Antrinės netiesioginės nominacijos valgymo veiksmažodžių semantiniai atsiradimo ypatumai

ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language Research areas: lexicology and lexicography. SEMANTIC FEATURES OF THE EMERGENCE OF SECONDARY INDIRECT NOMINATION EATING VERBS Semantic Peculiarities of Occurrence of Eating Verbs of Secondary Indirect Nomination ABSTRACT The subject of this article is the secondary indirect nomination eating verbs of the Lithuanian language, selected from the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian currently being compiled. The study aims to establish which features of phenomena, objects, or actions in reality become semantic features in language that determine the emergence of secondary indirect nomination eating verbs, and to compare them with the corresponding drinking verbs. At the end of the article, a preliminary synonym network of secondary indirect nomination eating verbs is presented. KEYWORDS: synonym, concept, secondary indirect nomination, metaphorical transfer of meaning, semantic feature, synonym network. ANNOTATION The object of this article is eating verbs of secondary indirect nomination of standard Lithuanian language taken from “Standard Lithuanian Language Dictionary” which is currently in the process of compilation. This research seeks to estimate which features of the actual phenomena, things or actions become semantic features in the language and determine the rise of the new eating verbs of secondary indirect nomination as well as to compare them with the corresponding drinking verbs. The article ends with a preliminary synonym network of eating verbs of secondary indirect nomination. KEYWORDS: synonym, concept, secondary indirect nomination, metaphorical transfer of meaning, semantic feature, synonyms network. 230 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIII Antrinės netiesioginės nominacijos valgymo veiksmažodžių semantiniai atsiradimo ypatumai 0. This publication continues the author’s series of studies devoted to analyzing the semantic features of the meanings of verbs belonging to the EATING and DRINKING concepts. There is no doubt that studies of this kind could provide a starting point for a new type of synonym dictionary, a thesaurus of the Lithuanian language, and other semantic ontologies, which do not yet exist in Lithuania. 1. The author’s previous article (for further details, see Gaidienė 2015) examined the semantic motivations behind the emergence of synonyms for the verb gerti. It was established that a larger share of drinking verbs consists of verbs of secondary indirect nomination, in whose formation metaphorical polysemous relations appear to have played the most important role. When the act of drinking is named metaphorically, the semantic features most often activated are associated with physical action (hand movement), e.g., mesti ‘to let fly away (usually with the hand)’ → ‘to drink (alcoholic beverages)’, and with the sound produced by liquid, e.g., pliaup­ti ‘to rain heavily’ → ‘to slurp or drink a lot, greedily’. The concept EATING was selected as the subject of this study. Standard Lithuanian has a considerable number of verbs for expressing it: čiaumoti, drožti, kąsti, kimšti, kirsti, ryti, spro­gti, šutinti, šveisti, and so on. Given the abundance of eating verbs, the article limits its scope to an analysis of verbs of secondary indirect nomination¹ (hereafter ANN), selected from the forthcoming Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian (hereafter BŽ). This choice of source was motivated by the desire to investigate ANN eating verbs used in standard Lithuanian. The article examines all² ANN eating verbs found in BŽ³. The aim of the study described here is to establish which features of real-world phenomena, objects, or actions become semantic features in standard language that lead to the emergence of ANN eating verbs, and to compare the data obtained with the corresponding drinking verbs. The tasks of the study are to examine the semantic structures of ANN eating verbs; to identify and describe the semantic 1 It should be recalled that the result of primary nomination is an underived verb, which arises through agreement among speakers (Jakaitienė 1988: 24), e.g., gurkti ‘to eat, drink, or peck (usually greedily, quickly)’ (BŽe); the result of secondary direct nomination is a derivative whose form and meaning are based on another verb with a simpler structure (see ibid., p. 24), e.g., kąsnoti ‘to eat slowly’ (BŽe); the result of secondary indirect nomination is a semantic derivative—a newly formed meaning of a word (see ibid., p. 24), e.g., drožti 1. ‘to cut, taper, smooth, or sharpen with a knife or another sharp tool’ → 6. ‘to eat or drink greedily’ (BŽe). 2 Some eating verbs recorded in earlier dictionaries (LKŽe, DŽe) are not recorded in BŽe, e.g., skusti 10. ‘to eat greedily’ (LKŽe); 6. ‘to eat greedily, to devour, to gnaw’ (DŽe); šlepsėti 2. ‘to eat or devour messily, smacking one’s lips, to gobble, to munch’ (LKŽe); 2. ‘to eat messily, smacking one’s lips’ (DŽe), and others; they are therefore not examined in this article. 3 It should be emphasized that, after the final editing of BŽe, the dictionary entries presented in this article may change. Straipsniai / Articles 231 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ the relations among the meanings of the verbs under examination, and to compare the data obtained with ANN drinking verbs; on the basis of the material studied, to develop a preliminary synonym network of ANN eating verbs. The theoretical principles underlying the analysis of the selected verbs were discussed in the author’s aforementioned article, so it does not seem appropriate to repeat them here. 2. The verb valgyti is the most widely used word for describing eating. The Corpus of the Modern Lithuanian Language contains more than fifteen thousand examples of its use4. In Lithuanian dictionaries, the verb under examination is defined in two ways. In LKŽe and DŽe, the primary meaning of the verb valgyti is defined rather abstractly: (1) LKŽe ‘to consume food, to nourish oneself, to satisfy one’s hunger’, e.g.: I eat and drink until I am full in my sleep SD445. At least wash yourself before eating J.Jabl. They ate here Jn. I eat while grimacing R130, MŽ171. We Lithuanians eat borscht and delicious stewed food, praising it when cooked with tasty bacon K.Donel. [...]; (2) DŽe ‘to consume food, to nourish oneself’, e.g.: To eat bread, soup, cheese, fruit. To eat dinner. I want to eat with relish. [...]. BŽe distinguishes two meanings of the verb valgyti: (3) BŽe 1. ‘to take into the mouth, chew, and swallow’, e.g.: My tooth hurts; I cannot eat. Please help yourself and eat. Do not talk while eating. Do not eat lying down. He is sitting at the table and eating an apple. The men are eating meat [soup] with great relish. When you get hungry, you will eat even dry bread. [...]. 2. ‘to consume a meal or food; to nourish oneself’: I too have grown hungry to eat. I do not feel like anything: neither eating nor going anywhere. People eat a lot during Shrovetide. In the past, people ate less well. He was left like a twig: neither eating nor sleeping. Sometimes I ate, and sometimes I had gone without eating. In our cultural area, people eat with a spoon, knife, and fork. [...]. In defining the first meaning of the verb valgyti, BŽe draws attention to the physical and physiological features of the act of eating, namely, ‘taking’ food, ‘chewing’ it, ‘swallowing’ it, and the ‘mouth’; in defining the second, it emphasizes the process of eating and satisfying hunger itself as an abstract, vital phenomenon. This presentation of the meanings makes it possible to distinguish two conceptions of eating: a purely physiological one and an abstract one (as the process of eating and satisfying hunger). 4 Examples in the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language were searched for using the root valg-, selecting the finite and non-finite forms of the verb valgyti, valgo, valgė. 5 Abbreviations such as LKŽe are retained in the article. 232 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIII Antrinės netiesioginės nominacijos valgymo veiksmažodžių semantiniai atsiradimo ypatumai 3. It is assumed that the elements of the scenario of the relevant physiological action that make up the content of the concept under investigation can help identify the features activated in the meanings of ANN verbs belonging to the concept VALGYTI; these elements were established through analysis of the examples6 (see Table 2). Kognityvinėje lingvistikoje sąvokos (idealizuotas kognityvinis modelis (Lakoff 2004: 99–110), freimas arba semantinis interpretacinis rėmas (Fillmore 1982), scenarijus (Lakoff 2004: 371–372; 514–537) ir skriptas (Schank, Abelson 1977: 42; Ungerer, Schmid 1996: 211–217), galima teigti, reiškia maždaug tą patį – kalbinės raiškos sužadintas, tam tikra tvarka sutvarkytas žinias apie kurią nors sudėtinę situaciją ar kompleksinį įvykį. Valgymą (taip pat ir gėrimą) kaip fiziologinį procesą sudaro viena po kitos einančios nuoseklios fazės: maisto ĖMIMAS (nebūtina fazė) – ATSIKANDIMAS (arba ĮSIURBIMAS, jei tai skysta konsistencija) – KRAMTYMAS (jei fiziologinis procesas gėrimas, šios fazės nėra) – RIJIMAS – VIRŠKINIMAS / SOTUMO JAUSMAS. Kadangi sąvoka freimas labiau pabrėžia statinį, o scenarijus ir skriptas – dinaminį tam tikro kognityvinio modelio pobūdį, šiame straipsnyje pasirinkta vartoti scenarijaus sąvoką (skripto sąvoka labiau taikoma prototipinių sociokultūrinių įvykių aprašymui, pavyzdžiui, [VALGYMO RESTORANE] skriptas). Kaip teigia George’as Lakoffas, scenarijus susideda iš kelių ontologinių elementų: pradinės būklės, įvykių sekos ir galutinės būklės, t. y. scenarijus struktūruotas pagal schemą: ištakos – eiga – tikslas (Lakoff 2004: 371). Apskritai scenarijaus sąvoka pirmiausiai buvo taikyta emocijoms aprašyti. 1 lentelėje pateikti G. Lakoff’o (1987) ir Zoltáno Kövesces’o (1988, 1990) apibendrinti PYKČIO (an. ANGER)7 ir BAIMĖS (an. FEAR) scenarijai, kuriuos sudaro atskiros, nuosekliai išdėstytos scenos (nuo priežasties iki galutinio veiksmo). 1 TABLE. Scenarios of anger and fear8 (after G. Lakoff and Z. Kövecses) ANGER FEAR Scene 1: cause The offender insults the victim. The insulting act causes the victim's dissatisfaction. A dangerous situation that may cause death or physical or mental pain. The victim is aware of the impending danger. Scene 2: emotion Anger exists. The victim experiences physiological changes caused by anger. Fear exists. The victim experiences physiological changes caused by fear. 6 Examples were collected from the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language (DLKT), the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian (BŽe), and the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽe). 7 G. Lakoff’as tokio tipo scenarijus vadina prototipiniais scenarijais (Lakoff 2004: 514). 8 The information was taken from and translated by the article’s author from the book by F. Ungerer and H. Schmid, An introduction to cognitive linguistics (1996: 141). Straipsniai / Articles 233 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ ANGER FEAR Scene 3: attempt to control The victim tries to control anger. The victim tries not to show fear and/or not to run away. Scene 4: loss of control The intensity of anger exceeds a certain threshold. Anger begins to control the victim. The intensity of fear exceeds a certain threshold. The victim can no longer control the fear. Scene 5: final action Punishment: the victim punishes the perpetrator. Sudden retreat: the victim flees from danger. The main principle of the scenarios presented is to describe the category of emotion systematically, that is, from the beginning of the emotion's emergence (Scene 1: cause) to its end (Scene 5: final action). Scenes 3 (attempt to control) and 4 (loss of control) in the scenario are closest to the central scene—Scene 2 (emotion); therefore, as research shows, Scenes 3 and 4 are the “richest” with respect to conceptual metaphors (Ungerer, Schmid 1996: 141). As F. Ungerer and H. Schmid state, if we looked at metaphors of ANGER, we would see that their “sequence neatly reflects the development of Scenes 2 and 3 and Scene 4 presented in the scenario, that is, ANGER heats the liquid in the container, the liquid rises, pressure increases, steam appears (all these metaphors belong to Scene 2), then the steam becomes uncontrollable (Scene 3) and, if the steam does not escape, the container explodes (Scene 4)” (Ungerer, Schmid 1996: 141). Based on the analysis of context, the article presents a scenario for the concept EAT (see Table 2), consisting of several elements: an optional physical action preceding the obligatory physiological action, namely, movement(s) of the hand(s) with or without an eating utensil, and the obligatory physiological actions, namely, taking a bite, chewing and swallowing (if the consistency of the food object is solid), or sucking and swallowing (if the consistency of the food object is thick/liquid), and digestion/a feeling of fullness. It was established that various elements of the EAT-concept scenario are in one way or another realized in the meanings of verbs belonging to this concept; for example, ‘hand movement’ (physical action) is recorded in the meaning of the verb kabliuoti; ‘chewing’ (physiological action) occurs in the meanings of the verbs traškinti, tratinti, etc. 234 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIII Antrinės netiesioginės nominacijos valgymo veiksmažodžių semantiniai atsiradimo ypatumai TABLE 2. The scenario of the concept EAT PHYSICAL ACTION An unnecessary physical action preceding the necessary physiological action. In our cultural area, food is eaten with a spoon, knife, and fork (BŽe). / He is alive and well, sitting on the shore now, eating porridge with his finger (DLKT). We ate as in olden times—with our hands; there were neither plates nor utensils (DLKT). In carrying out the action, the hand participates / does not participate, with an implement / without an implement. PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION Necessary physiological action: a) biting off a piece Moreover, many children like to eat ice cream in large bites [...] (DLKT). b) chewing and swallowing The meal was unusual right away: soup without fat or meat, but vegetables had been added; when eating them, it seemed as though you were chewing meat (DLKT). c) sucking and swallowing Grandfather eats soup from a Rembrandt bowl (DLKT). d) digestion / feeling of satiety Try to eat easily digestible food so that it passes from the stomach to the other digestive organs more quickly (DLKT). The lips, teeth, tongue, throat, pharynx, and abdomen are involved in carrying out the aforementioned actions. AGENT OF THE ACTION Person / bee / animal10 He eats fish (DLKT). / Bees eat; they do not feed. (LKŽe). / Even little dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their masters’ table VlnE46 (LKŽe). The rooster calls the hens but does not eat himself LKT355 (Nmč) (LKŽe). OBJECT OF THE ACTION Consistency: thick / liquid / solid food. I will give up fried potatoes and sausage and eat mashed potatoes with low-fat cottage cheese and onions (DLKT). / Kissel can be eaten either cold or hot (DLKT). They eat soup with relish (BŽe). / Mother will tell me the town’s news, while I will eat the sweets Dad brought (DLKT). Father used to eat only meat (DLKT). 9 The examples show that the agent of the act of eating may be not only a human being but also an animal. However, this article examines only the physiological act of eating performed by a human being. Straipsniai / Articles 235 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ OBJECT OF THE ACTION Thermal properties: cold / warm / hot food. Of course, one should eat as many fresh vegetables as possible (DLKT). / I like to eat warm, slightly sour porridge (DLKT). / They drink and eat freshly grilled meat, and listen to music [...] (DLKT). 4. At the end of the article, a preliminary10 synonym network of the verbs under consideration is presented. The synonym network was visualized using the program Gephy (see https://gephi.github.io/). for more details). 1. METAPHORICAL TRANSFER OF MEANINGS Metaphorical meanings related to eating may be associated with primary or secondary meanings that motivate them. According to the transfer of meanings, the following metaphorical models can be distinguished11: 1.1. An action resembling that denoted by the motivating meaning. 1.2. A sound produced during the action denoted by the motivating meaning. 1.3. A movement performed during the action denoted by the motivating meaning. 1.4. A temperature emitted during the action denoted by the motivating meaning. 1.5. An action resembling that denoted by the motivating meaning, performed by an animal. These models are examined in greater detail below. 1.1. An action resembling that described by the motivating meaning The meanings of the verbs of the concept EAT ANN assigned to this metaphorical model are linked metaphorically to their primary (motivating) meanings, in which an action that has a certain effect on an object/subject is recorded. 10 Further research may refine the network of synonyms for the verb valgyti presented in this article. 11 The identified models coincide with the models of the emergence of meanings of ANN gėrimo verbs. 236 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIII Antrinės netiesioginės nominacijos valgy mo veiksmažodžių semantiniai atsiradimo ypatumai 1.1.1. An action resembling that described by the motivating meaning, having a certain effect on an object's structure The effect on an object of a particular action described by the motivating meanings of verbs can be characterized as destructive, since in all the cases examined the object's form is changed, i.e., the object is: a) smoothed / cut / pointed / sharpened, etc.; b) wrapped / turned; c) removed / cleaned; d) divided / crushed; e) arranged / prepared; and f) wetted / softened. Accordingly, the verbs below are divided into subgroups. a) An object that is smoothed / cut / pointed / sharpened or similar The prototypical meanings of the verbs in this subgroup describe an intense physical action that is destructive: the object's structure is altered by performing an action with a sharp tool. The metaphorical meaning related to eating and the prototypical meaning of the verb skaptuoti (1) are connected by the basis of transferring similarity in the energetic, purposeful action performed: (1) skaptuoti 1. ‘to hollow out or scoop out with a chisel; to make something by chiseling’: To chisel a spoon out of wood. If the wood is not hard, it is easy to chisel. → 2. ‘to eat or feed greedily’: To chomp an apple. The children chomp pears (BŽe). The metaphorical meaning related to eating, ‘to eat greedily’, probably developed from the prototypical meaning ‘to hone, sharpen’ of the verb pustyti (2), and energetic, purposeful action may likewise be regarded as the basis for this transfer. It may also be possible to link the meaning related to eating with a secondary meaning recorded in LKŽe (this meaning is not recorded in BŽe), cf. ‘to cool or ventilate by blowing’, e.g.: Pour yourself some soup and blow on it a little at a time Lp. (2) pustyti 2. ‘to hone, sharpen’: Father honed the scythe for a long time. A honing strap—a belt for honing a razor. → 4. ‘to eat greedily’: The child is gobbling it up as if they had not eaten for days. Gobble up the meat; there won't be anything else (BŽe). The derived meaning ‘to eat greedily, to eat a lot’ of the verb ręsti (3) (e.g.: He keeps gobbling down the meat. BŽe) is most likely based on the primary meaning, ‘to make notches or indentations’ (e.g.: Every year, Father cut notches into the beam, marking his son's height. BŽe), or the secondary meaning, ‘to cut or carve grooves’ (e.g.: To notch a stick [table]. BŽe). As with the verbs mentioned above, the meaning related to eating and the motivating meanings are connected by the basis of transferring similarity in purposeful action (performed with a particular tool). Straipsniai / Articles 237 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ This subgroup also includes the verbs carve (4) and hew (5), discussed in greater detail in the author's earlier article (see Gaidienė 2015: 207): (4) carve 1. ‘to cut, sharpen to a point, smooth, or hone with a knife or another sharp tool’: He carves a pencil. The craftsman carves a board with a drawknife. → 6. ‘to eat or drink greedily’: He carves into the bacon. The children are carving into sausages so eagerly their ears are drooping (BŽe). (5) hew 1. ‘to carve, chop, hew, or smooth (wood, stone, etc.) with an axe, adze, chisel, or other tool’: When they finish laying the new foundations, they hew the logs. The craftsmen hewed the fieldstones. → 3. ‘to eat or drink greedily’: I often eat—I just keep tucking in. The children are tucking into pancakes. He tucks into curd cheese like Baltrus (folklore) (BŽe). b) An object that is wrapped / wound The prototypical and metaphorical meanings of the verbs curl (1), coil (2), and tangle (3) are linked by the act of wrapping / winding an object, where the metaphorically used object is food, and the means by which the food is wrapped / wound is the tongue. (1) curl 1. ‘to wrap, roll into a cylinder’: They roll up the laid-out path. They will set up the loom and roll up the linen (folklore). The birch bark curls up when thrown into the fire. → 13. ‘to eat greedily’: The whole family devoured the roast chicken (BŽe). (2) coil 1. ‘to wrap, wind’: The stylists elaborately coiled yards of ribbon into the models’ hair. All sorts of wires [all sorts of ropes] coil along the ground; watch your step. → 4. ‘to eat greedily’: He does no work, just wolfs down bread (BŽe). (3) tangle 1. ‘to ruffle, tousle, scatter, tangle’: The wind tangles my hair. The bull scatters the pile of straw. Don’t ruffle my beard! → 2. ‘to eat greedily, with appetite’: When hungry, he often wolfs down bacon. I found him tucking into cabbage (BŽe). c) Object being removed / cleaned The motivating meanings of the verbs šluoti (1) and šveisti (2) denote an energetic action, performed repeatedly and with a particular tool (a broom, brush, etc.), in the course of which an object is removed / cleaned. The motivating and motivated meanings are presumably linked by the basis of transferring the similarity of an energetic, purposeful action. (1) šluoti 2. ‘to clean, make clean by sweeping with a broom or brushing with a brush’: Grandmother sweeps the cottage several times a day. It is no time to sweep the cottage when the guests are already at the gate (folklore). 4. ‘to eat, devour greedily’: After coming home from work, he gobbles everything up. He eats as if he hadn’t eaten for three days (BŽe). (2) šveisti 1. ‘to clean or polish by rubbing’: To scrub knives [spoons]. Yesterday I scrubbed the floor with a brush. → 5. ‘to eat greedily’: He eats as if starving (BŽe). 238 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIII Antrinės netiesioginės nominacijos valgymo veiksmažodžių semantiniai atsiradimo ypatumai d) Divisible / crushable object The physical action denoted by the motivating meanings of the verbs karpyti (1) and kirsti (2) could be described as destructive: a particular object is divided / broken up. The act of dividing / breaking up is performed energetically and purposefully, using a particular implement, e.g., karpyti—with scissors, kirsti—with some kind of sharp tool. The basis for transferring the metaphorical meanings of the verbs under consideration is presumably an action in which an object (food) is divided / broken up (for example, with the teeth: I’ll give you peas; you can snip them with your teeth). (1) karpyti 1. ‘to divide, cut up with scissors’: To cut cloth [paper] with scissors. They cut the pieces of felt into squares and arranged them one atop another in a pyramid. → 6. ‘to eat greedily, munch’: I’ll give you peas; you can snip them with your teeth. To snip bread (BŽe). (2) 1 kirsti 1. ‘to strike with a sharp tool and separate a part from the whole’: They are cutting down the forest [bushes]. They are cutting trees for firewood. They are cutting cabbage heads. He will cut off the chicken’s head. I am cutting branches. → 17. ‘to eat greedily’: He is wolfing down the bacon [cake, ice cream]. You’re eating as if you hadn’t eaten for a week. Go on, go on, eat it all (BŽe). The motivating meaning of the verb krušti (3), recorded in LKŽe (this meaning is not found in BŽe), denotes an action that is likewise destructive: a particular object is crushed using an implement. In the action denoted by the metaphorical meaning, the object is crushed, but the implement used for crushing is metaphorically understood to be the teeth. (3) krušti 4. ‘to eat greedily’: He is crunching wet nuts. Don’t crunch meat without bread! (BŽe). Cf.: LKŽe 2. ‘to pound, rub, crush’: He is mashing porridge Pln. Before beginning to crush or mash, the apples must be washed clean]n. e) Object being handled / prepared The motivating meaning of the verb doroti (1), ʻto butcher, cut upʼ, denotes the action of handling and preparing something so that it is fit for consumption. The basis for the semantic shift could most likely be considered the similarity between the action of handling and preparing something for consumption and the action of eating. (1) doroti 3. ʻto butcher, cut upʼ: Doroti žuvis [nušautą žvėrį]. → 4. ʻto eat or devour greedilyʼ: Doroti gardų kepsnį (BŽe). The secondary meaning of the verb taisyti (2), cf. ʻto handle, prepare so as to make fit for use or consumptionʼ: Varškę ji taiso su saldžia grietine. | ʻto butcher, cut up, cleanʼ12: Taisyk grybus ir virk grybienę. Moterys taiso burokus (BŽe), most likely is 12 A semantic nuance. Straipsniai / Articles 239 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ the metaphorical meaning ʻto eat greedilyʼ has emerged, e.g.: Kad taiso vaikai virtinius, tai net ausys linksta (BŽe). In this case, the meanings are likewise linked by the similarity of the action of handling and preparing something so that it is fit for consumption. f) Object being moistened / softened The metaphorical meaning of the verb dažyti is ʻto eat by dippingʼ, e.g.: Padažą dažydavome su blynais (BŽe), and most likely developed from the prototypical meaning ʻto soak, moistenʼ, e.g.: Duoną dažyk į taukus [taukuose] (BŽe). The prototypical and metaphorical meanings are presumably linked by a similar action in which the structure of an object is altered (softened). TABLE 3. Effect on the object (comparison of the concepts EAT and DRINK) Concept EAT Concept DRINK Effect on the object Examples Effect on the object Examples Cut / sliced / pointed / sharpened or similar to chip, to whittle, to carve, to hew, to shape + to carve, to hew Wrapped / turned to curl, to twist, to wind − − Object being removed / cleaned to sweep, to scrub − − Divided / fragmented to cut, to chop, to crush − − Handled / prepared to process, to repair − − Moistened / softened to paint − − Comparing the meanings of the verbs belonging to the model under examination for the concepts EAT and DRINK, we observe that the effect on the object of the action denoted by the prototypical meanings of the verbs assigned to the concept EAT is of various kinds—the object is smoothed / cut / sharpened / honed, etc.; wrapped / turned; removed / cleaned; divided / fragmented, and so on. The metaphorical meanings of the verbs for the concept DRINK are associated only with those motivating meanings that encode an energetic, purposeful action that has an effect—smoothing / cutting / 240 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIII Antrinės netiesioginės nominacijos valgymo veiksmažodžių semantiniai atsiradimo ypatumai sharpening / honing, etc. – to the structure of the object. The emergence of metaphorical meanings for both concepts may have been determined by the nature of the object being drunk or eaten: the object drunk is a liquid, whereas the object eaten is food (of a solid consistency); consequently, in the mouth it can be rolled (with the tongue), broken up (with the teeth), and so on. 1.1.2. An action described as similar to the motivating meaning, directed at the subject The verb sm aukšti (1), in its motivating meaning recorded in LKŽe (this meaning is not recorded in BŽe), denotes a beating action that is destructive, performed energetically, and affects the subject with a particular instrument (for example, a whip). We could regard energetic, purposeful action as the basis for transferring the meaning to describe eating a large quantity. (1) sm aukšti ‘to eat greedily’: After coming home from work, he ate [bacon] so greedily that even his ears were twitching (BŽe). Cf. LKŽe 1. ‘to beat (with a whip), to lash, sm aukšėti’: The driver would lash with his whip, then shout rš. The verbs bubyti (2) and tvatyti (3) also belong to this subgroup (for more details, see Gaidienė 2015: 207–208). (2) bubyti 2. ‘to beat, to strike’: To beat someone over the head. In anger, he began to beat the horse with a stick. Man, you must not beat a person with your fists every day. → 5. ‘to drink, eat, or devour a lot, greedily’ (BŽe). E.g.: Our farmhand eats like a grown man Vad. (LKŽe). (3) tvatyti 1. ‘to beat hard, to thrash’: He beats the horse on its sides with a stick. He attacked me, beating me with his fists. → 4. ‘to drink, eat, or devour greedily’ (BŽe). E.g.: The children are greedily eating those sweets DūnŽ. (LKŽe). 1.2. A sound produced during an action, similar to the sound motivating the meaning The verbs belonging to this metaphorical model most often denote, in their prototypical meanings, actions associated with sounds produced by various actions, the operation of objects, animals, etc. The sounds produced during actions denoted by their prototypical meanings are of different kinds: for example, a cracking sound occurs during breaking, banging, snapping, and the like; a clattering sound occurs when striking, tapping, and the like with a particular tool. According to the nature of the sound, the verbs are further divided into several subgroups. Straipsniai / Articles 241 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ 1.2.1. Similar to the cracking sound made during breaking, banging, snapping, and the like The motivating and metaphorical meanings of the verbs belonging to this subgroup—traškinti (1), tratinti (2), trioškinti (3), and triuškinti (4)—are linked by a similarity between the sound of cracking produced during breaking, banging, snapping, and the like (e.g., cracks branches, cracked branches, crushed trees), and the sound produced by the action of teeth when chewing hard food products (e.g., cracks nuts, crunched a bone, cracks bones, crushes rusks). (1) traškinti 1. ‘to make something crack (once), to make a cracking sound’: I hear something cracking branches. It’s annoying when someone behind you crinkles snack bags [with bags] throughout the movie. → 2. ‘to eat, consume, or gnaw while making a cracking sound’: The children crunch cookies [popcorn, cucumbers] (BŽe). (2) tratinti 1. ‘to make something clatter, to produce a clattering sound’: The woodpecker taps with its beak. Hail slanted down, pelting the ground and clattering against the windows. In winter, the frost makes fences crack before sunrise. → 6. ‘to eat, consume, or gnaw while making a clattering sound’: The children crunch apples [nuts, candies] (BŽe). (3) trioškinti 1. ‘to make something crack’: As the bear walked, it cracked branches underfoot. The gale cracked trees. Someone is cracking boards, tearing down a wall. → 2. ‘to eat, consume, or gnaw while making a cracking sound’: Dogs crunch bones13 (BŽe). (4) triuškinti 1. ‘to make something crack, to break, smash, or split noisily’: The whirlwind smashed trees. → 2. ‘to eat or gnaw something hard while making a crunching sound’: The children crunch rusks (BŽe). 1.2.2. Resembling the sound made by banging, tapping, etc. with a particular tool The motivating and metaphorical meanings of the verbs pauškinti (1) and poškinti (2) are linked by the similarity between the sound of banging, tapping, etc. with a particular tool (e.g., pauškino plaktukais, poškina plaktuku) and the sound produced by the action of the teeth when chewing hard food products (e.g., pauškinti / poškinti riešutus). (1) pauškinti 1. ‘to make something crackle, to work while producing a crackling sound’: Vyrai pauškino plaktukais. → 3. ‘to chew while producing a crackling sound’: Pauškinti riešutus (BŽe). 13 BŽe provides only one example in which the performer of the act of eating (feeding) is a dog. The author of this article (like the editors of BŽe) was unable to find an example in which a human performs the act of eating. 242 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIII Antrinės netiesioginės nominacijos valgymo veiksmažodžių semantiniai atsiradimo ypatumai (2) poškinti 1. ‘to make a knocking sound by striking’: Ką jis ten poškina plaktuku? → 3. ‘to chew noisily, to crunch’: Riešutus poškinti (BŽe). 1.2.3. Resembling the sound animals make when eating a particular kind of feed (usually rustling or crackling) The motivating and metaphorical meanings of the verb žlembti (1), which belongs to this subgroup, are linked by the similarity between the sound animals (usually herbivores) make when eating a particular kind of feed and the sound people make when eating hastily. (1) žlembti 2. ‘to eat greedily, to feed’: Nežlembk žalių obuolių (BŽe). Cf. LKŽe 2. ‘to feed greedily, to gobble’: Karvė šieną žlembia. Kv. The verbs šlamšti (2) and its variant šlemšti (3) are also assigned to this subgroup: (2) šlamšti ‘to eat greedily, to feed’: Ji be pertraukos šlamščia sumuštinius. Arkliai prunkšdami šlamštė žolę (BŽe). (3) šlemšti ‘to eat greedily, to feed’: Vaikai obuolius šlemščia. Karvės šlemščia žolę (BŽe). 1.2.4. Similar to the smacking sound produced by the lips and tongue The prototypical and metaphorical meanings of the verbs čepsėti (1) and čiaukšti (2) are presumably linked by the similarity between a smacking sound produced by the lips and tongue and the sound produced by the lips and tongue while eating. (1) čepsėti 1. ‘to make sounds with the lips and tongue’: It is impolite to smack one’s lips while eating. He smacks his lips when eating, as if he had no teeth. He spoke while smacking his lips. → 2. ‘to eat, munch while smacking the lips’: We munched on bacon in silence (BŽe). (2) čiaukšti 1. ‘to smack one’s lips while eating’: He smacks his lips a lot when eating. → 2. ‘to eat or munch noisily and greedily’: The children munch apples noisily (BŽe). 1.2.5. Similar to a low-pitched, vibrating sound produced during the operation of a particular object The motivating and metaphorical meanings of the verb plerpti (1) are linked by the similarity between a low-pitched, vibrating sound produced during the operation of a particular object (e.g., a spinning wheel, motorcycle, or airplane sputters) and the sound produced by the activity of the lips and tongue while eating. (1) plerpti 1. ‘to produce a low-pitched, vibrating sound’: A spinning wheel, motorcycle, or airplane sputters. → 2. ‘to eat or slurp noisily’: Eat nicely, don’t slurp (BŽe). E.g.: The man sat down and slurped away and slurped Sml. (LKŽe). Straipsniai / Articles 243 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ TABLE 4. Sound characteristics (comparison of the concepts EAT and DRINK) Concept EAT Concept DRINK Sound Examples Sound Examples Similar to the crackling sound produced during breaking, striking, cracking, etc. traškinti tratinti trioškinti triuškinti Similar to the sound produced by the flow or pouring of liquid pliaupti kliaukti (kliokti) Similar to the sound of banging produced by striking, tapping, etc., with a particular tool pauškinti poškinti Similar to the sound produced by liquid sloshing kliukinti (kliunkinti) kliukenti pliumpinti Similar to the sound animals make while eating particular food (usually food that rustles or crackles) to gobble, to wolf down (to gobble) – – Similar to the smacking sound made by the lips and tongue čepsėti čiaukšti – – Similar to a dull, vibrating sound produced while a particular object is operating plerpti – – The meanings of the verbs of the concept VALGYTI assigned to the metaphorical “similar to the sound produced during the action denoted by the motivating meaning” model have most often developed from motivating meanings that denote actions associated with sounds made by various activities, objects in operation, animals, and so forth. The prototypical meanings of the verbs of the concept GERTI assigned to this model denote actions associated specifically with the sound produced by liquid flowing, pouring, or sloshing. The emergence of such metaphorical meanings was determined by the type of object eaten or drunk: the object eaten is food (solid consistency), while the object drunk is a liquid. 1.3. A movement performed during the action denoted by a meaning similar to the motivating meaning The metaphorical meaning of the verb kabliuoti (‘to eat greedily by scooping or hooking with something’: Kabliuoti medų [košę]. Na ir kabliuoji koldūnus, turbūt nieko šiandien dar nevalgei?) should most likely be linked to the prototypical meaning (‘to hook, turn with a hook’ 244 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIII Antrinės netiesioginės nominacijos valgymo veiksmažodžių semantiniai atsiradimo ypatumai with a hook’: Šiandien vyrai mėsą kabliuoja.), given in BŽe. In this case, the basis for the semantic transfer could be considered to be the associative reenactment of a movement directed toward oneself, involving scooping or hooking something liquid (for example, honey or porridge) with an implement (for example, a spoon). The derived meaning of the verb knaibyti (‘to eat bit by bit, pinching or picking at it’: Vaikai pyragą knaibo. Viešnia paėmė įrankius ir pradėjo jais knaibyti žuvį. Knaibo mėsos gabaliuką pusvalandį (BŽe) may be linked to its prototypical (motivating) meaning ‘to pinch or pick at repeatedly, often’, e.g.: Mama knaibo tešlą – virs kukulienę. Moterys (su) peiliais knaibė iš grindinio žoles (BŽe). In this case, the basis for the semantic transfer could likewise be considered to be the associative reenactment of a movement directed toward oneself. TABLE 5. Direction of movement (comparison of the concepts EAT and DRINK) Concept EAT | Concept DRINK | Movement | Examples | Movement | Examples | directed toward oneself | kabliuoti, knaibyti | directed toward oneself | traukti | – | – | directed away from oneself | mesti | – | – | directed toward oneself (onto oneself) / away from oneself | mauti, maukti | – | – | usually directed downward | lenkti The expression of the concept DRINK in this metaphorical model is more varied than that of the concept EAT. Verbs belonging to the concept DRINK denote, in their prototypical meanings, movements directed not only toward oneself (for example, traukti), but also away from oneself (for example, mesti), onto oneself (for example, mauti, maukti), and so on. The prototypical meanings of verbs belonging to the concept EAT denote movements directed toward oneself (for example, kabliuoti, knaibyti). 1.4. Temperature released during the action denoted by a meaning similar to the motivating meaning This metaphorical model includes the verb (1) šutinti (see Gaidienė 2015: 210 for more details). (1) šutinti 1. ‘to make something simmer (sense 1), to cook slowly (in a covered pot with little liquid or by steaming)’: Šutinti bulves [žirnius, kviečius]. → 9. ‘to eat or drink greedily’, e.g.: Baigiame šutinti saldainius – dėžutė beveik tuščia (BŽe). Straipsniai / Articles 245 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ 1.5. An action resembling the motivating meaning, performed by an animal The metaphorical meaning of the verb ėsti (1), ‘to eat greedily or in an unattractive manner’, e.g.: He was wolfing down everything in sight. He eats like a starving wolf (BŽe), developed from the prototypical meaning ‘to consume feed, fodder (of animals, except birds)’, e.g.: Horses eat oats. Livestock eat, birds peck, and people eat. Dogs eat cheap meat (folklore) (BŽe). As noted in the author’s earlier article (see Gaidienė 2015: 211), animals and the actions they perform are generally evaluated negatively in Lithuanian; therefore, we could regard the basis for transferring the metaphorical meaning as an aesthetic impression, i.e. eating (when speaking of people) marked by an unattractive, derogatory connotation. In the Samogitian dialect, the use of the verb to eat with the meaning ‘to eat’ (when referring to people) is common (it does not have a pejorative connotation); therefore, in dictionaries this meaning is usually given separately (with the label dial. (= dialectal): (1) LKŽe (dial.) ‘to eat’: Ans daug ėda Kv. Mum ėst noris Zt. Pra šom ėsti, sveteliai Zt. [...]. (2) DŽe dial. ‘to eat’. (3) BŽe dial. ‘to consume food: In winter, just eat jam and be satisfied. The verb liuobti (2) is also assigned to this metaphorical model (for more details, see Gaidienė 2015: 211). (2) liuobti 1. ‘to give feed’: We feed the pigs potatoes. It’s time to feed the cows their dinner. The livestock have not yet been fed. → 4. ‘to eat or drink greedily’: He is wolfing down the bacon with gusto (BŽe). 2. METONYMIC TRANSFER OF MEANING Metonymic transfer of meaning is not common; only a few instances of this type of transfer were found. The verbs examined under the concept EAT can be classified into metonymic types involving: 1) the result for the action, 2) the part for the whole, and 3) the cause for the result. 2.1. Result for action The verbs pampti (1), pusti (2), and sprogti (3) are assigned to the metonymic type in which the result stands for the action, whose most salient semantic feature is a sense of fullness. 246 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIII Antrinės netiesioginės nominacijos valgymo veiksmažodžių semantiniai atsiradimo ypatumai (1) pampti 1. ‘to swell, expand, become bloated, puff up’: The cow gorged itself on clover wet with dew and began to swell. A horned animal that is bloating after overeating must be driven around. → 2. ‘to drink, eat, or swallow greedily and in large quantities’ (BŽe). (2) pusti 1. ‘to increase in volume or size (usually of something harmful, after gorging or overeating)’: Cows bloat from clover. The intestines bloat from overeating. → 2. ‘to eat or drink greedily’: All he cares about is stuffing himself, while he won’t lift a finger to work (BŽe). (3) sprogti 6. ‘to swallow, eat, or drink greedily’: You’ve had enough of gobbling up the honey; leave some for me too (BŽe). Cf. LKŽe 4. ‘to be stretched or expanded when very full’: His belly is about to burst—he drank so much of that water Lk. From that chaff, the calves’ bellies now burst when they eat their fill Rd. I can’t stand it any longer, my mouth is about to burst! LMD(Sln). 2.2. A part for the whole The verbs kąsti (1) and ryti (2) are classified as a metonymic type involving a part for the whole, since their motivating meanings (cf. kąsti ‘to bite off with the teeth (a mouthful)’ and ryti ‘to push food down the throat into the stomach’) denote necessary stages of the act of eating—biting and swallowing food—whereas their motivated (metonymic) meanings (cf. kąsti ‘to eat, to nibble’ and ryti ‘to eat or drink greedily’) are used to denote the entire process of eating. (1) kąsti 3. ‘to bite off with the teeth (a mouthful)’: I am biting into an apple. First bite some bread, then some meat. → 4. ‘to eat, to nibble’: The men are eating herring with bread and drinking beer. Please have some skilandis. Sit down at the table and eat. I had a little something for breakfast (BŽe). (2) ryti 1. ‘to push food down the throat into the stomach’: I have no teeth, so I swallow everything without chewing, like a heron. Swallow only as big a mouthful as you can get your mouth around (folk saying). → 3. ‘to eat or drink greedily’: Why are you swallowing your food standing up, you ferret?! He gulps down food like a horse and works like a rooster (folk saying). He gulps down meat [bacon] without bread. The children keep gobbling up sweets (BŽe). 2.3. The cause for the result The prototypical (motivating) meaning of the verb kimšti (1) is associated with inserting one object inside another, cf. ‘to put (into a container, cavity): I am stuffing paper into the drawer. To stuff tow into cracks. The men stuffed the wall into the barn. They used to stuff straw into the mattress. They stuff everything into their pockets (BŽe). The motivated meaning of the verb is likewise associated with putting an object (food) inside another object, but the object used metonymically is a person’s interior, cf. ‘to eat a lot and greedily, to gorge oneself’: Straipsniai / Articles 247 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ The children keep stuffing themselves with cake. I keep eating bread. He gobbled up everything from the table. We ate as much fruit and berries as we wanted (BŽe). The verb springti (2) is also assigned to this metonymic type; its meaning ‘to eat greedily, to gulp down’ is a metonymic transfer in which the consequence of an action (greedy swallowing) comes to denote the action itself. (2) springti 1. ‘to be unable to swallow’: I cannot eat black bread—I choke on it (black bread). The child chokes several times while eating. → 5. ‘to eat greedily, to gulp down’: You’re gobbling up the apples all by yourself, and you won’t give any to the others (BŽe). The article next presents a preliminary ANN eating verb synonym network. FIG. 1. Preliminary synonym network of eating verbs in secondary indirect nomination 248 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIII Antrinės netiesioginės nominacijos valgymo veiksmažodžių semantiniai atsiradimo ypatumai CONCLUSIONS The analysis of the meanings of verbs belonging to the concept EAT that involve secondary indirect nomination (SIN) leads to the following conclusions: 1. The most prototypical metaphorical models of the meanings of SIN eating verbs are: 1) “similar to the action denoted by the motivating meaning” and 2) “similar to the sound produced during the action denoted by the motivating meaning”. 1) The effect on an object of a particular action denoted by the motivating meanings of verbs may be of various kinds; that is, the object is: a) planed / cut / sharpened / honed, etc. (skaptuoti); b) wrapped / twisted (raityti); c) removed / cleaned (šluoti); d) divided / chopped up (karpyti); e) processed / prepared (doroti); and f) wetted / softened (dažyti). The study revealed that the effect on an object of an action denoted by the motivating meanings of verbs assigned to the concept EAT is more varied than that for the concept DRINK. This is due to the nature of the object being drunk or eaten: the object being drunk is a liquid, whereas the object being eaten is food (of solid consistency); consequently, in the mouth it can be wrapped (with the help of the tongue), chopped up (with the help of the teeth), and so on. 2) The sounds produced during actions denoted by the motivating meanings of verbs belonging to the concept EAT are of different kinds: a crunching sound arises when something breaks, is struck, cracks, and so on (traškinti); a crackling sound is produced by striking, tapping, and so on with a particular tool (pauškinti), etc. Thus, the actions denoted by the prototypical meanings of verbs assigned to the concept EAT are most often associated with sounds produced by various actions, the operation of certain objects, animals, and so forth, whereas those of verbs assigned to the concept DRINK are associated with sounds produced when a liquid flows, pours, or sloshes. The emergence of such metaphorical meanings was determined by the type of object eaten or drunk: the object eaten is food (usually of solid consistency), while the object drunk is a liquid. 2. Several cases of metonymic meaning transfer in eating verbs (as well as drinking verbs) were identified; these can be classified as the result for the action (pampti), the part for the whole (kąsti), and the cause for the result (kimšti) metonymies. 3. The study revealed that the semantic features most often foregrounded when naming the act of eating relate to the object eaten (especially solid food), which can be chopped up with the teeth, wrapped with the tongue, and so on. The manner of eating is also described in great detail: the movement(s) of the hand(s), with or without an eating utensil; the activity of the lips / teeth / tongue; and the stomach as a container, as the locus of the feeling of satiety. Straipsniai / Articles 249 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ ABBREVIATIONS IN THE SYNONYM NETWORK DV – part for whole (metonymic type) MetafP – metaphorical transfer of meaning MetonP – metonymic transfer of meaning Similar to GV – similar to an action denoted by the motivating meaning, performed by an animal Similar to J – similar to a movement denoted by the motivating meaning Similar to KG – similar to a sound produced during the action denoted by the motivating meaning Similar to T – similar to the temperature emitted during the action denoted by the motivating meaning Similar to V – similar to an action denoted by the motivating meaning PO – effect on the object PR – cause for result (metonymic type) PS – effect on the subject RV – result for action (metonymic type) LITERATŪRA BŽe – rengiamas Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Redaktorių kolegija: D. Liutkevičienė (vyr. redaktorė), G. Naktinienė, R. Petrokienė, D. Svetikienė, K. Vosilytė, J. Zabarskaitė. Programuotojas V. Satkevičius. D. 1: Įvadas, B, C, H, I, O. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2013. D. 3: Č, E, Ę, Ė, F, Z. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2014. Prieiga internete: http://bkz.lki.lt; BŽe rankraštis. DLKT – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos tekstynas. Kaunas: VDU. Prieiga internete: http://tekstynas.vdu.lt/tekstynas/ DŽe – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas: šeštas (trečias elektroninis) leidimas, vyr. red. Stasys Keinys. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2006; interneto versija, 2011. Prieiga internete: http://dz.lki.lt. Fillmore Charles 1982: Frame Semantics. – Linguistics in the Morning Calm. Seoul. Gaidienė Anželika 2015: Semantinės veiksmažodžio gerti sinonimų atsiradimo priežastys. – Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 72, 196–220. Kövesces Zoltán 1988: The language of love. Lewisburgh: Associated University Press. Kövesces Zoltán 1990: Emotion concepts. New York: Springer. 250 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIII Antrinės netiesioginės nominacijos valgymo veiksmažodžių semantiniai atsiradimo ypatumai Lakoff – Джордж Лакофф 2004: Женщины, огонь и опасные вещи: что категории языка говорят нам о мышлении. Пер. с англ. И.Б. Шатуновского. Москва: Языки славянской культуры. LKŽe – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 1–20: elektroninis variantas. Redaktorių kolegija: Gertrūda Naktinienė (vyr. redaktorė), Jonas Paulauskas, Ritutė Petrokienė, Vytautas Vitkauskas, Jolanta Zabarskaitė. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2005 (atnaujinta versija, 2008). Prieiga internete: www.lkz.lt. Schank Roger, Abelson Robert 1977: Scripts, Plans, Goals, and Understanding: An Inquiry into Human Knowledge Structures. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Ungerer Friedrich, Schmid Hans-Jörg 1996: An introduction to cognitive linguistics. London: Longman. Semantic Peculiarities of Occurrence of Eating Verbs of Secondary Indirect Nomination SUMMARY The object of this article is eating verbs of secondary indirect nomination of the Lithuanian language taken from “Standart Lithuanian Language Dictionary” which is currently in the process of compilation. This research seeks to estimate which features of the actual phenomena, things or actions become semantic features in the language and determine the rise of new eating verbs of secondary indirect nomination as well as to compare them with the corresponding drinking verbs. The article ends with a preliminary synonym network of eating verbs of secondary indirect nomination. Įteikta 2014 m. rugsėjo 1 d. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius, Lietuva [email protected] Straipsniai / Articles 251