Intranzityvinio subjekto žymėjimas vardininku ir / arba kilmininku

ACTA LINGUISTICA LITHUANICA LII (2005), 67 -82 In this paper the factors determining the use of the nominative and the genitive as markers of the intransitive subject in Lithuanian are examined. The following preliminary conclusions are formulated: subjects which are prototypical with regard to categorial properties are marked with the nominative, though this rule may be overridden by other factors connected with number, referentiality etc. Less prototypical subjects may be marked with the nominative or genitive; animacy is not the most prominent factor determining the choice. Definiteness and word order are important factors. Definite subjects in sentences with unmarked word order show a strong preference for the nominative. In less typical configurations such as VS,,, or S,,,.,V, the nominative and the genitive are often used as markers of definiteness and indefiniteness respectively. 0. INTRODUCTION 0.1. Lithuanian language negative intransitive sentence subject! reiScamed three times: i) in negative intransitive sentences, as in positive intransitive sentences, the noun of the intransitive subject (hereinafter referred to as the subject) is used, e.g. : (1) Jonas is asleep. (2) John does not sleep. The article was prepared for publication during my internship in Germany (Carl von Ossietzky University, Oldenburg) in 2003. The authors of nuoSirdZiai thank the interview supervisor prof. habil. dr. Gerdas Hentschelis for all help and advice, as well as the DAAD Foundation (Germany) that financed the internship. Prof. habil. dr. I thank Axel Holvoet for his remarks during the Grammar seminar. I am very grateful to Dr. Rolandas Mikulskas and the reviewers for the careful reading of the article, valuable comments and corrections. In Lithuanian grammar studies, the attributes of the factor as a syntactic category and the subject as a semantic category are used (Balkevicius 1963: 74tt; Paulauskiene 1994: 107tt, 115). In some works of grammar, the positive and negative intransitive noun of the subject and the originator of the subject are considered as factors (Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 476; Balkevicius 1963: 77), elsewhere the negative intransitive noun of the subject is interpreted as a complement, and the positive intransitive noun of the subject is considered as a factor (cf. Ulvydas, ed., 1976: 291; Ambrazas, ed., 1994: 606, 625; Labutis 1998: 220; Sirtautas, Grenda 1988: 25, 107; Paulauskiené 1983: 190tt). The factor is traditionally defined on the basis of a formal criterion – the verb – and the type of syntactic relationship: it is usually considered to be the verb-expression of the noun, which is connected by a mutual connection (coordinated in a broad sense) with the conjunct (Ambrazas, ed., 1994: 487; cf. Jablonskis 1957: 453t; Ulvydas, ed., 1976: 279tt; Sirtautas, Grenda 1988: 54, 57, 86; Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 475t; Labutis 1998: 211tt). The intransitive subject (subject) attribute used in the article is understood by typological terms; Such an intransitive subject means a single predicate in the only argument, which in syntactic terms can be used not only as a noun, but also as other verbs (prepositions, nouns, adjectives, etc.) (see Holvoet 1991: 50t, 80). 68 | LORETA SEMENIENE ii) the positive intransitive sentence is replaced by the subject noun ‘the origin of the subject’, e.g. : (3) John is at home. (4) Jono néra namie’. ili) in negative intransitive sentences, unlike in positive ones, i$ principle can be used both the subject noun and the origin, e.g.: (Sa) [8 pradziy, kai atsisveikinau su, Zalgiriu“, was difficult. While I was still playing, I had hopes: I would finish — take on a coaching job. But even then there was no person in Kaunas who could offer me such a position. If he doesn't invite you, do you start begging yourself? KT (5b) After Dr. Reging Valatkiene was replaced by a colleague from Siauliai, many doctors wondered: why R. Valatkiene can no longer be the chief doctor, did Kaunas not find a person who could replace her? The county chief physician K. Stankaras today says he is not sorry that he replaced R. Valatkiene. KT (6a) The painter was buried in Rasy cemetery, but the grave has not survived, although the place where scientists, zymits painters, public figures were buried, is known. KT (6b) The poet and Svietej died in Warsaw in 1897, where he was treated at the time. His head did not survive. In Soviet times S. Gimzauskas’ name was kept silent, not one of his verses was printed. KT (7a) The French, Poles, Germans were not in danger of extinction, moreover, they absorbed other nations, their number grew. And they did not ask the question: who are we? It was like a self-evident thing. KT (7b) When reading the letters of Jurgis Jankauskas, the question never arose: how much Gia is everyday Man and how much is the writer, that is, the Man whose talent helps him to raise everything [...] from above. KT 0.2 As stated in the literature, in the latter cases the use of one i§ linksniy depends on the semantic type of the intransitive sentence. Leonard Babby (1980a; 1980b: 225t) distinguishes between negated declarative sentences with the subject’s noun and negated existential sentences with the subject’s pronoun, depending on the syllable in which the subject is represented in the negative intransitive sentences. In negative existential sentences, the subject is not defined and such sentences are usually reminiscent, although sometimes an optional subject is possible, marked by the location. In negative statements, the subject of the sentence is replaced by the noun of the defined subject, and the predicate with the indication of a bit of place meaning is replaced by the noun of the negative sentence (the noun of the negation). : Ambrazas, ed. (1994: 584), Sukys (1998: 107tt); plg. Ambrazas, ed. (1997: 668t). 3 Plg. Jono Sukio (1998: 68) assertion:,,Dél germany language jtak closer to the former Prissia border and zemaiciy borders is wrongly said and Ji nér namie (= Jos nér(a) namie), [...| thus ignoring the fact that the negation linksnj Cia must change*. In the Academic Grammar of Lithuanian Language (Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 666tt, cf. Ambrazas, red., 1994: 625) it is stated that intransitive sentences, in which the existence of something is denied (especially sentences with a bit), more often require a genitive than a nominative. INTRANSITIVE SUBJECT SIGNIFICATION | 69 sentence rhyme. Negative declarative sentences are also considered such cases, when the referentially defined subject is designated as the originator of the negation (see sentence (4)). According to Vladimir Borschev and Barbara Partee (2002a: Stt, 2002b: 8tt; 2002c: 8tt), existential sentences are always connected with explicit or implicit, i.e. explicit reference to a wider context, location, meaning the subject in the sentence. In other words, in semantic positivism, existence is always related to being in a location. Unlike Babby, the authors hold the view that the difference between negative locative sentences (in Babby's terms, statement sentences), in which the subject is usually designated as a nominative, and negative existential sentences, in which the subject is typically designated as a pronoun, is more related to the perspective of the sentence than to the differences in theme vs. frame, i.e. the differences in intransitive sentences are based on the choice of the Perspective Center (in Babby's terms, the subject) in the existence/location situation. In existential sentences, the center of perspective is the place, and in locative sentences, the object. There are sentences that can be interpreted as intermediate cases of locative and existential sentences. Such can be considered locative sentences with the subject’s pronoun (see also Holvoet 2005: 3t)’. 0.3. [Without going into more detail about the history of the question and the different opinions of the researchers, on the one hand, it is possible to say that in the negative intransitive (5a) — (7b) type sentences, two different verbs are chosen to indicate the subject, which indicates some (semantic, syntactic or other) stress in the sentence. In other words, this assertion is based on the assumption that the representation of the syntactic function (subject) belonging to the core of the sentence with different syllables is not accidental, but motivated. On the other hand, it can be assumed that the differences in sentences marked with two different verbs are in principle non-essential, and the use of two verbs is in fact synonymous and equivalent, i.e. the noun and the adjective of the intransitive subject are used as morphosyntactic variants. Based on the assumption that under certain semantic conditions Elena Paduéeva (1997: 103) distinguishes two types of negative intransitive sentences with a negative ancestor: existential and perceptual. Existential sentences state that,,X (thing) does not exist in a certain place or in the world in general“; The perceptual sentences state that,.X was not in the field of the observer’s perception (Russian: nepyenmueHoe npocmpaucmeo Cy6sexma co3zHanua)- ”. Perceptual sentence X (subject) can be defined not only by adjectives, but also by nouns; existential clause X (subject) usually (but not always) is marked by a genitive (e.g.: 106tt). Aldonos Paulauskienis (2001: 159) believes,,- ,that is the case when the negation allows the noun and the adjective to be used synonymously. This is the case when the logical subject does not coincide with the grammatical factor and is replaced by a noun: Isn’t there some kqsnelis (some little thing) left for me?” Works on the different interpretation of the negative transitive and negative intranzitive clauses of the final /first person and the nominative /first person, apzvalga Zr. Hentschel (1992a). But Mr. Greville G. Corbett (1986) compiled a bibliography on the use of the adjective/preposition in negative transitives. niuose rusy kalbos sakiniuose. a In the grammar of the present Lithuanian language (Ambrazas, ed., 1994: 587t) the nucleus of a sentence is defined as the grammatically identical word form for each sentence, i.e. a predicate with grammatically identical sentence parts. It is based on Gerd Hentscheli's concept of morphosyntactic variants. Morphosyntactic variants — in one fixed structural position, which relates to the same perspective of the situation, several (at least two) different morphosyntaktic forms of the same semantic argument are used, which can replace each other without significant difference (more Zr. Hentschel 1992a; 2001; cf. Valiulyte 1992: 50; Svambaryté 1992: 7t). According to Babby (1980a: 66tt), even in cases where both 70 | LORETA SEMENIENE For the nominal and/or formal conditions of the sentence one or the other of the intransitive subject- ’s verbs is more likely, but not necessary, and it is necessary to discern what may cause the more frequent choice of one of the verbs in a particular case. Furthermore, the article distances itself from the (1) —(4) type sentences and, taking into account the results of studies in other languages and individual studies, specifically discusses the correlation of semantic (living/dead, defined/- undefined) and syntactic (word order) criteria with the subject’s vowel in (5a) —(7b) type sentences. 1. The Correlation of Life and Nature WITH INTRANSITIVE SUBJECT LINKS In many studies, when discussing the influence of the negation (of the object or subject) on the use of the verb, the relationship between vitality (or individuality) and definiteness and inanity (abstraction) and indefiniteness is often sought*. 1.1. Often the hierarchy of life is divided according to generalized life positions alive vs. inanimate. When examining the ways of expressing the intransitive subject in Lithuanian, it has proved appropriate to discuss the influence of the hierarchy of vitality on the negative subject in the context of three different hierarchies (person, type of noun (or noun-like word), vitality position) (for more details see Croft 1990: 111tt, 127tt; cf. Comrie 1989: 128, 185tt): 1, 2 PERSON'S NAME > 3 PERSON'S NAME > REAL NAME > LIVE (PERSON > ANIMAL) GENERAL NOME SIGNING THE SUBSTANT > NON-LIFE (CONCRETE > ABSTRACT) OBJECT GENERAL NOME SIGNING. In view of the hierarchy of vitality or individuality, it is argued that the noun (or suffix in negative transitive sentences) tends to mean the most vital or individual noun (or noun-like word) defined referent (see Babby 1980a: 11t; Timberlake 1986: 339; Behnke 2005: 88tt). 1.1.1. It is true to see that when the subjects of negative intransitive sentences are the personal nouns that are the highest in the hierarchy of life, regardless of whether they refer to living (persons, animals) or inanimate (concrete, abstract) objects, they are usually marked with a noun, e.g.: (8) Would you like to teach me this game, call me. Phone number at Arting.,, Vaida A. i§,,Exemplum“, This letter is for you. AS in your life no longer exists, but you are like an elixir for my soul, klimpstanti everyday life in the sciences- “. There are some (sometimes subtle) differences in the functional sentences of the linksy use of the KT negation, so that from a syntactic point of view it is impossible to speak of linksy,,free variation“ (also cf. Haiman 1985: 19, 71). On the influence of the hierarchy of vitality and/or definiteness on the subject in the phraseically negative intransitive sentences of Russian Zr. Babby (1980a); Hentschel (1992a); Behnke (2005); about minéty hierarchijy jtaka of the object to the verb in transitive sentences more zr. Hentschel (1992a); Ueda (1992); Mustajoki, Heino (1991) Schaller (1978); Sponges (1992); Timberlake (1986); plg. Holvoet (1991: 99tt). Plg. Mustajoki, Heino (1991) ir Ueda (1992) 1998). darby kritika in: Hentschel (1996, Pagal gyvumo (siauraja prasme), apibréztumo, skaiciaus, konkretumo ir kitus pozymius individualumo (angl. individuation) hierarchija skiriama Alano Timberlake (1986). 71 (9) In the village Petroniskiy near the castle hill a money treasure was found. He didn't survive. KT (10) Singer Deivis has three nominations: Best Artist, Album and Song. , loks démesys really very pleasant. I think that it did not come without reason, because there was long enough work to get me where I am now.” The 3rd person personal pronoun in the position of the subject is not only a noun, but also a genitive in cases where it has the plural form zyméta. Therefore, it may be assumed that in the latter case the use of the genitive is rather determined by the non-living sign, 0, namely the plural form zyméta, cf. (11) —(13) sentences (cf. Paduéeva 1997: 112)". This can be asserted by the fact that the proper name assigned below in the hierarchy of life is usually interpreted as the prototypical form of the subject — the noun (cf. Timberlake 1986: 339; Babby 1980a: 11t) (see also below, cf. sentences (14) — (15). (11) T Kosciuska is depicted in profile, and at his feet — the insurgents’ weapons. A. Vivulskis started to work more, but they did not stay. KT (12) It is difficult to say anything more specific about prostitution in Lithuania at the beginning of the 19th century. First of all, the facts are wrong. This is not only because it did not survive, but also because at that time police control was weak, neither prostitution nor pubs were established, as was done in the second half of the century. KT (13) Both these presumptive prepositions are translative if nearby slavy kalby (vardan —older, zenklan —newer). You don't happen in Tarmes, especially not in Zenklan. A prefix or a subjunctive (KKP attributed only to a prefix) used in the name is tolerated. KT (14) Raimondas has Wife, children, moting. We have to know where he's going. |...| Raimondas did not appear tomorrow. Mother Sove thought to check if all the helicopters were in place. However, she did not go to her deployment site, but to her repair company. KT (15) [Zvaigidskaitys] told her about the terrible Ziniq about the Black Menuli. Based on the world’s history, Zvaigzdskaitys explained that the Black Moon does not exist in everyday reality, but still tick inexorably affects the destiny of Man. Dunia thought about her Black Hole, which in reality did not exist either. KT In cases where the intransitive subject is treated as a generic noun, both the noun and the genitive are quickly used (see sentences (Sa) —(7b)). It can be seen that in the negative intransitive sentence living common nouns are even more often marked with non-prototypical subject pronouns than less prototypical subjects- —dead common nouns (see table 1; see also below). © Plg. Sukys (1998: 70; see also p. 100t) states in a certain sense that the origin of an undefined quantity is to be used when an unknown or unknown group of objects, phenomena and persons of a known quantity is presented for the first time, and sometimes an undefined part of a certain whole. [...] When the undefined group has already been presented to the reader or listener, it is further referred to as defined and the denominator is used.” Furthermore (Sukys 1998: 101) it is stated that,,the originator of part (quantity) is usually a singular noun in the plural form. Usually, such a pronoun is used only when a single group of unknown or unknown quantity is mentioned for the first time. Then we talk about that group as Known and use the noun. [...] When choosing the genitive of a part, the number of the noun, its meaning, and not so much the meaning of the verb, determines the majority; context is also important*. 72 || LORETA SEMENIENE 1 LENTELE. "LIVING AND GENERAL NOVELS MEANS INTRANSITIVE SUBJECTS TENDENCY CORRELATION" Living (person, animal) Non-living (concrete, abstract) i dt, ile al aa) GEN ‘71 (56%) GEN 125 6%) From what has been said, it can be seen that the names that are at the top of the hierarchy of vitality (personal names, proper names) are usually marked by the intransitive subject noun, lower and lower in the hierarchy names can be marked by both the noun and the adjective. In the latter case, the noun and the pronoun of the intransitive subject are used as morphosyntactic variants. Acknowledging the criticism of Gerd Hentscheli (1996: 276tt) that the explanation of the negative verb, based on the hierarchy of vitality, is only a fact description and that it is necessary to seek other reasons for the choice of one of the negative verbs, the correlation of definiteness and the intransitive subject verb is further discussed. 1.2. “Briefness, according to Babby (1980a: 12; cf. Hentschel 1992a; Gladrov 1992: 240tt; Plungian 2003: 286t), tells us how the speaker assesses the listener’s Knowledge- ”. A definite noun (a noun or a noun-used noun) is understood as already mentioned in the discourse. Such noun designation referrer is usually known to the listener, he can identify the referrer and distinguish it from other referrer of the same class. Such nouns convey information already available, i.e. old information. The definition of a noun may depend not only on the linguistic context, but also on the situation or the general knowledge of the speakers. In the latter cases, despite the fact that the noun is not mentioned in the previous linguistic context, it is implicitly "active", i.e. implied from the context of the situation. Indefinite nounsThe reference is usually unidentified in the context: such nouns convey new information; noun marks referrer is not yet known to the listener. '' The tables are based on the data of the Computer Linguistics Center of Kaunas University (online access: http://donelaitis.vdu.It- ). 2 Plagiau apie apibrėžtuma Zr. Lyons (1999a; 1999b); Givon (1978a). Christopher Lyons (1999a: 253tt) defines definition as a grammatical category; definiteness is the grammaticalization of identifiability. Talmy Gibbons (1984: 399tt, 427) distinguishes between defined vs. undefined prepositions based on the listener’s ability to determine the noun’s referential identity and specificity. There has been little written about defined vs. undefined symbols in Lithuanian (see Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 142tt; Ambrazas, red., 1994: 174tt; Grenda 1979; Valeckiené 1986; 1998: 261tt; Rosinas 1980; Kalédaité 2002: 169tt; cf. Lyons 1999a: 83). Lars Behnke (2005: 78t) distinguishes three degrees of topicality based on Givén’s topicality attribute: new information (the noun is mentioned for the first time in the discourse); implicit information (the noun is not mentioned in the previous context, but is implicitly implied (via associations) in the situation), old information (the name Word is mentioned in the previous discourse). It is concluded that neither the i$ of relevance laipsniy has decisive importance for the use of the intransitive subject in the verb. INTRANZITYVINIO SUBJEKTO ZYMEJIMAS | 73 The hierarchy of definition (DEFINITED > UNDEFINITED)* is related to the hierarchy of vitality: the more alive (individual) an object is, the more definite the noun (noun or noun-word) that denotes the object is. Conversely, the more definite the noun, the less likely it is to be used as a negative noun (Timberlake 1986: 339, 342; cf. Babby 1980a: 60t, 67t; Paulauskiené 2001: 160, 162)". 1.2.1. The 1st and 2nd person nouns in the intransitive subject position are inherently defined; they are, as mentioned above (see 1.1.1.), usually designated by a denominator (see sentence (8))'®. The 3rd person personal noun, which is also defined, may affect the numbers: singular 3rd person personal nouns are marked with a noun (see sentences (9) — (10), plural 3rd person personal nouns are marked with both a noun and a pronoun (see sentences (12) — (15)) (see sentences (13) — (15)). Timberlake 1986: 342). Similarly to personal nouns, noun demonstrative nouns such as tas, Sis, etc., or relative nouns such as kuris, kuri, which are also defined: the intransitive subject is often expressed by a noun (see Hentschel 1992a), e.g.: (16) Edvardas lauké Igno kabinete, bet kai Sis nepasirodoé, pats nuéjo j stinaus kambaryj. Ignas was already getting ready to go to bed. "Codel's neuseai?" —paklausé tévas. “And where?” "I asked," he said. I'm tired. KT (17) The apostle, whose letter I-qjj is known to us, had written a letter to this community, which did not survive to our time. The Letter to the Corinthians (the L-th) was written in Macedonia in the autumn of 57 AD. KT Kilmininko can be expected more often in those cases, when the noun demonstrative nouns or relative nouns in the greeting sentence in the position of the subject is not referring to what thing (see (13) sentences), cf.: (18) K. Regelis foresaw this as early as December 1922, announcing in the foreign press that a specialist was needed for the gardener- 's duties, because such a person did not appear in Lithuania. Meanwhile, K. Grybauskas was temporarily appointed senior gardener, and from 1924 — P. Martynaitis, until then working only in Freda's manor. KT (19) Moscow proposed to award the jubilee medal to artists if they depicted the work of the Soviet militia in their paintings. Such a thing did not occur in Lithuania. KT 4 On the hierarchy of definedness (defined vs. undefined) in more detail See Croft (1990: 11Stt). 8 According to Babby (1980a: 12tt; cf. Hentschel 1992a; Paduceva 1997; Behnke 2005), the originator of the negation in intransitive sentences is an indicator of indefiniteness. x Negative intransitive (locative) sentences are worthy of special attention, such as: nejaugi tu nebuvai namie vakar; Did you not be at home yesterday, in which the personal noun (or other reference-defined noun) can be a noun or adjective. The question remains whether the noun and the adjective always have semantic differences. If so, what, if not—when both vowels can be used as morphosyntactic variants. More on the semantic differences between the subject of the reference, the designation as a noun or a pronoun, see Zr. Paduéeva (1992: S6tt); Borschev, Partee (2002b: 25t, 32tt; 2002c: 10t); Holvoet (2005: 3t). 74 | LORETA SEMENIENE (20) In Skinner's view, there is no distinction between moral and immoral social orders, only between those that survived and those that did not. Survival is the highest social value. KT (21) Vase paintings contain many household objects, which have not survived due to their non-permanence. These are the high lekiti, in which, like beds, half-beds were used by the Greeks. KT Referents by real names are usually defined; for the intransitive subject, the most commonly used noun (see (14) —(15) sentences) (cf. Gladrov 1992: 255). In certain cases, the origin of the negation is also possible, cf.: (22) Historians claim that the pricey material culture was even higher than the Lithuanian one. But they did not have a state, they were just a tribe. Mindaugas did not appear among them. One can only wonder what would have happened if, say, Herkus Mantas had not appeared in the historical arena in 1260. KT Here, unlike in the previous sentences (14) - (15), the real name is not an individual thing; the sentence is not about a specific (identified, individual) person named Mindaugas, but about the fact that there was no such person among the prisoners as the Lithuanian king Mindaugas. For similar reasons, i.e. because of the notation of an unindividualized, non-referential object, the origin of the negation can be the notation of the real name also in the case when it is used together with the demonstrative pronoun, cf. : (23) They may have changed their decisions after seeing her.,, Apparently, you have no heart at all, if you treat yourself like a executioner,” —V. S. shaved sonnet. Unfortunately, there was no such Hamlet, a dirty, grumpy prophet-- philosopher. For a Catholic, the question of “to be or not to be” is resolved. Butt! The greatest obstacle to personal and proper names in the KT definitional positions are generic nouns denoting abstract objects, which are often undefined. In the latter case, it is possible to expect the origin of a negative proposition (cf. Gladrov 1992: 255). But, as can be seen in i8 sentences (24) —(25), both the noun and the origin of the negation are used (see also (7a) —(7b) sentences): the prototypical subject verb —noun—is used even more often than the origin!’. Example: (24) Apparently, such an event in business every day leads to numerous negotiations and hundreds of transactions. But this time Lithuania almost panicked. First of all, because everything related to “Mazeikiy oil” causes almost the same passion as the artesian Kalédos. KT (25) Next week the company is going to announce a compulsory official meeting to buy the remaining Kaunas brewery shares. Although there was no panic in the market, stock brokers are intensively considering how much the Estonian holding company will pay for its shares. KT 17 General nouns denoting abstract objects Nom are used in 97 (61%) sentences, 0 GEN — in 62 (39%) sentences. INTRANZITYVINIO SUBJEKTO ZYMEJIMAS | 73 In negative intransitive sentences, the nominative and the genitive of the negation are used for acceleration and in those cases where the general nouns denoting abstract objects are defined in terms of context, cf.: (26) Did Captain Henrikas Zalandauskas never have the idea of leaving everything behind and staying where the work of Man is valued? No, he says, that thought never came up. Captain says he doesn't understand why people leave Lithuania. KT (27) But she will get very angry, start fighting, calling me an egoist. It is necessary to wait for an opportunity, so that it is not seen, not heard. And such an opportunity never happens. KT (28) But in the lands inhabited by Lithuanians there were still some pagan relics. So the question arose to the Lithuanians themselves, who are they. Such a question did not arise, for example, for the Poles, because they then formed the majority in their state, and until the Reformation almost all the inhabitants of Poland were Poles. KT Only a negative pronoun can be expected with the negative indefinite pronoun none, which denotes abstract objects (cf. Hentschel 1992a). But, as can be seen from the iS sentences (29) —(30), not only the origin of the intransitive subject is used, but also the noun, cf.: (29) Znala som, že riskujem. But fear, responsibility — everything disappears when there is a desire to steal. Nothing exists. KT (30) You have to give a great part of yourself, your feelings and your experiences to the war.,,When you create, it is as if you find yourself in your own world, and nothing exists around you,” —A. Deltuva believes. Similarly to the definite and undefinite general nouns (or the undefinite pronoun nothing) denoting abstract objects, definite and undefinite general nouns denoting living (persons, animals) and inanimate (concrete) objects are defined. It can be seen that despite definiteness and liveliness, both the noun and the adjective are used (but zr. (Sa) —(6b) sentences), cf. : (31) A device designed to show planets with satellites moving around the Sun, thus according to the Copernicus system. This interesting device has not survived to the present day. In later times another one was acquired for teaching purposes, which can now be seen in the University Library Science Museum. KT (32) He tries to polemise with some of Cicero’s statements in De oratorin. The entire work of Caesar has not survived, and it is possible to conclude from its fragments that Caesar was written in the analogy language of Salinius, in an attempt to establish unified Latin forms. KT (33) Any existence begins in Time: as long as a thing does not exist, its time cannot exist either. KT (34) I would so like to be tomorrow at the performance in Yasy that I will take the last measure — to disturb you. I'm sorry I didn't get a ticket to the theater.- .. I'm sorry for everything and I'm asking forgiveness for my purely childish indignation. The spirit of J. Baltrusaitis. PS. I'll get back to you tomorrow, man. KT From what has been said, it can be seen that the prototypical designation of the subject with a nominative in the negative intransitive sentences is valid in those cases where the sub- 82 | LORETA SEMENIENE VALECKIENE, A. 1986: The category of definiteness/indefiniteness and the primary meaning of the two-word noun. Lietuviy kalbotyros klausimai 25, 168-188. VALECKIENE, A. 1998: Functional grammar of the Lithuanian language, Vilnius: Institute of Science and Encyclopedia Publishing. VALIULYTE, E. 1992: I§ Syntax and Synonymics. Lituanistica 4 (12), 50-55. Loreta Seméniené Received 29/03/2005 Lithuanian Language Institute P. Vilei8io g. 5, 10308 Vilnius, Lithuania [email protected]