Linksnių vartojimo dažnumas ir daiktavardžio reikšmė

ACTA LINGUISTICA LITHUANICA LII (2005), 59-65 Linksniy vartojimo daznumas ir daiktavardzio reikSme INETA SAVICKIENE Using Vytauto Didziojo universitetas Kurytowicz’s notions of grammatical and concrete cases, grammatical cases are examined with respect to their syntactic functions and concrete ones with respect to their semantic functions. Our hypothesis is that statistically the frequency of a case is inversely proportional to its degree of functional markedness. Grammatical cases (nominative, accusative and genitive) are shown to be more frequent than concrete ones (dative, instrumental and locative). Differences in frequency of case forms for specific words reflects markedness of the case and noun semantics. The study is based on an analysis of spoken Lithuanian using the CHILDES programme. The frequency of case forms and their meanings were investigated for adult-directed speech (ADS), child-directed speech (CDS) and child speech (CS). Similar tendencies were shown to hold in CDS and CS, but different ones in ADS. Significant differences connected with animacy were observed. Our results confirm the assumption that the meaning of a noun influences the semantics of individual cases and their potential of occurrence. 1. SPEECH AND Speech The principle of twentieth-century linguistics that spoken language is different from written language and should therefore be considered more important for research has been widely accepted. Leonard Bloomfield (1935: 21) said that writing is not a language, but only a kind of recording of language. Bloomfield’s observations also influenced the theoretical thinking of linguistics, especially syntax. It is also important to remember that John Lyons (1977: 3942) also pointed out the differences between grammar and Zodyn, which distinguish between verbal and written language. He pointed out that in rational societies the relationship between speech and rational language is very complex—- variations in speech and rational language in a given language may be partly independent. However, such assertions do not deny the priority of spoken language, because spoken language is still primarily needed for communication purposes even in very rigid societies. Moreover, a person learns spoken language first and undoubtedly easily, while written language takes a lot of time to learn, and it happens often not so easily and not always successfully. In this thesis we will try to discuss the category of the Lithuanian verb, which includes even several structures of the language. ApraSant funny, inevitably need re- 60 | INETA SAVICKIENE syntax and semantics, because only by covering all these verbs it is possible to create a picture of the verb category. We will try to see if there is a difference in the frequency of using funny in adult and child conversations. This article is written using pochatbiy! medzZiaga. Conversations were systematically recorded on audiotapes and transcribed on computers by CHILDES? system. 2. GENERAL LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE LINK CATEGORY,- »Speech category includes several structures of language. Thus, it is not possible to reveal all its characteristics in one or another domain. Morphology describes a system of links forms, but it is not yet achieved; paradigmatic relations are always based on the meaning of one or another verb form in the syntax” (Paulauskieneé, If we understand verbs together with prepositions as one functional category, then in its 1994: 98). center will be subjective—- objective relations, and in the very periphery — circumstances. In the prepositional construction, the noun is joined to the verb by a preposition that requires a certain verb — a preposition, a suffix or an adjective. In Lithuanian, prepositions are most often used with adjectives (ant, be, prie, is, dél, iki), adjectives (j, pas, per, pro, pries, apie), adjectives (su, po). Prepositional constructions mainly describe the general meaning of the place, but also other circumstances (Ambrazas, ed., 1994; Paulauskiené 1994; Valeckiené 1998; Sukys 1998). Jerzy Kurytowicz divided all the funny ones into two groups. The noun, adjective and pronoun, because of their primary syntactic functions, he called "grammatical". The other verbs (noun, possessive and pronoun) are,,concrete”—they have a primary semantic function and often depend on a specific context, i.e., on the verb and the lexical meaning of the noun attached to it (Kurytowicz 1964: 31, 188-189). Thus linksniy functions are syntactic and semantic. Nouns are usually joined to a verb, which forms the center of the sentence and requires a certain syllable. Some verbs are joined to other nouns. Adele Valeckiene (1998: 251-252) states that the most important elements for the forming of a linguistic sentence are the adjective and the noun. According to their primary syntactic functions, they are related to 1 The analysis of this work is based on several conversational textbooks. The first includes conversations between a child and an adult, i.e. about 35 hours of conversation (See Savickiené 2001, 2003), the second —adults’ conversations among themselves, i.e. about 9 hours of conversation (material collected by the author). The speakers belong to different age and gender groups. The predominant topics of conversation are related to household problems, experienced emotions, future plans. This program allowed all transcription and encoding work to be done much more accurately and relativepriemones. Pirmoji-—tai transkribavimo ir kodavimo formatas CHAT. Antroji—analizés programy paketas ly quickly. In addition, it allows you to automatically analyze large volumes of conversation texts. CHILDES system includes two CLAN. Based on the CLAN programs Combo, Kwal, Freq, statistical studies were carried out, which allowed to make conclusions about the frequency of the used vocabulary and grammatical categories (MacWhinney 1994). FREQUENCY OF LINKS AND NOVELS_ | 61 Verbs have transitivity and relate to each other as the noun of the subject and the adjective of the object. A parent is connected to the nominative and adjective. The verb-joined originator is closely connected to the adjective by function and can perform the function of an object. Thus, traditionally in Lithuanian linguistics, noun, adjective and pronoun are classified as grammatical links, and noun, adjective and pronoun — as semantic links. The most typical syntactic function of the denominator is the subject, 0 of the adjective and pronoun is the object. However, linksniyu functions are not only the i8listed ones —there are many more. For example, in compounds with adjectives, the causative means an object, part of an object, or an undefined quantity. The genitive with the preposition can perform circumstantial functions, 0 vardazodinése phrasezés go subjunctive. In addition to the direct object, the adjective can indicate the circumstances of time and place. The object-oriented user can also perform different semantic functions: finite, beneficient, percipient. In addition to the dual meaning of the object (instrument and comitative), inagininkas can also mean the circumstances of place and time. And a placeholder, in addition to a place, can mean time as well. Thus, the jokes have the main and salutary meaning. Recent studies of Lithuanian grammar state that there cannot be a clear distinction between grammatikal and semantikal linksniy, that,,only specific cases of linksniy use can be called grammatical or semantical* (Holvoet, Semeniené 2004). 3. USE AND APPLICATION OF THE LEVEL As one of the most complex, complex and interesting categories of language, the category of the interjection gives researchers the opportunity to analyze it in various ways. Real usage reveals the diversity of the verb category, its potential to acquire one or another meaning in different contexts. By analyzing the use of verbs in various contexts, we will try to see which verbs —grammatical or semantic—are used more frequently and with what meanings. According to the frequency of use, preliminary studies of the Lithuanian sentences show the following distribution: the most frequently used noun, the second most frequently used — the adjective, the third — the adjective, the fourth — the noun, the next — the adjective and the pronoun. 1 The lens. LINEAR DISTRIBUTION BY FREQUENCY OF USE (%) LEFT uv G. K. N. IN. Vi 46% 19% 21% _ 6% 4% 3% The use of the verb is closely linked to the situation, context and participants in the speech act. Obvious linksniy consumption differences observed in the situa- 62 | INETA SAVICKIENE tions, when an adult speaks to an adult (SSK)°, to a child (VSK) or when a small child (VK) speaks (see table 2). The data of the study show that in terms of entertainment consumption, VSK and VK are much closer (cf. Savickiené 2000, 2002) than SSK. Despite the great difference, it can be observed that there is also a similarity — the noun is the most commonly used verb in all three groups. Kity linksniy use is different. In the SSK group, the genitive is used much more often than the dative, and the dative of VSK and VK is Slightly more common. SSK is also twice as frequently used by the profiter, while the consumption of the hunter and the local farmer almost coincides with the VSK. All groups are similarly used by locals. 2 The lenses. FREQUENCY OF LIQUID USE (%): SSC VS. SSC VS. SSC LINKSNIS 4 4 G.; K. N. IN. a Vi i SSK 32% 18% 28% _—«d9% 5% 3% VSK 48% 21% 19% 5% 4% 3% UK 59% 19% 15% 4% 2% 2% It can be seen that the most common is the nominative (unspecified member), 0 at the other end of the scale is the pronoun and the inagnik —most commonly humorously. The deputy (the rarest in the whole linksniy system) is considered the most signed member. The results are similar for SSK, VSK and VK — grammatical syllables are used most often, semantic 0 remains in the periphery of the system. The frequency of individual links varies, especially of the denominator. In terms of frequency of use, the latter is almost 10% more common than the first and even 27% more common than the second. SSK. The frequent use of the VSK and VK nominative is a specific feature of children and their language, especially in the early period of language acquisition (Savickiené 1999, Voeikova, Savickiené 2001). The data show that grammatical verbs, i.e. noun, adjective and genitive, are much more common than specific verbs: noun, adjective and locus*. Thus, a functionally defined specific link subsystem has a low frequency. The grammatical frequency of a verb is very different from the specific frequency of a verb. The frequency of one nobleman is greater than all the concrete links taken together. The trends of the use of linguistic verbs in Lithuanian are similar — grammatical verbs are more frequent than concrete ones (Zilinskiene 1979: 78-88). The most commonly used is the pronoun (43%), while the noun and suffix are used panaphically (20% and 18% respectively) (Gelumbauskaité 2003). = SSK adult directed speech (ADS), VSK child directed speech (CDS), VK child language (CLL) = SSK adult directed speech (ADS), VSK child directed speech (CDS), VK child language (CLL). © Since Kurytowiczius did not distinguish Sauksmininko joke, it is not mentioned here either. FREQUENCY OF LINKSNIU AND NOVELS_ | 63 Statistical data in Slavy language (Snekamujy) are similar: rusy: V. —32,6, G. —25,3, K. —22, N. —4,1, Vt. —10,1, In. —5 (Zemskaja 1979: 74); lenku: V. —34,2, G. —29,8, K. —19,2, N. —4,8, In. —4,4, See —7,6 (Laskowski 1989: 212). Interestingly, in Polish and Russian, the finalis is more common, while in Lithuanian it is the pronoun. The overall frequency of funny doesn't tell you everything about the funny category. The semantics of the noun has a great influence on linksniy statistics (Laskowski 1989: 207-226). In checking this proposition, it is necessary to determine the relevance of the semantic preposition “living/dead” for the statistics of entertainment. The tables below show the SSK, VSK and VK data separately. 3 THE LENSES. SSK GYVO /NEGY VO SEMANTINES PRIESPRIESOS LINKSNIS DISTRIBUCIJA (%) LINKSNIS _ uv G. /K N 1 IN; Vr. ts GYVAS -36,32; 8,24 46,31 _ 6,48 2,17 0,48 7 NEGYVAS | _ 11,53 19,56 45,77 1,92 14,20 7,02 4 LENTELE. DISTRIBUTION OF LIVE/NON- -LIFE SEMANTIC SUBJECTIONS IN THE VSK (%) i. =. oe _ eu Gyvas 55.2 89 AA fs 25 OO Neyvas 35.2 29.6 23.1 0.4 5.1 5.7 5 TABELE. VK LIVE / NON-LIFE SEMANTIC SUBJECTIONS LINKSNIV DISTRIBUTION (%) LINKSNIS vo _ G. KO N. a IN. -Vr Live; 65.0 8.7: 9.9 6.9 to 15! _0 DEAD 44.4 29.0 18.8 0.1 /3.0 3.8 The statistical difference between alive /dead reiSkian- ¢ciy nounziy very obvious. The most common live verb VSK and VK is the noun (its frequency is much higher than all other verbs taken together), and SSK — the genitive, whose frequency is lower than the genitive. 64 | INETA SAVICKIENE kia nominal value even 10 per cent. In the SSK group of inanimate objects, the nominative is only in the fourth position —after the genitive, adjective, and adjective —and is 34% behind the most frequent verb. IS gramatiniy linksniy ending is the most commonly used member of the vivi group (almost equally used by all groups: SSK 8.24%, VSK 8.9%, neživu. The user of VK 8,7%), 0 kilmininkas (VSK 23,1% ir VK 18,8%) ir vardininkas (SSK 11,53%) — inanimate objects is the most common member (SSK 1.92%, VSK 0.4%, VK 0.1%), while the owner and vice-owner are quite common in all groups. On the other hand, the frequency of the vivid beneficiary is very high, and the pronoun is almost not used at all (except for SSK 0.48%). The results show that there is an obvious difference between the use of live/dead host and local host. The reason for this difference in the case of the beneficiary is that this verb usually performs the functions of beneficiary, percipient or experient (about semantic functions see Jakaitiene 1988; Valeckiene 1998). The position of the pronoun is similar to that of the noun, but this verb takes marginal positions —in the living subsystem the pronoun is almost completely unused. This is because the simplest function of a localizer is to indicate a location. Obviously, the Si function only applies to inanimate objects. Thus, the pronoun is the most common verb in the living subsystem, 0 among the non-living objects requiring nouns it acquires a different status. After considering the linksniy statistics, it is clear that the frequency of linksniy use differs greatly depending on which subsystem they belong to. The results confirm the idea that the meaning of the noun affects not only the semantics of the individual verbs, but also the possibilities of their use. 4. MISVADOS In the linksniy system there are differences in the frequency of use related to the specificity of the spoken language. After examining the groups of living/dead reiSkianciy nouns, it is clear that the frequency of use of linksniy is obviously different. The semantics of the noun determines the frequency of its use. However, it is not only important which jokes are used most often in a conversation. The subject of the conversation, the participants and the situation also determine the humorous distribution. Based on Jerzy Kurytowicziau's division of verbs into grammatical and specific verbs, it was attempted to determine whether the so-called true grammatical verbs —noun, adjective and suffix—are most often used in their basic, non-Salutine meanings. The results will be summarized using the definitions of,,syllable hierarchy”:- ,,Syllables are classified on the scale of iSsidésto according to whether they encode central or peripheral sentence functions* (Holvoet, Seméniené 2004: 33). LITERATURA AMBRAZAS, red., 1994: Grammar of contemporary Lithuanian language, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijy leidykla. Bloomfield, L. 1935: Language, London: Allen & Unwin. LINKSNIY FAZNUMAS IR NUIKTAVARDZIO REIKSME_ | 65 GELUMBAUSKAITE, K. 2003: Dynamics of the use of noun links. Master's thesis, Kaunas: VDU. HOLVoET, A., SEMENIENE L. 2004: Theory of Fun. Holvoet, A., Semeéniené, L., ed., Gramatiniy kategorijy tyrimai, Vilnius: Lietuviy kalbos institutas (Lietuviy kalbos gramatikos darbai, 2), 11-33. JAKAITIENE, E. 1988: Lexical semantics, Vilnius: Mokslas. KuryLowIiczZ, J. 1964: The inflectional categories of Indo-European, Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitatsverlag. LaskowskI, R. 1989: Markedness and the category of case in Polish. 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A. 1979: Pycckaa pazeoeopuaa peu, Mockpa: Hayxa. Zilinskiene DKuuucKene], V. 1979: Crarucruueckuit anan3 MOPOJIOrHH JIMTOBCKHX ra3eTHOXYPHAJIbHBIX TEKCTOB. Asmopedepam duc. Kano. ~uson. HaykK, BustbHtOC. Ineta Savickiené Received 2005 05 23 S. Daukanto g. 28, 44246 Kaunas, Lithuania [email protected] Vytauto Didziojo universitetas