis, lauztuves ‘bridle with waist pieces’ Stov žirgeliai... lauZtineliais pažabėti (Liedtext, KIvD 236, zit. LKZ,, 207), lauztukai “Wangenstück am Gebiss’ (LKZ,, 207f.). In both cases, the etymology is trivial and indicates the use of force: laužti ‘1. break; 6. change direction; 10. sting, pain; 11. force...’ (LKZ, 201f.), pleti ‘1. tear off; 2. tear aside with force...’ (LKZ, 179ff.). Comparatively unclear is the development of lit. brizgilai, brizgilas, brizgilis, brizgilos “bite; bridle with bit; Jewelry on the bridle; fittings on the sled; Mund’ (LKZ, 1063f.), apr. brisgelan “breathing (gear)’, perhaps related to brüzduklis ‘breathing (only straps)... ’(LKZ, 1099) (Fraenkel 1962: 60f., Mažiulis 1988: 157f., 161f. and lit.). Semantically, one can either see a starting meaning in *babble, rattle’ (Toporov 1975: 252f.) cf. brazgiliai ‘bells on the horse’s collar’ and the noise that arises by contact of teeth and dentition, or *‘what is split and is good as dentition’ (Mažiulis 1988: 158). Uncertain is an evtl. Related with brgzlai ‘iron on bridle harness’, brazgeti ‘cracking’ etc. as well as with brariktas ‘stringed wood; Schwengel; (general log for special purposes)’ (LKZ, 1002f.), which has strikingly many common meanings with brüzduklis. After this brief overview of the parts and designations of the bridle, you can come back to kämanos with some expertise. V. Mažiulis reconstructed east-balt. *kamana- -‘which has certain lumps, unevenness’ < Subst. balt.-sl. *kama-‘- to pack together, clumps’ with suffix *-na (Mažiulis 1993: 102). It is unclear where the ball-shaped something can be found here. Mažiulis adds, starting from the thought quoted at the beginning by Bügas: “*‘primityvia rogiy pavaza (mažytę) kai kuo primenantis Zabas’ = *‘medinis zaboklisTM (Mažiulis 1993: 102). Fraenkel also seems to consider the dentition as a lump or stem-shaped formation as a motivation for the name and compares it with lett. kamans ‘thick end of a beam’, kamanas ‘sleigh’, ¢ech. kmen ‘Halm, Stamm’, poln. kien ‘Klotz, Stumpf, LIT. kämanos, stuenas, mule | 11 Stange’, russ. come ‘Klumpen’, lightly. came ‘Klumpen, große Masse, KloB' (1962: 212). As you can see from the explanations above, a bridle without a bit is quite possible, but not a bit without a bridle. With some certainty the technical development has also taken place in this order and it is reasonable to assume that there was a designation of the bridle without teeth. Whether this designation has been preserved is of course not at all certain. If it is preserved, then kämanos and brizgilai come into the shortlist, possibly. also apinasris. At first, the bridle was not about the concrete form’, but first about a function, namely to tame and control the horse’. This functional view is reflected, for example, in arklys < *arklja ‘horse pulling a hook plough’ (Skardžius 1996: 62; Mažiulis 1993: 103). The bridle kämanos is now the most important means to tame the horse and to be able to use it for work. For the work, which can only begin after the taming, further harnesses are added, such as a cummet with belts to tension the plough or cart. Maäiulis’ view: Subst. kūmanos < Adj. kamana *‘certain unevenness, showing lumps’ < Subst. balt.-sl. *kama-‘- to lump together’ < verb balt.-sl. *kam-‘to gather together, to ballen’ (1993: 102) I agree regarding the approach *kam-‘to gather together, to bubble’, but I do not see any reason that speaks against a direct deverbal formation. It is certainly correct that a considerable number of adjectives are formed with the suffix -ana, such as därganas ‘unpleasant, rainy weather’: ddrga ‘ds.’ (Skardžius 1996: 226ff. Otrebski 1965: 174). But this does not allow a claim to exclusivity, because there are also genuine deverbal formations with -ana: gäbana ‘an arm full of hay or the like’ lickana ‘rest’, palūkanos “harvest; Zinsen’, ‘Schinn (männl. Hanf)’, ‘Augeneiter ’ (Skardžius 1996: 227ff.), ‘Hexe’ (Gliwa 2003: 1-8), ‘Geschenk’; Geben’ (LKZ, 616), as well as with -ena: müsenos, müsena ‘to strike’, bärena ‘to beat’, dovana ‘gift’; Geben’ (LKZ, 616, Ambrazas 1993: 59f., 94f.,). Such direct deverbal formations, however, are missing with -anas, as well as ablative -ena or -sena, with additional -s-, which seems to originate from a (proto-)future marker (Mažiulis 1988: 152f., Ambrazas 1993: 61 and lit.), for the formation of Abstrakta like eisena ‘gait; Move’, usually has no partners with -enas or -senas. Ablative verbs (active semiparticiples) on -ina-, which may be fragmentarily present in the declination stage, belong to this group: tékinas ‘hurrying’, vedinas ‘leading’, whose formation must be clearly pre-singular based on syntactic considerations (cf. Gliwa 2003a). Somewhat differently than Mažiulis, the matter is presented by a reviewer of this essay, according to whom it is a wooden denture, which 6 If one considers the process of its manufacture, one should come back to meanings such as “to bind, knot, twist”. It would also be interesting to ask how the desacralization of the horse, once important in the religious cult (see Puhvel 2001: 293; Gimbutienė 1996: 263), is compatible with domestication. Precisely therefore a new name became necessary in relation to the inherited asva-‘horse’. 12 | BERND GLIWA horse in the mouth, because here it is no longer primarily about the form, but the material, i.e. a derivation to an unattended balt. *kama- ‘trunk, stem’ > kamanos *'what is wood' > *breathing with a wooden Gebiss'. Firstly, the largely predominant use as plural tantum does not indicate the naming after a single® piece of wood that would have been pushed into the mouth of the horse as a bite. Moreover, it is a drastic claim that the dentition was made of wood. Bridles found by archaeologists have either metal teeth (e.g. Volkaité-- Kulikauskiené 1999: 316327, Kulakov 2002: 215f.) or those made of horn or bone (discoveries around 4500 BC, Gimbutiene 1996: 259; 1st century BC Luchtanas 1992: 70), not to mention ethnographic finds. From the archaeological literature I am not aware of any reference to wooden mouthpieces. However, this proves little, since the objection that wood would probably not have been preserved is justified here. Furthermore, the earliest horse graves found on Lithuanian territory, the main source of finds of bridles, are dated only around the 2.4.Jh. AD (Volkauskaite-Kulikauskiene 1999: 310, Varnas 1998: 291-294). So let's move the question from the practical Sideways: could there have been wooden teeth? Is it possible to make and use them? With this question, one conveniently addresses practical-thinking horse owners. Very skeptical is considered whether oak could be used for this, but immediately emphasized: „arklys gi sveikatos turi“ (S. Sigitavicius 2002, pers. Mitteilung). The possible thickness of such wood would be limited by the fact that the horse still has to breathe, the tongue should not be shut down and the mouth should not be open. To eat you could possibly. remove the mouthpiece, which is done by some horse owners also with the iron two-membered (freedom of movement for the tongue!) mouthpiece, especially earlier, when horses were more busy and important than today. In extreme situations, you could use typical one-time- -use-and-- disposable wooden teeth. Sigitavicius’s conjecture that metal was already known and used when horses were fenced up (2002, pers. mit.) coincides quite well with what scholarly linguists (metal around 4000 B.C. with the Indo-Europeans, Euler 2002: 47f.) and archaeologists (subject to the uncertainty of the allocation of finds to language groups) say about it and takes away almost any basis from the discussion. Because, if you could make comparatively durable mouthpieces from metal, they were possibly. Wood pieces in this function only inferior replacement and could hardly motivate the naming. Bone is also far more suitable, and it was certainly available.- —J. Seskauskas also admits that bones only last a few weeks and recalls that as a young farmer (until 1950) he used very thin, worn mouthpieces (2003, pers. My own. ), which shows the limited lifespan even of iron mouthpieces. If you emphasize the function of the bridle and balt the base. *kam-‘to squeeze together, to bundle’ with a possibly deverbal formation in consideration 8 The carving of wooden chain links is possible, but extremely expensive and of very low quality. Durability. LIT. kämanos, kamienas, kumele [13 moves, one can question, question in regard to here-coming ‘kamantineti’; harass with questions’ (LKZ, 170) kamuoti ‘to trouble, to torment; dienen...’ (LKZ,: 191; so also Fraenkel 1962: 214) a figurative meaning, which is close to the process of taming, controlling the animal, even if the concrete meaning ‘taming, domesticating’ < * getting used to the house’ (Euler 2002: 46; Pokorny 1994: 198-200) is missing. However, Lithuanian terms that designate the taming are differently motivated, on the one hand lit. (pri-)jaukinti ‘(something, jmdn.) get used to’, jauketi, jaukti ‘(get used to) something’: jaükas ‘bait’ (LKZ, 300ff.), (pri-)junkinti, junkyti, jūnkti *(to) get used to’: junklas ‘bait’ (LKZ,, 385ff.) < *‘by bait, eating accustomed’, on the other hand they also refer to the other part of the recipe “carrot and whip”, namely tramdyti “comfort, relieve; tame, restrain, subdue; prohibit; zerstören...'' (LKZ,., 556ft.): tremti ‘to crush, to push, to banish...’ (Fraenkel 1965: 1117); tvardyti ‘beruhigen, beherrschen, hemmen’ (LKZ, un 217): tverti ‘fassen, ergreifen; umzäunen...’ (Fraenkel 1965: 1152f.) Therefore, it seems possible, the violent taming or, control, and precisely for this one needs the bridle (cf. laužti, plesti!), by balt. *kam-‘to squeeze together, to bundle’, which includes application of force, especially pressing < ig. *kem-‘to squeeze, press, prevent’ (Pokorny 1994: 555f.; Rix et al. 2001: 329), to name. As for word formation: primary Baltic formations with -ana seem to denote predominantly Abstrakta (Nomina actionis), from where meaning transition to Konkreta (Nomina acti) dovana ‘giving’ > ‘gift’ next to dövis ‘giving; Ration; Aussteuer’, dotas, dotilas “gift, dowry” (LKZ, 615ff.) or to nouns Instr. Ambrazas also represents this view for -ena: kasena ‘digging’ > ‘tool for carving vessels’, metena ‘hitting’ > ‘whip, whip; Schlinge'. (Ambrazas 1993: 194). In addition, there are also primary concretes such as liekana ‘rest’ < *‘what was left behind’: likti ‘zuicklassen’, träskana ‘eye canal’ < *‘what was squeezed out’: treksti ‘spray, squeeze out’. The view that kämanos was initially an abstract *‘the taming’ with a subsequent transition of meaning to *‘what is needed to tame, bridle’ is therefore semantically plausible and morphologically not an isolated case! !, A detour into phraseology and stable subjects of folklore gives additional hints on kämanos. A number of fairy tales know the hint parduodamas arzilg, neparduok su kamanom (LKŽ,; 169). It is about a sorcerer- 's apprentice who, in order to earn money, turns into a stallion because his father is to sell. It must be sold without bridle, because only then can it transform itself back and escape (or vice versa: escape and transform itself back) ’ Rix et al. reconstruct *kem-‘press, push’ and *kemh ‘-‘get tired, struggle’ (Rix et al. 2001: 329, 350), which with kentum reflex could also include kamuioti? "The meaning ‘to comfort, to relieve’ is probably to be understood as translated, influenced by raminti ‘to touch, to alleviate pain’ kur tramas, ten ramas (LKZ,,, 555) This interpretation can also be offered quite elegantly for ragana, for example. Appearance, face’ > “What has risen, what shows itself’ > ‘ghost’, I had not noticed that so far (on the etymology of rägana: Gliwa 2003: 1-8). 11 20 | BERND GLIWA Water, but rather to be found on meadows. It is certainly correct Helonyms such as e.g. Kemsinaite (pond) < Kemsine (willow) (Bilkis 1999: 57), Kemselis (pond) < kémsas ‘moss hill”” (Bilkis 1999: 65), this view is questionable for flowing waters, especially if they are primary names such as e.g. Ridges that are hardly attributable to neighbouring pastures, such as Kemsinaite (ponds). I would therefore like to refer to Kume (F), Kurmpe (S), Kūmpė, Kumpäle (F) and others (Vanagas 1981: 171), which may be related to this, and which Vanagas translates to lit. kumpti ‘bending, becoming crooked’, lett. kūmt ‘becoming bumpy, crooked’ (1981: 171). The semantic reference to the meanders of the rivers appears extremely frequently”, as e.g. Vingis (F): vingis ‘Bogen, Winden’ (Vanagas 1981: 385), Kulé (F): kulys ‘Bucht, Landzunge, Windung, Bogen; Angle, edge, piece’, (Vanagas 1981: 170), Ringe (F): ringe ‘arch’ (Vanagas 1981: 278), Lünginas (F): lungüoti ‘swing, wind...” (Vanagas 1981: 171) among others (see also Vanagas 1988: 8). The fact that Kamantinis is now a lake can perhaps be explained as a result of the transfer of the corresponding name from Zuoder Abfluss to the lake; However, I do not have any data that supports such a view in this specific case. Names such as Kumelupis (Vanagas 1981: 171) could well refer to mares, but they do not have to. On the one hand, reference was made to the diversity of meanings of kumele and kumelys, which partly seems to be based on a *kum-‘to turn, to curve’, on the other hand, one has an exact correspondence in terms of word formation in Ving-el-upis (F) (Vanagas 1981: 385). Here, too, a reference to the meanders of the river as a motivation for naming would be conceivable with a secondary connection to kumele. With an -r-containing suffix””, this root could also include Kamaria, Kamäre (F), Kamara (F) and others (Vanagas 1981: 144), thus making the unconvincing reference to the loanword kamara ‘chamber...’ obsolete. That Kamärkos upelis (F) goes back to Kamärka (meadow) (Vanagas 1981: 145) is conceivable, at least as likely is the reverse course: an appellative for meadow /ankas originally named the meadow, which is located in a river bend (Fraenkel 1962: 339), is therefore originally after the name of the river. 25 LKZ, and also Bilkis (1999: 65), referring to this, give for kemsas ‘samanomis ar žolė apžėlęs kelmas ar žemės kauburelis, kesas’ (LKZ, 563), and thus pass by the core of the matter. The shape of the hill does not result from an underlying earthen mound or stump, but from the way the moss (branches or shrubs are perfectly sufficient as a skeleton) or the grass (here there can be no question of a support at all) grows (rare exceptions are possible, but those would usually also be called kelmas "stumps', kauburys "huckel, heaps', kupstas heaps': kaupti 'heap'). The mosses involved are essentially kiminai “peat mosses, Sphagnum spp.” and therefore the etymology is also to be linked to these: the mossy hills are in fact very soft and give in, can be pressed together, thus belong to kimsti ‘to stuff’, possibly ‘to fill’. also as insulating material in construction and use in pillows etc. Soft, in comparison to a mound of earth, are also the grass tufts (as an obstacle during the mowing they may 'clog' the scythe also a motivation to be checked). Therefore, the etymology of Fraenkel (1962: 239) is “probably to the [under] kernera ‘unshaped, large object, unslaughtered person’ [...] family assembled” only oriented to the form and therefore to be rejected, although extensive etymological relationship exists. In the meliorated Lithuania, however, from the view often no longer understandable. 4 J ” Equivalent formations with -rbzw. -/-suffixes are present, for example, in kémelis ‘difficulty, inconvenience, kėmeris ‘d., what is tangled, unshaped thing’ (LKZ, 557). LIT. kämanos, kamienas, mule | 21 named after a meandering river. In addition to the corresponding river names Lanka (F), Lankenas (F), one also has Lankupe (F) (Vanagas 1981: 180), probably to get a distinction from the meadow once named after the river. Similarly, Kamärkos upelis (F) could have been created next to Kamdrka (meadow- ). If the loanword kamara is dispensed with as the name-giver, one can easily assume Kamara as an older, original form and does not have to consider it as a “late artificial variant” (Vanagas 1981: 145). In this connection, I would like to refer to a riddle: Kur tu begi, kambanka? "What are you doing?" (LKZ, 173) the river and mowed meadow encoded, as well as the variants: Kur tu bégi, kumpuringe? "What do you want?" ; Where do you go...; Kinka ring, where do you go...; Kreivarangi, kur tu bégi... (Korsakas 1968: 461). It is obvious that, except for patekole: tekėti ‘flow...’, reference is made to the river bends. Because kinka ringa is still referred to kinkai ‘moving connections; Joint’, kinka ‘Leg; Türangel; Wade; Knee; Schenkel- ...' (LKZ, 813). The suffix -anka is considered Slavic and appears in Liaukianka (farm), Mazuranka (village), Sabalianka (farm) (Razmukaite 1998: 164, 197). 7. Another kamantinis is found in a riddle: Vytinis kamantinis, aukštyn lekdamas, kiausius deda or: Susuktinis pakunktinis lipa aukštyn kiaušinių deti (LKZ: 170, Korsakas 1968: 491f.). Here it is necessary to guess the hops (Humulus lupulus L.), and namely the female, whose cone-like fruits are compared here to eggs. While the usual designation apynys, apvynis and slightly different variants clearly refer to the winding as a sling plant, there are two options for kamantinis after what has been said so far. On the one hand, one can make the comparison with river names kam-ant-- inis *which winds, meanders’, which would be a semantic equivalent to apynys. On the other hand, the gait, as suggested in kamantinis ‘horse on which to ride’, is also possible, but here not with the transferred meaning ‘to tame’, but in the more original *kam-‘to pack together’, to which kämas ‘lumps, clumps’, with a meaning kam-ant-- inis *‘which is provided with cones; what zapfenbilden is’ heard. This second variant finds a parallel in hops "Humulus lupulus L.’, which originally only named the cones, as an essential raw material for medicine and nutrition (Marzell 2000: II 904). The botanical name humulus is considered to be borrowed from a Germanic language (Marzell 2000: II 902-903), the plant seems not to have been known in antiquity. References to hops in Central Europe appear in the 8th century. C., but then immediately in relation to humlonariae ‘hop gardens’ (Marzell 2000: II 902). Hehn mentions the use in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 15th century. Jh. : at the wedding of Grand Duke Alexander, his bride, the Russian Princess Elena, is covered with hops (Hehn 1963: 485). From this point of view, one would be inclined to agree with ESSJ’s statement that hops came to Europe from the East and could therefore be described by a migrant word (explained in ESSJ,,, 141-145). Pollen analyses, however, show that in the Zemaitijos Highlands, at Lake Birzulis, in a longer period of time (at least 1500 years) around 7000 BC. BC, hops grew here abundantly; for a short time in this warmer climate section even beech 22 | BERND GLIWA detected (Guobyté, Stancikaite 1998: 125, Fig. 4). Hops reappear to a significant extent (according to pollen analysis) in the first century AD. AD (Guobyté, Stancikaite 1998: 124, Fig. 3). However, this does not mean that the hops were not available in the meantime. What is certain, however, is that the species-specific vegetation boundary shifted, possibly in the meantime to the south of present-day Lithuania. Given the former larger settlement area of the Baltic peoples (as soon as one can speak of the Baltic peoples in the period under consideration), hops can be considered to be present in this area with high certainty. Šimkūnaitė reports that hop remains are found in excavations of Stone Age settlements (2001: 110)*. Also the ritual use of hops or even the comparison with Soma or Haoma (ESSJ,,, 144) cannot be maintained in view of pharmacological data. Hops have a calming effect, as a sleep aid. In addition, an anaphrodisiac effect is known — precisely for this reason hops were first added to beer in monasteries: against the diabolical desires. The commandment of purity in the 16th. Jh. made this a law, with which hops as a beer wort prevailed ¢ and for example banned the Bilsenkraut from the beer (Rätsch 1998: 269-271). Marzell looks germ. *humilo wegen ae. hymele as hereditary word. It is also pointed out that in addition to hops, the field wines ‘Volvulus spp.’ and fence turnip ‘Bryonia spp.’ with ae. hymele. He therefore concludes that sl. *chomelo borrowed sei (Marzell 2000: II 903). Seebold notes laconic that the direction of borrowing is controversial (Kluge 1999: 382f.). If one takes into account that field wines and fence turnips are also sling plants, then it is obvious to suspect a concept in this regard, which would hardly occur in a borrowing. Germ. *hum-< ig. *km can in turn be seen as a shrinkage step to ig *kem. The question of correspondences with balt. k-, sl. ch-, german. hwird usually explained by borrowings (e.g. Būga 1959: 216). ESSJ sees the matter differently, if for the sl. Correspondences a s-mobile is assumed, so here is chregular to be expected (ESSJ,: 70 et passim). With the approach that balt. k-, sl. ch-, german. h (in some cases) can be founded by ancestral kinship, it is then of importance that sl. -sm-result of a shrinkage step ig. *-msein can. This level would indicate kumo or kim in Lithuanian. Lit. kamantinis is now a continuation of the o-level, so it could at most be a parallel education”. As long as a concept is etymologically still transparent, the lexicalisation can be done on the basis of different levels of pronunciation and does not necessarily indicate a borrowing, e.g. kamanė ‘Bumblebee, Bombus spp.’ < ig. *com- : d. Hummel, Czech. &mel ‘Hummel’ < ig. km-(although the multitude of etymologies * This is a popular scientific essay without sources, but since the author is known to often take over the evaluation of plant remains in archaeological excavations, I see no reason to question this statement. ® Relevant for further investigation should d. dial. (Transylvania) Hamé ‘Humulus’ be, which after Marzell from rum. hemei, hamei ‘ds.’ stammt (Marzell 2000: II 906). However, it is hardly a Romance hereditary word, even a loan from the SI. seems unlikely. LIT. kämanos, kamienas, kumele | 23 could be interpreted as meaning that there is no relationship here, cf. ESSJ, 145 and Lit.—which I doubt). Another e.g. from the same field: the fly is called musė in Lithuanian (consonant *-u-), while in Slavic languages the o-consonant (*-ou-) is used for this purpose: poln. much. Indeed, even within the dialects of a language, different levels of pronunciation can be used to designate identical things: lit. kaukas ‘goblin, house spirit’: kukas ‘ds.’, as well as apr. cawx ‘devil’, cucumbrast ‘devil’s fort’ (Mažiulis 1993: 148ff., 295f.; further examples cf. Kazlauskas 1968: 109). In other words, there may be several competing names, for example dialect variants, for similar or the same facts, whose further development may be diametrically opposed. A particularly sharp example. for this are the apers. and ai. Names for gods and demons: ai. deva-‘God; Kingly...", dsura-‘damon’ but also ‘living, divine’: apers. da&va-‘the demons’, ahura-‘God’ (cf. Puhvel 2001: 99; Mylius 2001: 58). Thus, the affiliation of kamantinis is quite justified. On the other hand, there may be a corresponding degree of decline, namely in the phraseological kumelės šlapimas ‘boiled malt or warm beer with honey and milk’ (Simkünaite 2001: 29). Since beer is now usually hopped, it would be conceivable that the name comes from the hops. And kumele fits to germ *humilo and sl. *chsmels not only in the exclamation point, but also in the suffix. As Simkiinaite has shown elsewhere, names that read šlapimas ‘urine, moisture’ or südas ‘feces’ are to be understood as being transferred, whereas similarity, such as pelesüdziai ‘literally. : Mouse droppings’ = ‘mother corn, Secale cornutum’, of the named, here the sclerotium, with mouse droppings actually exists (2001: 72). Although in the case of kumelės šlapimas the name should be justified because of a certain similarity, the motivation remains primarily the use of an archaic word, as it does occur in the riddle —and the recipe is a riddle, a professional secret. 8. Another case in which sl. cheine equivalent in balt. kfindet, is available in russ. xomak ‘Hamster, Cricetus cricetus’, Cech. chomik ‘ds.’ etc., which are considered as a reformation from reconstructed *choméstors ‘hamster’ (+ new suffix) (ESSJ,,, 67). For aruss. xomncmops, xomncmaps is the handed down designation ‘an insect’ considered as incorrect, here also the hamster is assumed as the actual content of meaning (ESSJ,,, 67). The German equivalent Hamster < ahd. hamustro is as a loan from the SI. to be considered (< russ.-ksl. choméstors ‘ds.’ Kluge 1999: 353), whereas the ratio of sl. Words with the Baltic, on the one hand lit. kamas ‘big rat’, kamüklis ‘ds.’ (LKZ, 172ff.), lat. kamis ‘hamster, Cricetus cricetus’ (Būga 1958: 581), on the other hand lit. staras ‘an animal, Citellus or Spermophilopsis®” (LKZ,,, 668), deviating: ‘ds. ; Hamster’ (Fraenkel 1965: 896) controversial. Fraenkel to kamas: "die balt. No, no, no, no. can be combined with the Slav. at most unite in such a way that they, as Büga observes, independently go back to a foreign source.” (1965: 213). ESSJ: „He coBceM SICHO, CYIIECTBOBAJIO JIM CIHOXHOE UT. *kamastaras < npaci. choméstors wiv kämas u staras C CaAMOTO Hayayıa 30 Probably the single-coloured ‘Spermophilus citellus’. 24 | BERND GLIWA ObUIH 3aMMCTBOBAHBI TIOPO3Hb" (ESSJ, 67). As far as the hamster is concerned, the Note that his back pockets (ESSJ,,, 68) are extremely suitable for transporting supplies to the camp, the hamster is notorious for stuffing his pockets full and putting on large supplies. The stuffing is in the lit. perfectly with kimsti ‘stoppen; eating greedy; insert; kamštis ‘cork, stopping- ’, kamslys ‘who is stuffed with it’ < *‘stuffs himself full’ kamseklis ‘d.’, kamasuoti ‘eat with great appetite, swallow, stuff’ (LKZ, 172ff.), kimstinis ‘never satisfied, overeating’ 3! (LKZ, 805). The comparison with sl. *vertical ‘zusammendriecken, pressen’ (ESSJ,,, 68) is therefore absolutely justified. Bed. Regarding kamuklis it should be pointed out that it is with -uklis about a typical Suffix for the formation of deverbative nouns for the designation of tools (Nom. instr.) bzw. (Ambrazas 1993: 156, 178), whereas nominal use occurs occasionally, e.g. ‘ein lake-eagle Tümpel’ (Bilkis 1998: 83), but then probably based on a double diminutive < *FZer-yuk-elis. The deminutive miegüklis ‘sleeper’ (Ambrazas 2000: 110) originates from the above. Category (Nom. agentis), while barzdüklis, barzdziüklis ‘Ackerschachtelhalm, Equisetum arvense L.’ (Ambrazas 2000: 184) possibly as a cross between barzda ‘beard’ and asiūklis, asiukai ‘shaggy neck’ (for the cross cf. Kabasinskaite 1998: 63ff.) are to be considered (or as a ground composite *barzdaasiuklis), cf. kaukabarzdis ‘wörtl. ‘Kaukenbart’ = ‘Schaachtelhalm’ (LKZ, 419). With some probability, kamuklis can therefore be understood as *‘Stoppfer’, either in relation to the stuffed supply warehouse or the back pockets, then of course only as an original Baltic formation to a verb *kam-‘stop’. Dass lit. kamas, dial. came ‘rat’ and in particular lett. kūmis ‘Hamster’ keine Borrowing from the russ. are, Būga (1958: 581f.) justifies with the variation of the vowel quantity, the equivalents in lit. läsas; It's gone. lase, lase Tropfen’, lit. ghosts: lett. veli, veli ‘souls of the deceased’ among others. He also points out that russ. xomax not only the hamster, but also the rat (1958: 581), as well as Apolon. chomyk den ‘mole’ (ESSJ,,, 66). Thus, the names of rat and hamster seem to be easily transferable; for this also speaks the synonym žiurkėnas ‘hamster’ new also ‘steppe marmot, Marmota bobac’ formed on the basis of Ziürke ‘rat, worthless useless man, mouse, wooden slipper’ (LKZ,, 810f.) Lit. stäras is compared on the one hand with stiri ‘starting’ (Fraenkel 1965: 896 and Lit.), which for the hamster: “If the field hamster encounters an enemy on the ground, then it stands up and inflates the cheek pockets. The whole thing is accompanied by angry growling and whistling.” (www.das-tierlexikon.de/eigentliche-wuehler.htm) as well as for the seven-legged marmot (also steppe marmot, lit. svilpikas, Marmota bobac) seems plausible, since these watch at the building and erect themselves on the hind legs, whistle penetratingly in case of danger and then dive into the building 31 As Urbutis on the basis of lit. gomūs ‘desiring, inclined’ and lett. gama “multi-eating’ has shown, is a k-8 g g 8 gezeig such development on the basis of ig. *¢em-‘to press, to press; anhäufen...' quite common, so that to the greedy food (lit. kamuoti, kamurkyti) (cf. Urbutis 1981: 62-68) also came kamaros “lust” to can be placed. LIT. arms, trunk, horse | 25 (see e.g. www.darwin.- museum.ru/expos/ZooGeo/- 8_07.htm). On the other hand, I want to starinti ‘to pull hard, to pull, to carry; cut in, load heavily; stary ‘wer angespannt sicht’ (LKZ,, 668t.), sterinti ‘strengthened pull’ (LKZ, „, 754), stirénti “slow, clumsily stolzierien; carrying heavy; tremor (from cold); fidget; ferrets; tube; sob’, stirlioti ‘to lift or carry with difficulty; strife’, stirninti ‘to lift, carry’, stirnöti ‘d., freezing tremor’, stirnüs ‘strong, firm; starr’; styriioti ‘to carry hard, to struggle, to torture; taumeln’ (LKZ 817-830). It is not quite clear whether these are always related terms, or whether the individual lemmae should be divided into homophones. Without wanting to discuss this in detail” I follow the view of Fraenkel, who treats all these terms (if mentioned by him) together and puts them to d. starr etc. (1965: 896; Pokorny 1994: 1022), which according to Būga (1959: 259) also includes storas ‘thick’ —a very complex, differentiated family. Here, however, it is particularly interesting to note starinti ‘to drag, to pull, to carry with difficulty...”, which, because of more or less equivalent forms stirlioti, styrūoti, sterinti, cannot be considered as a singular formation of a borrowed word suspected to be staras, following the pattern hamster > hamstern ‘to gather, to hoard a lot’. If one thus assumes an ancestral relationship, one could consider stäras as *‘who or what carries heavily, drags’, an appropriate name for the hamster. Thus, the composite sl. choméstors to be understood as < *‘which is stuffed and dragged hard’. The uncertain assignment of the names to the hamster on the one hand, and on the other hand, the question whether the hamster or the other named animals lived in the settlement area of the Balts and Slavs in the period in question at all, remain problematic. Unfortunately, I do not know any concrete data on this, hence some considerations. As a steppe rodent, the hamster is likely to depend on agricultural land as a culture steppe in wooded areas. Since agriculture spread at the latest with the Indo-Europeans, this condition can at least not be regarded as an obstacle. The existence of other names žiurkėnas, šalčias, balesas ‘hamster’ can be considered as an indication of a longer acquaintance. On the other hand, the seven-legged sleeper and the Lithuania, so that one can assume the hamster as the original meaning, both for stäras and for kamüklis —unless one insists on borrowing. 9. lit. 'kamas'simple guy; Serfs; Bauerntölpel’, which because of kémeras, kemeras ‘unsightly, coarse thing’; Difficulty; Trottel, the clumsy Mensch’ (LKZ, 556), kamega ‘unskilled, clumped man’ (LKZ, 175), kémas ‘obscure thing, creep’, kemeklis ‘one who works clumsily; who barely or clumsily speaks’ kemeklis ‘unnecessary hindering stuff; Scheuche’, kemesius ‘clumsy man’ (LKZ, 554ff.) etc. of similar meaning, hardly a borrowing from poln. Cham, Russian. xam ‘ds.’”, as LKŽ, (172) means, is. Myth. sl. *chierzu russ. xomak An e.g. : to stäris ‘wind with rain’, staritioti ‘rain with buoyant wind’ (LKZ 669) a reference to not identical, but nevertheless obvious d. stiffe Brise ‘strong wind’ is appropriate. 33 The relationship to the biblical Ham (Hebrew HM or vocalized HAM, Septuagint Xo, Polish Cham, but Chus, Hebrew KWS ‘Sept. Xovg, Polish Chus) is unclear. However, the biblical text (Genesis 9f.) presents itself more as an ethnic and religious than as a social classification; from here since the 18. Jh. the language categories semitic and hamitic (Körner 1990: 13). The interpretation of the poln. Small 26 | BERND GLIWA ‘Gerümpel, unförmiges Zeug’ (Kardelytė 1985: IV 533), ¢ech. chomecek ‘old man’ < *humble man’, chomek ‘personal name’, chumak ‘insatiable man’ (ESSJ,,, 66), with different suffix čech. chomor ‘litter, garbage’ (ESSJ,,, 68), and possibly d. Hampelmann “initially in the meaning of ‘folding pin’ of unclear origin, probably a vocal gesture” (Kluge 1999: 353). Also let. kamana ‘crooked woman’ (Mühlenbach 1927: 148) should be mentioned again at this point. Furthermore, it is to be shown that clumsy, idle persons or bulky objects are provided with designations that go back to ‘crooked’ in semantics. That can be seen in this lit. Bsp. seen: Kerepla ‘branched tree as a tripod; saddle on the harness; unsightly, expansive thing; extended vegetation (especially shrub, tree); unskilled man’, kere “stubben; Grassode; layer on a overgrown puddle, spongy bog soil; Part of the spinning wheel; small, slow man...’, keréiva ‘crumbly- -legged, limping man’ (LKZ, 600ff.), keréti ‘to grow, to grow out, to branch out; become strong’ and antonymically ‘to grow slowly, to vegetate’ (LKZ,, 605), cf. lett. cerba ‘curls, man with ragged hair’, russ. kopeno “root” (Fraenkel 1962: 241)**, the other stages of decay are only preserved in traces: kdrka ‘(in cattle) knee; Thigh; Femur bone’ (LKZ, 289), kirtmuö ‘bend’, kirulis ‘hook for stirring; a tool for tensioning the fabric on the loom’, kirlas ‘cradle’, kirksnis “Weichen, Leistengegend’, kirkönimas ‘ds., Achsel’ (LKZ, 838ff.) u.a. Keverza ‘small, crooked tree with tangled branches; a crooked thing; crooked, clumsy, awkward man; Trottel; small, crooked man...’, kevalas ‘shell, cover; Chaff; clumsy man’, keveisa “fool’, kevelitioti ‘deferring to the side; roll, roll over; to come together; herumtreiben’, kevelses “Leine (abfillig)’ (LKZ, 671ff.), probably to ig. *keu-‘to bend’ (Pokorny 1994: 588). Kreivas ‘krumm’; transverse, curved; uneven; wrong; primitive, bad’ kreivis ‘what is crooked (tree or man); not accurate’, kreivys ‘crooked-legged man; Buckliger; Left-handed’, kreivitklis ‘who goes crooked (drunken- )’ (LKZ,, 508ff.). Lingius ‘tall, bent man’, linginéti ‘bend, nod; walking around without work’, lingynas ‘marsh soil, swamp’, lingė ‘arch’, lingti ‘bend’ and lingti ‘love themselves’ (LKZ 526ff.), cf. semantic d. to be inclined to someone, inclination: to lean: to nod. Similarly, in German you can find krummes or linkes Ding vs. gerade, recht, richtig, also links, leftish “ungeschickt’, swedish. linka ‘limp’ (Kluge 1999: 521), joint, compared to lit. lenkti ‘bend’ as variant g/k (Kluge 1999: 310), better is probably the reference to lingti ‘ds.’ etc. (see above). adels, according to which the plebs descended from Ham, lies more in an adaptation of the Bible interpretation to existing terms than in the creation of a term based on this passage. My thanks go to Prof. A. Holvoet who made me aware of the possible influence of this passage regarding a loan and kindly sent me the name entries in the Hebrew, Greek and Polish Bible. # The considered connection to *(s)ker-‘- to cut’ (Fraenkel 1965: 241) cannot be convincing, cf. the above discussions of kamienas. LIT. cock, trunk, ass | 27 10. SYNTHESIS Thus there is a number of correspondences, which are each with lit. k-, germ. h-, sl. ch-/kanlauten. The most obvious way to reconcile these is to assume s-mobile in the Slavic cases, from ig. *(s)k-> sl. chrusteti, lett. skraustét ‘cracking, cracking’ for the Sl. over an intermediate level *ksroustund sl. chrupati < ksroup-: lit. skrupsnüs, skrūpsi, skrupseti ‘cracking, crackling’, skraübis ‘fear, frightening’ (Būga 1958: 443). Mel’nicuk doubts this course, who, with only a few exceptions, believes the course ig. *sk-> sl. *chals „HenoKa3aHa H TO YHCTO TEOPETHYECKUM COOOPAXKEHHSIM HEBEPOATHO“ ansieht (Mel’nicuk 1968: 215-6). Therefore, lit. skuja “pine cones; needle from the coniferous tree; Pine branch...” (= sl. chvoj-) as an old formation with metathesis of the initial *ks-> skvor balt. *ks-> can be changed (Mel’nicuk 1968: 215-6). On the other hand, the primary existence of *ks is not always obvious and the mandatory intermediate step *sk->*ks-> sl. chwirkt abundantly artificial. Therefore, the pragmatic attitude of ESSJ (e.g. ESS), 22 u.a.) ig *(s)k > sl. chplausibel, whereby it is free for everyone to have a corresponding education as they in the pair skuja “fir cones...” : sl. *chvoja > Czech. chvoja ‘Pine...’ etc. (ESSJ,,, 125f.) exists, to assume, with all the implications about age and metathesis. For the hops therefore lie before lit. kamantai, uncertain is kumele, sl. *chömelb > Russian. xmeas: germ. *humilo-> dan. humlekop, lat. humulus (Marzell 2000: II 906). Because of ae. hymele ‘hops’ and ‘ackerwinde, zaunrübe’ is of a base ig. *(s)kem-‘- to turn, to bend’ to go out. For the Kummet lit. kamantai ‘Kummet’, poln. chomato /obsorb. chomot ‘ds.’, d. Hamen ‘kummet’, whereby it should be noted that names for the net with d. Hamen ‘net’, sloven. homöt ‘network’ (ESSJ,,, 69), with other ablaut possibly colt: ‘9. mouth of the trawl; 10. floating bodies on the net’ also belong here, which, as ESSJ has already formulated, is a sufficient argument against a borrowing and justifies the comparison with lit. kamanos (ESSJ, 70), a more general meaning on the basis of ig. *(s)kem-‘- hemmen; tame’ (cf. Pokorny 1994: 555). Easy. kamis ‘hamster’ and russ. xomak ‘ds.’ are, subject to the uncertainty of the historical distribution of the rodent, to be regarded as primordially related, and that on a base ig *(s)kem-‘- to press, to press’ in the special meaning ‘to stuff’, as it is in lit. kimsti, so actually *‘which stuffs its cheeks’. Lit. 'kamas'simple guy; Serfs; Bauerntölpel’, kamega ‘unskilled, clumsy man’, kemesius ‘clumsy man’, poln. Cham, Russian. xam ‘ds.’, Cech. chomecek ‘old man’ (with a hump?), i.e. Hampelmann is considered to be an ancient relative of the base *(s)kem-‘- curving, bending’. To the lit. River names Kamainé, Käme, Kamojä, Kamatis, Kämona (Vanagas 1981: 144), Kumé, Kümpe, Kumpäle (Vanagas 1981: 171), cf. lit. kurnpti ‘to bend, become crooked’, lett. kümt ‘becoming humpbacked, crooked’, as well as Kumelupis (Vanagas 1981: 171), Kamaria, Kamäre, Kamara (Vanagas 1981: 144) and the enigmatic words kambanka, kumpuringe ‘river’ I put the ukr. River names Xomépa, Xomop, Xomyp, (ESSJ VIII 28 | BERND GLIWA 69). Further to a basis *(s)kom-- ‘bend’ slovak. dial. chomola ‘Hals’ (ESSJ 68), cf. semantic lit. kaklas ‘neck’ (Fraenkel 1962: 205f.) and kumelys ‘13. Wirbelsäule’, acech. chomol ‘peak, summit’: lit. kaukure ‘hill, summit’ < ig *kou-k-‘- bend, curve’ (cf. Pokorny 1994: 589), apollon. chomla ‘Kranz auf dem Head that holds the hair’, ukr. xömaa, xomieka ‘Women- ’s head covering’ (ESSJ 68f. ). Another possibility, such as sl. chin the context can be integrated, perhaps consists in the approach sl. ch < *kh,, which Kortlandt (1988: 303) cites without literature. To the example of this, russ. xanams ‘to seize, grab’ (Kortlandt 1988: 303), ESSJ states without mentioning a laryngal-- containing etymology „OCHOBAHO, B KOHEYHOM CYETE, Ha 3ByKonoapaxaHuuTM and compares with analogous sl. *capati, *gabati (ESSJ,, 19). In the above cases, the view ch-< kh, has a significant disadvantage, the laryngeal can not appear optional and sl. Duplicates with the following kbzw. chsollten nicht erscheinen“. Thus, two separate, but (at least in a late stage) homophone roots are quite clearly to be distinguished: *(s)kem-- ‘bend, curve, twist’* and *(s)kem-- ‘press, squeeze, hinder” from which also ‘tame, suppress’ and ‘torment’: kamuityti ‘varginti, kamuoti’, kamuoti ‘varginti, kankinti; hard work, slavery...- ’, on the one hand, as well as kimsti ‘stoppen’, on the other hand. Thereby, it cannot be ignored that the equalization can lead to meaning interference and contamination, so for example the meaning ‘taming’ can also be developed from ‘'krümmen, geneigt machen’: e.B. lit. palankūs ‘lusted, flexible, inclined’ (LKZ: 239) im Kontext Sometimes it is even difficult to believe that laumė —tai suasmeninta pirmyksciam žmogui pavojinga ir grasi gamtos, visų pirma, vandens, stichija, kurią jis stengiasi pažaboti, lenkti savo labui (Vėlius 1979: 9) and the phrase beugen jemanden unters Joch ‘to tame, control, educate someone’. VIII LITERATUR** AMBRAZAS, S. 1993: The development of noun construction, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. AMBRAZAS, S. 2000: The development of nouns 11, Vilnius: Institute of Science and Encyclopedias Publishing. Basanavičius, J. (Hrsg.) 1998: Lithuanian fairy tales various IV, Vilnius: Vaga. BiLkis, L. 1999: Prepositional deminutive helonyms in Lithuanian, Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 41,51-95. BUGA, K. 1958: Selected Writings 1, Vilnius: State Political and Scientific Literature Publishing House. BUGA, K. 1959: Selected Writings 11, Vilnius: State Political and Scientific Literature Publishing House. Dını, PU. 2000: The Baltic Languages. Vilnius: Institute of Science and Encyclopedia Publishing. 35 An approach with metathesis ig. *kVHm-(- >k-) > sl. *kHVm-(- >ch-) where H as |, r in russ. 204064, vol. glowa: lit. galva ‘Kopf’, russ. 20pod ‘Stadt’, poln. gröd ‘castle’: lit. gardas 'enclosure' is treated, would formally suffice. However, there is no evidence for such laryngeal metastasis. % To this lit. kurnpis, no. ham kumpis’, fnhd. 1987) 1920 – Karol Wojtyła, Polish poet (d. kumps ‘curved’, ai. kmärati ‘is bent, crooked’ < ig. *kam-(?), *km-‘to be bent, crooked’ (Fraenkel 1962: 309), lit. kémos ‘thigh’ (LKZ,: 561), kimbra ‘leg (defending.)...' (LKZ,: 800). To this arm. kamel ‘to press, wring’, an. hemja ‘to restrain, inhibit’, nd. hamme ‘fenced field’ (Pokorny 1994: 555). I would like to thank Dr. A. JudZentis for his assistance in the procurement of literature. 37 38 LIT. 29 DROTVINAS, V., red. 1987: Lexicon Lithuanicum. 17th-century German-- Lithuanian dictionary, Vilnius: Mokslas. ESSJ —Imunmonoeuueckuü croeaps CAABAHCKUX A3bIK08, 4, 8, 10, 13, pea. O. H. Tpy6aues, Mocksa: Hayka, EULER, W., 2002: 1977, 1981, 1983, 1987. Indo-European Shepherds and Warriors: A Myth or the Beginning of European Culture? Nothing Baltica 8, 35-65. FRAENKEL, E. 1962: Lithuanian etymological dictionary 1, Heidelberg: Carl Winter University Press, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. FRAENKEL, E. 1965: Lithuanian etymological dictionary 2, Heidelberg: Carl Winter University Press, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. GIMBUTIENE, M. 1996: Ancient Europe, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. Griwa, B. 2003: Witches in Baltic Fairy Tales, Onomasiology Online 4, 1-14. [www.onomasiology.de] Griwa, B. 2003a: NeSinas, vedinas, tekinas, Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 48, 19-34 Griwa, B. 2003b: The Witch and the Boy (AaTh 327 F) and The Boy in the Sack of the Devourer (AaTh 327 C). A cultural-- historical interpretation of Lithuanian fairy tales. Fabula 3/4 Bd. 44,272-291. GUOBYTE, R.,STANCIKAITE, M. 1998: Traces of Human Activities in Pollen Diagrams from Biržulis Lake with a Short Review of Geological and Geomorphological Conditions in the Biržulis Area, Archaeologia Baltica, 3: 121-130. HEHN, V. 1963: Cultured Plants and Pets, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. HERTEL, J. (ed.) 1998: Indian Fairy Tales, Augsburg: Weltbild (Bechtermünz). HoAD, T. E. 1996: Concise Dictionary of English Etymology, Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. Juška, A. 1955: Lithuanian songs 1-2, Vilnius: State fiction publishing house. KABASINSKAITE, B. 1998: Folk etymology of Lithuanian language and related phenomena, Vilnius: Institute of Science and Encyclopedia Publishing. KAEGI, A., bearb. 1990: Benselers Greek-German Dictionary, (19th edition), Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopadie. KARALIŪNAS, S. 1987: Structural similarities and their origin in the Baltic languages, Vilnius: Mokslas. KARDELYTE, J. et al., ed. 1985: Russian-- Lithuanian Dictionary IV, Vilnius: Mokslas. KaARuLtis, K. 1992: Latvian etymology dictionary, 1-11, Riga: Avots. KAZLAUSKAS, J. 1968: Historical grammar of Lithuanian language, Vilnius: Mintis. KAZLAUSKAS, J. 1970: (Rez.) Baltic and Slavic Languages (Lithuanian Linguistics Issues X), Baltistica 130-132. 6 (1), 1970, pp. 10-11. Passengers. Vilnius: Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore. KLUGE, F. 1999: Etymological Dictionary of the German Language, 23rd ed. Edition, edited by Elmar Seebold, Berlin, New York: W. de Gruyter. 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