Sudėtinių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija

DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language Research area: onomastics (studies of the formation, origin, and motivation of proper names). MOTIVATION OF COMPOSITE HELONYMS OF MARIJAMPOLĖ COUNTY Motivation of Composite Helonyms of Marijampolė County ABSTRACT This article continues earlier research into the areal toponymy of Lithuania. It analyzes the motivation of composite helonyms recorded in Land Names questionnaires for a single administrative unit—the interwar Marijampolė County. The study reflects efforts to document the names of small water bodies that are disappearing (or have already disappeared) and to reveal their epistemological potential, drawing on other interwar questionnaire data that are no less worthy of preservation. To interpret the motivation of hydronyms as reliably as possible, the study drew on interwar questionnaire material documenting the factors behind naming and the results of the communicative activity of members of the linguistic community, which helped clarify the actual content represented by the hydronyms and their pseudo-motivation. The results of the analysis showed that motivation through a name “created” records and preserves the natural, social, and cultural environment and its details. Informative from an ethnocultural perspective are the names of birds and mythical beings in the structure of designations, which perform the function of axiological coding and stereotypical evaluation, as well as pseudo-motivators that record associative links between linguistic units. The interpretation of features motivating the metaphorical expression of the hydronyms studied is also considered valuable. KEYWORDS: interwar period, place names, hydronyms, helonyms, composite helonyms, naming, motivation, pseudo-motivation. ANNOTATION The article is a continuity of the previous research of Lithuanian areal toponymy. It investigates the motivation of composite helonyms from a single administrative unit – interwar Marijampolė County – recorded in the “Land Names” questionnaires. The research 78 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXVI Sudėtinių Marijampolės apskrities helonų motyvacija reflects the efforts to record the names of the small hydrobjects which are about to get extinct (or which have already fallen into oblivion) and to reveal their gnoseological potential based on other data from the interwar questionnaires which are also worthy of preservation. To achieve as reliable interpretation of the motivation of hydronyms as possible, the article refers to the data of the interwar questionnaires recording the factors of nomination and the outcomes of the communicative activity of linguistic community members which were useful in clarifying the actually presented content of hydronyms and pseudomotivation. The findings revealed that through the name-giver the motivation records and conserves the surrounding natural, social and cultural environment, its details. The names of a bird or a mythical creature used in the naming structure as the pseudomotivators recording the associative links of linguistic units, which play the function of axiological code and stereotypical evaluation, are informative in ethnic-cultural terms. The interpretation of the features of motivation of the metaphorical expression of the hydronyms in question is considered valuable as well. KEYWORDS: interwar period, place names, hydronyms, helonyms, composite helonyms, nomination, motivation, pseudomotivation. 0. INTRODUCTION In the context of contemporary linguistic research focused on the relationship between a nation, thought, culture, and language (Gritėnienė 2006, Gudavičius 2009, Lubienė 2015, Березов 1997; 2010; Кубрякова 2004; 2012, etc.), the continued course of research into Lithuanian local toponyms, which record the content of space and time grounded in national world perception and worldview, is significant and promising. An example demonstrating the value of the chosen research direction is an analysis of the motivation of compound helonyms (Sviderskienė 2016). The results of the analysis of the onomastic situation provide empirical evidence of the experience of a member of a linguistic community in a particular ethnic region, their relationship with the surrounding microcosm (the interwar village), and their perception and categorization of it. Thus, the development of the toponomastic research direction within the framework of a new paradigm also enriches Lithuanian toponymy. Moreover, the analysis of interwar onyms is one of1 1 For the term onomastic situation, see TMO: 19, 71. Straipsniai / Articles 79 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ ways of helping to preserve cultural heritage and contributing to the fulfillment of the obligation laid down nearly half a century ago by Aleksandras Vanagas2. The views of linguists who have analyzed the products of compounding in Lithuanian toponymy differ. All Lithuanian place-name researchers have followed the analytical paths for these formations outlined by A. Vanagas and, taking into account the variation in syntactic relations between the main and subordinate elements of a binomial name, have divided compound place names into genitive and qualificative types3. In this framework, apart from hydronyms, Lithuanian oikonyms have been analyzed in the greatest detail (Razmukaitė 2003b: 63–80). In a review4 of A. Vanagas’s derivational analysis of hydronyms, Bronys Savukynas made an important contribution to Lithuanian toponymy research by drawing attention to shortcomings in the classification of hydronyms and convincingly proposing that hydronyms formed by compounding be divided into compound coordinate and compound non-coordinate types5. Jūratė Lubienė and others, who studied the naming and motivation of Lithuanian microtoponyms, responded positively to this well-founded proposal and rightly pointed to analogous distinctions in Lithuanian linguistics that have already become traditional6. Thus, it may be supposed that Lithuanian compound toponymy should also be incorporated into the general qualification and classification of phrase groups in the future. To explain the motivation of compound helonyms, it should be noted that compound coordinate helonyms are combinations in which 2 “Rapid changes in farming, land-reclamation work, drainage, and road construction quickly alter the face of the land. Many place names are becoming irrelevant and are being forgotten. In this way, a great wealth is irretrievably lost” (Vanagas 1973: 6). “All place names must be collected without exception, paying particular attention to minor features, whose names are more readily forgotten or overlooked by collectors” (ibid., 7). 3 Genitive compounds are compound hydronyms consisting of two independent words, the first, the defining element, being the genitive of a common or proper noun. Qualificative compounds are compound water names in which both words are in the nominative case (see also Vanagas 1970: 258–259, 273). Bronys Savukynas has also written about Lithuanian genitive place names (see Savukynas 1963: 235–246 for more detail). 4 Plačiau žr. Savukynas 1971: 166–169. 5 According to the latter researcher, P. Lebel’s logical term “les noms qualificatifs” (qualificative names), which A. Vanagas translated as “qualificative,” should be replaced by the working term coordinate compounds. These, together with genitive or non-coordinate compounds, would then form a single category of compounds. Moreover, so-called genitive compounds may also be “qualificative,” e.g., Šaltinių upelis (Stream of Springs), and so on (Savukynas 1971: 167). 6 In Lithuanian linguistics, two groups of phrases are traditionally distinguished according to the syntactic relations between the main and subordinate elements: 1) those with an agreeing attribute; 2) those with a governed attribute or a non-agreeing attribute (see also Lubienė 2015: 73). 80 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXVI Sudėtinių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija The modifying member highlights the most characteristic semantic features of the other, head member7 (for example, Rets pond Brb, Tamsioji plūnė marsh Ss, etc.). In formations of this type, the degree of semantic opacity is greatest, yet they do not convey much information of communicative value. Other formations—compound indeclinable hydronyms8 (especially metaphorical ones)—have considerable cognitive value, although the semantic connection between their head and modifying members is weaker. For example, compound indeclinable place names derived from personal names most often have a possessive meaning (Rudnicko raštas marsh Brb); in compound appellative indeclinable place names, an appellative genitive serving as the first component denotes a certain feature of the place (Žardakčių plūnė marsh Vv—the vv. have an attributive meaning). In other compound appellative indeclinable place names, a locative meaning can also be discerned (Palinės bala pond Krsn—a pond beside a cleared strip of forest, that is, a palinė). A. Vanagas has also drawn attention to the dissimilarity in meaning between the two types of hydronymic formations: “the meanings of compound hydronyms are not entirely identical” (Vanagas 1981: 51). “This depends on the meaning of the first, determining component [...]” (ibid.)9. Thus, when explaining the motivation of hydronyms formed by compounding, it is essential to take account of the different syntactic relations between the head and modifying components of a binary designation, since what matters is not the sum of the meanings of the individual components but their overall sense, that is, the unified meaning of the formation10. Analyzing the motivation of place names means revealing how a member of a particular ethnic community relates to the surrounding environment and perceives it, which linguistic units they choose and what combinations of them they use when naming one topographical feature or another. According to Aloyzas Gudavičius, “a new word, a new meaning in a language has a basis, is motivated; this means that when we name something new, we also say why we have named it so, emphasizing one or another property or aspect of the thing being named. The basis expressed by words for a name, its motivation, constitutes its inner form” (Gudavičius 2009: 140). “Once the inner form of a word has been revealed, the answer becomes clear to questions such as how an object receives one name or another on the basis of certain features, how the human mind operates in the process of nomination, and what and how one people or another thinks when conceptualizing 7 The second components balà, pelkė, plūnė, raistas and their diminutive and plural forms are considered the principal (basic) components. 8 It should be noted that the term hydronym is used in the article in its broad sense. For the use of this term in both its narrow and broad senses, see Vanagas 1999: 239 (in the former case, the term denotes names of rivers and lakes; in the latter, it also denotes other proper names of bodies of water: seas, waters, lakes, rivers, ponds, ditches, fords, marshes, bogs, etc.). 9 Dėl reikšmių nepatumo dar žr. Savukynas 1963. 10 Dėl tokio požiūrio dar žr. Urbutis 1978: 150. Straipsniai / Articles 81 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ pasaulį“ (Gritėnienė 2006: 24). Pastaroji motyvacijos samprata suponuoja mintį dėl bendruomenės gyvenimo būdo ir kalbos glaudžių ryšių, kalbos vienetuose įtvirtintos tautinės įkrovos. Ir tai tik pradžia smulkiųjų hidronimų įvardijimų analizės svarbą, nes šie funkcionavo arčiausiai įvardijančiųjų, buvo „pamatuoti“ (ne)naudingo žmogui reikmėms matu, „sugėrė“ jų nuostatas, mikroaplinkos, tam tikro laikotarpio – tarpu­kario kaimo – kasdienybės patirtis. Continuing the analysis of minor hydronyms, the object of study selected was helonyms formed by another method—compounding. The aim of the article is to explain (interpret) the motivation of helonyms formed by compounding and to determine the naming tendencies for hydrological features in the area under study. To achieve this aim, the following objectives are set: 1) to reveal what the compound hydronyms collected from interwar questionnaires on the names of inhabited places and forest districts and linguistically processed11 meant at the time they were formed; 2) to explain (interpret) why a particular hydrographic feature was given precisely such a compound name; 3) to identify the inventory of motivational features revealed and their specific characteristics. In analyzing the material, the study follows semantic typology schemes for place names that have stood the test of research12 in the field of local toponymy13 and have been supplemented by a generalizing semantic criterion. The additional criterion made it possible to classify naming motives according to toponymic principles: (1) by the features of the hydrographic feature, (2) by its position in space, and (3) by its relation to a person. These principles are to be regarded as basic, determined by the specific nature of the objects being named14. The available material may expand this classification. For example, this study distinguishes naming (4) according to the time of use or utilization of the hydrographic feature (see 1.4). The research material is examined using the working-analysis method, the explanatory (interpretive) method with elements of the comparative method, and the methods of semantic analysis and internal insight. Explanations of the motivation of compound helonyms were based on material from the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (2013; hereafter15 LKŽ): dictionary definitions and usage examples (with local identity taken into account). The principal sources for personal names are the Dictionary of Lithuanian Surnames (hereafter LPŽ) and the alphabetical card index of historical personal names 11 Standardized and, where possible, provided with stress marks. 12 See Sviderskienė 2016. 13 This refers to the scheme for analyzing place-name motivation developed by A. Vanagas (for further details, see Vanagas 1981: 4–153), from which the interpretation of naming motives according to a particular feature of the object was adopted; it proved insufficient. 14 See also Фолб 1972; Березович 1998; Sviderskienė 2014; 2016. 15 Some source abbreviations have been omitted from the article because they recur frequently. 82 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXVI Sudėtinių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija (hereafter – IAK16). In seeking personal names to substantiate hydronym appellations, Polish and German dictionaries proved useful; these are listed in the sources at the end of the article. Explanations of the motivation of compound place-name formations were based on the Directory of the Administrative-Territorial Division of the Lithuanian SSR (1976; hereafter – ATSŽ II), Gazetteer of the Names of Rivers and Lakes of the Lithuanian SSR (hereafter – LUEV), and Dictionary of Lithuanian Place Names (2008; 2014 – hereafter LVŽ I; LVŽ II). Bearing in mind B. Savukynas’s idea—which he advanced and which remains relevant to onomasticians today—of taking into account the connections between proper names and the toponymic context of the entire linguistic area (see Savukynas 1966: 172 for more), an important source underpinning the study of compound helonym motivation is the collection of place names recorded from living speech in various periods—the place-name card index (hereafter – VK17). In addition, the questionnaires themselves, the place-name survey sheets, and the material gathered through the land-name surveys form a bridge that helps the researcher span the distance between a topographic feature and its name18. Thus, these sources are particularly valuable for explaining the motivation of place names, since they reveal the onomastic situation. The results of the analysis of the onomastic situation, whose quality, as will be seen from the material analyzed in the article, depends on the available recorded testimony of informants, are the most helpful in resolving questions concerning the interpretation of toponymy, motivation, and pseudo-motivation. The article follows the same customary and established criteria for presenting material in Lithuanian toponymy. For further discussion of the division of the material and the order of analysis, see Sviderskienė 2016: 246–247. 1. COMPOUND HELONYMS WITH CLEAR MOTIVATION 1.1. Names based on the characteristics of water bodies 1.1.1. Based on the characteristics of the water body’s bottom surface 16 Held in the collections of the Center for Baltic Language and Onomastics Research at the Institute of the Lithuanian Language. 17 Also held in the collections of the Center for Baltic Language and Onomastics Research at the Institute of the Lithuanian Language. 18 Dėl Žemės vardų anketų medžiagos dar žr. Sviderskienė 2015: 170, 172–174; 2016: 244–245. Pabrėžian vietovardžių surašymo lapuose (be kitų svarbių duomenų) išlikus etninės srities atstovų kalbines sąmonės duomenų vertę, reikšminga Rūtos Marcinkevičienės išsakyta mintis: „Iš tiesų ne žodis, o žmogus turi galvoje tam tikrą reikšmę – konceptą, sąvoką ar sampratą, kurią gali išreikšti vienu ar kitu žodžiu. Tik individui vartojant žodžius kyla asociacijos, atsiranda vaizdiniai. Todėl reikšmės reikia ieškoti ne žodyje ar žodyne, bet jo vartosenos kontekste, klausant pašnekovo ir lyginant savąjį konkretaus žodžio supratimą su išgirsto ar perskaityto žodžio ypatumais“ (Marcinkevičienė 2011: 8). Straipsniai / Articles 83 DALIA SIDERSKIENĖ (1) On account of the quality of the bottom surface, the hydro-object Šlynų balà (village of Krsn) was named: Lithuanian šlynė ‘greyish-blue or whitish sticky clay mixed with organic matter’19. (2) The physical characteristics of the hydro-object’s bottom surface inspired the name of the pond Klampioji bala (village of Krsn): Lithuanian klampóji, cf. klampùs, -i ‘into which one sinks’ (cf. Viksva stačioji grows in large clumps, especially in boggy ponds (rš)). For the semantics, cf. the hydronym formed by compounding Klampā-balis (village of KzR), recorded in the alleged area.2021 (3) The hydro-object Gilùs raistas (village of Krsn) was named on account of the bottom surface’s depth, as a layer: Lithuanian gilùsis, cf. gilàs, -i ‘extending far from the surface toward the bottom, deep’. The fact that, during the toponymization process, the spatial seme of the first component of the compound hydronym was foregrounded is also confirmed by the second component, raistas (‘bog’). The pronominal form of the first component indicates concretization in the process of naming the hydro-object (cf. Gilì bala, Gilì balãtė – the hydro-object is described)22. 1.1.2. The adjective gilùs has, in addition to a spatial seme, a quantitative seme. In these cases of naming hydro-objects, the latter was also foregrounded: Gilì balà (village of Lbv); Gilì balãtė (village of Lbv): Lithuanian gilùs, -i; this is also confirmed by the second components balà, balãtė. Another hydro-object was named metaphorically on account of the abundance of water: Patapų balà (village of Krsn): Lithuanian pãtapas, pãtapas ‘flood’ (Lithuanian põtvynis ‘rising or overflowing of water’). This hydronym conveys the content of the phenomenon not only descriptively but also emotionally, while the first component of the place name formed by compounding makes it more vivid, since it has a colloquial flavor. Conversely, on account of the absence of water, the wet places Sausasis raistas (village of Krsn) were named: Lithuanian sausas, -à ‘without moisture, without water, not wet, dried out’; Sausieji raisteliai (village of Krsn): Lithuanian sausieji, cf. sausas, -à. 1.1.3. The following topographical objects received names because of birds gathering, nesting, or similar activities in certain wet places: Antų balà (village of Ss): Lithuanian antùkas ‘duckling’23 19 Cf. šlynė ‘soil of this kind of clay’. 20 The hydronym was recorded in a questionnaire for Znicos village, Kalniškė forestry district. 21 Dėl jo žr. Siderskienė 2016: 253. Pastarasis hidroobjektas greičiausiai buvo nominuotas dėl dugno paviršiaus fizinių ypatybių. 22 A. Vanagas has also drawn attention to the semantic instability of compound hydronyms whose first (determining) component is expressed by a simple or pronominal adjective (for more detail, see Vanagas 1981: 51). 23 The choice made in this article was determined by the nature of the material under study: no hydronyms derived from the names of other animals were provided. Usually, a separate section is devoted to explaining the motivation of places where animals gather (are present, live, or similar); it specifies which animals (birds, reptiles, or the like), but no further distinctions are made (see Vanagas 1981; Siderskienė 2016). 84 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXVI Sudėtinių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija young bird24; Pėmpių raštas (|| Pempynė) bog. Vv: Lith. pėmpė ‘a small wading bird of the lapwing family (Vanellus vanellus). The motivation of the variant used in spoken language, i.e. the working synonym Pempynė—a place where lapwings nest—clarifies and confirms the interpretation of the motivation of the compound water body name; Vanagų raštas 2 bogs. Brb25: Lith. vanagai ‘a subfamily of birds in the order of birds of prey (Accipitridae), vanagas ‘a species of hawk, a bird of prey with a short hooked beak and sharp talons’. Although helonyms, like other proper names, are always monoreferential, in this case the meanings of the two-member, determinative element are given because either could in reality have been activated during the naming process. 1.1.4. Various wet places were named after the plants that grew there: Beržų ply nė bog. Įgl: Lith. beržas ‘a deciduous tree with white bark (Betula); Berželių balaitė small bog. Krs: Lith. berželis, cf. beržas26; Kanapių pynėlė small bog. KzR: Lith. kanapė ‘a cultivated plant whose stem yields fiber and whose seeds are pressed for oil (Cannabis sativa); Samanų raistelis small bog. Gdl: Lith. sā́na, samanā, samanōs ‘a spore-producing plant of damp places, with root hairs instead of roots (Bryophyta). 1.1.5. Helonyms with attributive meanings indicate what is found in / present in the bog: Žardakarių ply nė bog. Vv: Lith. žardakartė ‘long, like a pole for a cattle pen’. The name of a bog recorded in the questionnaire of the Šalkiai forestry district is Barčių ply n ate bog. Vv: Lith. barčia ‘a certain hanging beehive, a nesting box’ (cf. There used to be many barčios in the old forest (Al)), Lith. bartis ‘an old, rotten, hollow tree (pine, spruce), a tree cavity’ (cf. In the past they kept bees in tree cavities, or the bees themselves swarmed there (KzR))27. 1.1.6. These helonyms denote a characteristic feature of a place: Duobių raistas bog. Ss28: Lith. duobė ‘a hollow or otherwise depressed place in the ground; Kalnų plynia bog. KzR: Lith. kalnas ‘an elevated area of land; Kalvų raistas bog. Gdl: Lith. kalva ‘an elevated place, a small hill’; Kamšų raistas small bog. KzR: Lith. kamša ‘a road filled in with brushwood and stakes’. 24 Cf. a sentence recorded from spoken language: Ants are here, and the little ducks are splashing about in their own puddle, Gs (abbreviations as in LKŽe; they are not explained separately). 25 Two bog names, Vanagų raistas, were recorded in the questionnaire of the Ivoniškis forestry district. According to the questionnaire, they were recorded in different forest compartments; it is difficult to determine whether these adjoin one another. 26 Recorded in a questionnaire for the Znicos village of the Kalniškė forestry district. For discussion of its derivation and origin, see also LVŽ I 447–455. 27 See also LVŽ I 269–270, where the possibility that the bog name was formed from a personal name is not ruled out (cf. the surnames Barčys, Bartys). 28 The questionnaire of the Sasnava forestry district states: there is a hill in the middle of the bog. In the past, people dug pits in it to soak flax. Straipsniai / Articles 85 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ 1.1.7. Due to the hydro-object’s size, i.e. its exceptional largeness, the name Didysis raštas was given. rst. Ig: Lithuanian didysis, cf. didis, –ė (–ė, –i, didžią) ‘notable for its size, large’. 1.1.8. Of demonological motivation, only one mire name has been recorded – Velnių bala b. Brb: Lithuanian vėlnas ‘earth and underworld deity, devil, imp; in religion – evil spirit, unclean one’. It is worth noting that the hydronym was recorded in a questionnaire from the Balbieriškis forestry district; therefore, one may assume that the mire is not adapted (or cannot be adapted) for human use. This knowledge (supposition) is associated with the stereotypes of the linguistic community, whose influence on the naming process is evident: a little-known wet area in a forest (not a residential area), a mire not used by people, is regarded by members of the ethnic region as a kind of place where devils ‘are’ (‘live’)29. It is not entirely clear which feature of the hydro-object motivated the name Tamsioji plėnė rst. Ss: whether it was the opaque water (cf. Lithuanian tamsói, cf. tamsùs, –i ‘not light in colour, black’), or the illumination/non-illumination of the hydro-object (cf. Lithuanian tamsùs, –i ‘poorly lit or unlit; receiving little or no light’). This latter interpretation of the motivation might be supported by the following information: the helonym was recorded in a questionnaire from the Varnabūdė forestry district. Although it is unclear which of the first two senses was activated during the naming process, this does not prevent classifying this waterbody name as a designation based on a characteristic of the hydro-object. 1.2. Names Based on the Spatial Position Occupied by Hydro-objects The interpretation of the motivation of the examples in this section differs somewhat: some helonyms have a possessive meaning, while others may be seen to have a locative meaning. This can be determined only by establishing their origin30. For this reason, compound helonyms of Marijampolė County were analyzed in the section “Motivation of Possession and Location”31. In analyzing compound names of small hydro-objects, an attempt is made to highlight the indicated nuances of meaning by dividing helonyms into separate microgroups, as presented in the article’s subsections. However, for the stated reason (the insufficiency of the available data for establishing their origin), they are presented together in a single section. 29 Dėl demonologinės motyvacijos sudėtinių helonimų dar žr. Sviderskienė 2016: 252–253. Dėl skirtingų mitinio vandens įprasminimo aspektų atskleidimo tradicinėje lietuvių pasaulėžiūroje, vandenį siejant su požemiu, žeme ir dangumi, dar žr. Būgienė 1999: 13–85. Dėl demonologinių vv. rusų toponimijoje žr. Березов, Макарова, Мылонен 2015. 30 Dėl šio teiginio žr. Savukynas 1963: 238. 31 Dar žr. Sviderskienė 2016: 254. 86 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXVI Sudėtinių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija 1.2.1. Helonyms denoting a particular place occupied by a hydro-object in space (1) or a part of space (2): (1) Palaukinis raistas b. KzR: Lithuanian palaukinis, cf. palaukė, palaukė ‘edge of a forest or woodland, bordering a field’; thus, the mire name recorded in a questionnaire from the Papilys forestry district indicates the location of the hydro-object. (2) Galų bala b. Ldv: Lithuanian gãlas ‘a place where some long object ends; the end part of an object (beginning, end)’, i.e. a mire located at the ends of the village (the mire name was recorded in a questionnaire from Armoniškiai village). On the other hand, the hydronym may be understood as a mire located at the far end of the fields, cf. Lithuanian galã ‘far end of a field’ (Nuojo į galus arklių perkelti (Mrj)). In either interpretation of the motivation, the mire name indicates the location of the hydro-object. Kampų bala b. Lbv: Lithuanian kampas ‘a place where two lines, planes, walls, or objects meet; a corner’ – a mire located in the corners of the village. Alternatively, another sense of the first element kampas, ‘edge, side; half’, may have been activated during naming. The available questionnaire data from Salaperaugis village do not make it possible to determine this. 1.2.2. Names motivated by location in relation to (a) other features of the earth’s surface: Kamšės raistas rst. Gdl: Lithuanian kamšė ‘a road filled with brushwood, twigs’; Kupstinės raistas b. Krsn: Lithuanian kupstynė ‘a hummocky place, meadow’; Lūgo bala b. KzR: Lithuanian lūgas, lūgas ‘a low-lying hollow flooded by a river’; a muddy river branch. The available data support this latter interpretation of the motivation: the mire name was recorded in a questionnaire from the Agurkiškė forestry district, and the river Suirupelis flows through this village’s territory. The river name is also recorded in the official printed source of waterbody names Lietuvos TSR upių ir ežerų vardynas: Suirupelis Kazlų Rūda, Agurkiškės village, Jurė 1 nt. (LUEV 158). Linking the latter localization data for the river name with the available questionnaire data also confirms the interpretation of the mire name’s motivation. Hydro-objects named in relation to particular features of the earth’s surface include Murgėlių bala b. Prn: Lithuanian murgėlis, cf. murgas ‘mass of earth’³² (the footnote specifies a defined, fixed-size object); Palinijos bala b. Krsn: Lithuanian palinė ‘a cleared strip in a forest, a glade’ (the mire name was recorded in a questionnaire for Znicos village in the Kalniškė forestry district); Pãlių bala b. Ldv: Lithuanian pãlios ‘large marshes and wilderness in the place of silted-up lakes’ (according to the Buktos forestry district questionnaire, the mire is in the forest and overgrown with alders); (b) in relation to a place abundant in a particular type of plant: Pušyno bala b. Prn: Lithuanian pušynas ‘pine forest’; (c) in relation to a tree or structure, i.e. helonyms motivated by a description of the surroundings: Ąžuolo balaitė b. Krsn: Lithuanian ąžuolas ‘a broad-leaved tree with very hard wood (Quercus)’. The tree name in this designation, expressed in the singular nominative, indicates that an oak grew nearby 32 The footnote specifies a defined, fixed-size object. Straipsniai / Articles 87 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ During the naming process, it performs the function of a real landmark used to indicate the location of the pond. A comparison of this name with representatives of the “vegetation-based” motivation section (see 1.1.4.) makes it clear that they differ: the first component of the latter, expressed in the genitive plural, indicates which plants grow or continue to grow in the wet place being named. Names of buildings used as first components and expressed in the genitive plural serve as certain landmarks: Daržinių bala pond. Krn: Lith. daržinė ‘a building for storing fodder and grain; Gonkų balaitė small pond. Krn: Lith. gonkas ‘porch, vestibule, veranda’; Kuknelių raistas bog. Krn: Lith. kuknelė ‘smokehouse’; Lėptų raistas bog. KzR: Lith. lėptas ‘a board or log laid across a ditch or stream to cross it’. The plural form in the structure of these latter waterbody names may have been determined not only by the fact that there were several buildings in the named surroundings (for example, barns, etc.), but also by the spatial context of the water features’ location, that is, by the notion of distance (beyond the bounds of the dwelling)33. This assumption is supported by the observation that these helonyms were recorded in forestry questionnaires. Thus, the reason given may also have led to certain landmark features (buildings, a bridge or bridges) being expressed as a whole in the plural rather than the singular34. 1.2.3. Names based on the relationship with other topo-objects located nearby. (1) Names motivated by locally adjacent water features; river and pond names are chosen as the basis for naming the wetland features: Rūdės raistas bog. Brb: Rūdė river. Brb35; Lankavos Kōja clearing. KzR: Lankava pond. KzR. Both of the latter names were recorded in the Papilys forestry questionnaire36. This interwar document also contains other information that helps understand and interpret the naming and motivation processes. The questionnaire entry for the feature named Lankavos Kōja provides additional information: a clearing in a valley, a projection of Lankava Bog – a ford. The pond name Lankava is described in KzR as follows: round in shape a deep bog, overgrown with black alder. Thus, owing to the particular spatial arrangement (configuration) of the two features, in the process of naming the clearing the second component of the compound place name Lankavos— 33 This factor has also been noted in Slavic toponymy studies. For discussion of the convenient spatial arrangement of surroundings with “perfect” distances, “measured” by name-givers from a dwelling to a garden and so on, that is, within the boundaries of a settlement (village), see Березович 1997: 103. 34 The expression of landmarks as the first component in the plural form within compound names, arising from geographical distance, may signal deonymization. For more on this phenomenon in toponymy, see also TMOI: 42–44; Суперанская 2009: 42, 50. 35 For the names, see LHEž 137; LUEV 137. 36 Earlier studies of the naming and motivation of place names in Marijampolė County also recorded another microsystem of water names, Šinkabėlė – Uodegėlė (for more, see Sviderskienė 2015: 92–93; 2016: 257). 88 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXVI Sudėtinių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija Kója37 is used in a figurative sense38. These place names are linked by part-to-whole—partonymic—relations39. (2) Named after nearby settlements, the names of the latter are chosen as the basis for naming wetland sites: Važkiemio balā bog, Brb: Važkiemis village, Āsm (ATSŽ II 338; Žuklių raistas marsh, Vv: Žukliai village (‖ Pamėdi-nės of.). K. Vv (VK).40 (3) Named after nearby landforms; the names of land-surface features are chosen as the basis for naming helonyms. Explanations of the motivation are followed in parentheses by inventory data for both names; this information is not considered redundant. On the contrary, it helps us see through the eyes of the namer, the “creator” of place names, and identify landmarks in the nearest surrounding inhabited environment: Barsukyno balā bog, Krsn: Barsukynas hill, Krsn (both names recorded in the Kalniškė forestry district Znics village questionnaire); Bielskapievės raistas marsh, Igl: Bielskapievė meadow, Igl (Varnabūdė forestry district questionnaire); Dvarākėlio balāsbog, Krsn: Dvarākėlisvillage, Krsn (Kalniškė forestry district Znics village questionnaire); Klōninės raistasmarsh, Brb: Klōninėmeadow, Brb (Ivoniškis forestry district questionnaire); Kumėlpievės raistasmarsh, Brb: Kumėlpievėmeadow, Brb (Ivoniškis forestry district questionnaire); Lapinskepievės raistasbog, Brb: Lapinskepievėmeadow, Brb (Ivoniškis forestry district questionnaire); Lygumukių balābog, Klvr: Lygumukėsvillage, Klvr (Šuninkai village questionnaire); Smalinių balābog, Lbv: Smalinėsmeadow, Lbv (Senabūdis village questionnaire). Another bog name, Barsukyno balā Krsn42, recorded in the Kalniškė forestry district Znics village questionnaire, was coined by establishing in living speech a variant, *Barsukinis, of the name of a hill Barsūkų kalnas hill, Krsn43, which existed but was not recorded in the questionnaire. 1.2.4. Named according to their spatial arrangement in relation to one another Retos balās bog, Brb: dialectal rėtas, -ā ‘[...] situated [...] at certain relatively large intervals’. 1.3. Names based on a relationship with a person 1.3.1. The first element of these hydronyms is an appellative denoting a person (1) a first name, surname, or nickname (2), expressed in the singular or plural genitive, and the person(s) were (former) residents of the place denoted by the helonyms 37 Cf. Lithuanian kója ‘one of a pair of body parts with which a person or another creature walks’. 38 Metonymy, more precisely synecdoche, based on a part–whole relationship. 39 Toks žodžių santykių tipas vadinamas meronimija (plačiau žr. Jakaitienė 2010: 114). 40 For the latter place name, see ATSŽ II 214. 41 The name of the village in which both place names were recorded, or the name of the forestry district, is given below. 42 The helonym apparently was not included in LVŽ I (2008). 43 This place name is recorded in the same Kalniškė forestry district Znics village questionnaire. Straipsniai / Articles 89 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ owners’ personal names. All these genitive place names, as is known, most often have a possessive meaning, while others have a commemorative one44. (1) Commemorative names45: Dieduko raštas rst. Brb: Lith. diedukas ‘father’s or mother’s father, grandfather; old person, old man; Pūdžius plynie b. Igl: Lith. pūdžius ‘potter’. (2) Names based on ownership relations: Botýriaus raštas rst. Brb: personal name Botýrius; Brók bala b. Igl: first name Brōkas; Būdos pynaitė b. KzR: personal name Būdė⁴⁶; Česnų balaitė b. Brb: first names Česna, Česnas; Čižko balaitė b. Krsn: personal names Čižikas, Čižikas; Dóbilas raštas rst. Gdl: first name Dóbilas; Gidžiūno balaitė b. Krsn: personal name *Gidžiūnas, cf. personal name Katarzyna Gidžunas in 1873 in Krsn (IAK – according to the data in the latter source, the personal name is recorded in the Krosna parish church register), personal name Gregorius Gidzialis in 1691–1719 (ibid.47); Įrškio balūkė b. Lb: personal name *Įrškis or similar, cf. Polish personal name Hirshe (SNP IV 121), Irski (ibid., 221); Jančaro plynia rst. Vv – the motivational basis of the place name is a personal name; cf. Polish surname Janczur (SNP IV 276); Kėkės raštas rst. Gdl: surname Kėkė; Kričenos balaitė b. Krsn: surname Kričena; Lenartų bala b. Ldn – the motivational basis of the place name is a personal name; cf. surname Lenartavičius, German personal name Lenart (Gottschald 1954: 403), Polish surname Lenart (SNP V 558); Rudniko raštas rst. Brb: personal name Rudnickas; Uželio bala b. Prn – the motivational basis of the place name is a personal name; cf. surnames Užinskas, Užinas, Polish surname Uziel (SNP X 38). The first element’s work-related lexical basis allows a possible dual interpretation according to whether it belongs to the class of appellatives or anthroponyms; this soon led to its assignment to this semantic subgroup: Bartninko bala (also Bartnyko bala) b. Igl: Lith. bártninkas, bártiniṅkas ‘estate manager, beekeeper’ / personal name Bārtininkas. 1.4. Names according to the time of use / exploitation of the water body. The motivation of the marsh name Malkairčių bala, recorded in the Sanavās forestry questionnaire, b. Ss, is associated with the period of exploitation of that site – Lith. malkartis ‘time for cutting firewood’. The latter interpretation of the motivation is supported by background 44 Dėl termino žr. Savukynas 1963: 238. 45 “It is also difficult to distinguish genitive place names formed from possessive appellatives from commemorative ones, because, for example, Kūni̇go upelis may have been so named not because it flowed through a priest’s field, but also because the priest was connected with it in some other way” (Savukynas 1963: 239). On the basis of this statement, the helonym Dieduko raštas rst. Brb. may be classified as both commemorative and possessive—the data on the place-name survey sheets do not reveal this. Another place name could be classified as commemorative because, according to the questionnaire data from Gudinė village, people used to extract clay here for making pots; thus, one may assume that a potter most likely lived at that location. 46 In the opinion of the authors of LVŽ, another possible basis for the formation of the place name is the name of a building, Lith. būdė (see also LVŽ I 588–590), functioning as the first, specifying element of the compound hydronym. 47 The personal name is recorded in another area; the naming is attested in the Kriunai baptismal register. 90 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXVI Sudėtinių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija accounts48: “Timber trees are usually felled in winter, when the wood is drier (besides, it is easier to enter a forest with boggy ground and easier to haul out the wood when the ground is frozen)”49. For comparison of the semantics, see also the forest-name Malkabiris recorded in a questionnaire from the Jūrė Forestry District50, forest name. KzR. 2. COMPOUND HELONYMS WHOSE MOTIVATION IS NOT ENTIRELY CLEAR AT PRESENT. 2.1. Historical events, whether imagined or real, that have most likely persisted in the memory of certain ethnic groups are recorded in the name Liogerio balos pond. Ss51; cf. Lithuanian liogeris ‘a temporary place of residence or stay, usually a tent or a camp in temporary buildings’52. This interpretation of the name seems also to carry a certain connotation of injury, but in this connection cf. Lithuanian legerė (German Lägel), lėgerė ‘small barrel’ (LKŽ), lėgerė (legerė) ‘the same’ (Čepienė 2006: 74). Perhaps this appellative is the true linguistic basis for the motivation of the pond name. For comparison of the semantics, see also the compound hydronym Bōsaraistis recorded in the same area, stream. Šl: Lithuanian bōsas ‘barrel, cask’. In the latter case, the water body was named for its “swollen” surface, and the surface’s “bulging” may have resulted from vegetation cover or a layer of peat (see also Sviderskienė 2016: 250). Thus, the questionnaire data from Lašiai village—a hillock in the middle of the pond—which rises like a kind of bulge, support the proposed explanation of the motivation. The pond name Razbaininkų pynė pond, KzR, recorded in a questionnaire from the Papilys Forestry District, also seems to have a historical-events semantics. Russian toponymist Jelena L. Berezovič offers two interpretations of the motivation of place names associated with this appellative for a person (cf. Russian разбойник ‘colloq. oppressor; colloq. scoundrel, rogue, bandit; colloq., joc. daredevil, ruffian, rowdy’ (RLKŽ III 543)). In one of them (the most recent) 48 Dėl termino žr. Gudavičius 2007: 153–154, Гуриева 2009: 70–73. 49 For the latter claim, see https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malkos [accessed 2017-04-25]. 50 The questionnaire reports: it is said that there were many dried-up trees here, which people could cut as many of as they wanted. 51 Apparently, the same hydronym was recorded in a questionnaire from the Sasnava Forestry District. It states: in olden times, during wars, people who had abandoned their homes lived by those ponds. 52 It seems that the 1863 uprising, still referred to between the wars as the “revolt period,” prompted the emergence of this place name. Compare an excerpt from a letter by Mikalojus Katkus to Vaižgantas: There were forests there. The foresters of those woods, beginning with the revolt period, each pass on to their successors the news about the camp site... (for further discussion, see Mataitytė 2013: 4–11). For the recording in Lithuanian phraseology of misfortunes that occurred in the past and remained in the memory of certain ethnic groups, see also Jašūnaitė 2007: 89. Straipsniai / Articles 91 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ nominations and motivational connections based on cultural-historical relations are generated, and the significance of spatiotemporal events as a stimulus for nomination is highlighted (for a more detailed discussion, see Березович, Куко, Сурикова 2015: 108–133). The researcher’s other interpretation of motivation, complementing the first, is based on semantic associations between word forms (cf. also Russian апелятива̨ разбойник and the physiographic term Russian разбой, разбойник, discussed below). Since the representatives of Russian toponymy are recorded near rivers that once flowed (or still flow) there, their naming, as J. L. Березович observes, could be associated with local hydrography, expressed by the physiographic term Russian разбой, разбойник ‘a stretch of river flowing in many channels, abounding in islands, where there are many shallows, rapids, and mid-channel shoals’⁵³, referring to particular features of a river channel stretch (for further discussion, see Березович 2010: 200–201; 203–204). In conducting an extended analysis of the motivation of the marsh name Razbaininkų plyne b. KžR, the Lithuanian toponymic card index (VK) revealed more place names recorded from living speech with a structurally matching first component or element⁵⁴. They are presented below: from the area under study, the oronym Razbaininkų kalnas klv. KžR was recorded (according to a questionnaire from the Papilys forest district of the Veiveriai-Kazlų municipality, robbers supposedly used to live there)⁵⁵; from somewhat more distant locations, Razbajakalnis kn. Pv (which, incidentally, is structurally the closest match to the presumed lexical motivator⁵⁶ Russian разбой); from other areas, Razbaininkų salelė s. Sug, Razbaininkų kelėlis kl. Auk, Razbajų dubà db. Slnt (cf. also разбой), and several others. Comparing the available card-index data with the hydronym sources in official publications—the Lietuvos TSR upių ir ežerų vardynas and the Lietuvos vietovardžių žodyno—with their declared hydrographic data and the VK attestations recorded from living speech, it becomes clear that rivers flow in the vicinity of all the toponyms mentioned (within the same village): Razbaininkų plyna and Razbaininkų kalnas KžR (Papilys forest district questionnaire)—the river Pilvė up. Plv (LŪV 125); Razbajakalnis Pv (Laučionys village)—Didelio raisto upėlis upl. Pv (LVŽ II 245), Dryžėlė || Dryžėlės upl. Pv (ibid., 331) (the streams flow through the territory of Laučionys village); Razbaininkų salelė (Suginčiai village)—Sug—the river Daubulis up. Sug, Daubulis up. Sug (LŪV 27), Kūlėpis up. Sug (ibid., 82) (the rivers flow through the territory of Suginčiai village); Razbaininkų kelėlis Auk (Šadžiūnai village)—the river Milunka up. Auk (the stream flows through the territory of Šadžiūnai village (VK)); Razbajų dubà Slnt 53 The term is recorded in a dictionary of folk ethnographic terms: Мурзаев Э. М. Словарь народных географических терминов. Москва: Мысль, 1984, 654 с. (cited in Березович, p. 473). A review of the dictionary was published by A. Vanagas (for further discussion, see Vanagas 1989: 212–214). 54 Cases of phonetically varying forms were also encountered. 55 This place name was recorded again during the 1966 linguistic expedition (see VK for information on it). 56 Dėl termino žr. Блинова 2007. 92 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXVI Sudėtinių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija (Skudaliai village)—Gedgūdų upalis upl. Slnt (the stream flows through the territory of Skudaliai village (VK)). As the collected and presented material shows, Lithuanian toponymic data likewise do not contradict the identification of a motivator associated with hydrography57. Thus, it is assumed that examples of the entrenchment of ethnocultural information in place names are most likely evidence of pseudo-motivation. 2.2. The hydronym form Sidabrinių bal b. Ldn, recorded in living speech (Paželsviai village questionnaire), may have arisen through semantic association between word forms: sidabriniai ‘silver ones’—silver coins, valuables58. However, the water body was probably named for certain characteristics of its bed and water: a light-coloured (sandy) bed and the clean, clear water of the pond59. Thus, the meaning actually represented by the name corresponds to the derivative with a suffix Sidabriniai b. Ldn: Lithuanian sidabras ‘a precious, non-corroding white metal (Ag)’. For the semantics, compare the hydronym Cidabrabl b. Brb, formed by compounding and recorded in the same area: Lithuanian cidabras ‘silver’, also metaphorically named for a characteristic of the water body (the clarity of its water)60. 2.3. The pond Vieversių bal b. Lbv was named metaphorically for the water body’s growth of sparse sweet flag. A certain characteristic of the bird, which is found throughout Lithuania (according to LKŽe, vieversys = vieversys ‘a songbird of the lark family, order Passeriformes’), namely smallness (cf. “The lark is small, it sings in the morning” (Dv)), was transferred in the naming process to the characteristic of the plants growing beside the water body—sword-leaved plants (kalavijas ‘a plant growing in marshes, lakes, and rivers, with sword-like leaves; sweet flag (Acorus calamus)’)—(to express this characteristic, according to the “Dictionary of Comparisons,” one says “like larks”: “The rye is like larks” (small, sparse61; cf. also a sentence recorded from living speech in the same area: Plaukai buvo kai vieversio (sparse, thin), kai gimė (Vs). This interpretation of the motivation is supported by questionnaire data from Makauskai village: [the pond] is overgrown with so-called sword-leaved plants62. Thus, the meaning actually represented by the place name is ‘overgrown with sweet flag,’ 57 Since the area under study can be characterized as an ethnically mixed environment during the interwar period (according to the 1923 general population census, in Marijampolė County, alongside Lithuanians (87.92%), there were 3.42% Germans, 1.31% Poles, and others (for these data, see also Subačius 2009: 228)), the presumed term associated with hydrography may belong to borrowed vocabulary. 58 For pseudo-motivations of water names associated with money in Russian toponymy, see Березович 2010: 200–201. 59 Studies of Russian toponymy offer an analogous interpretation of the motivation of water names (for more detail, see ibid.). 60 Dėl pastarojo balardžio motyvacijos dar žr. Sviderskienė 2016: 253. 61 See http://lkiis.lki.lt/palyginimu;jsessionid=7A915DD336B6718C1189DBE0D0396F9 [accessed 2017-09-04]. 62 Cf. also the expression recorded in the area under study: Reikia išpjauti kalavijas iš baltes (Šil). Straipsniai / Articles 93 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ because of its small size, called vieresiai, overgrown with marsh. The explanation of the meaning reveals a discrepancy in the hydronym’s form Vėversiuko balaitė63. The emergence of this form in living speech was determined by the circumstance that in the Baltic languages the genitive of a living name can be used to express any place name64. As the detailed analysis of the motivation of the latter helonym showed, the name’s actual content is represented by the suffixed derivative Vėversiukas b. Lbv. A comparison with the suffixed land-name Vieversytė ž. Gdž65, recorded in another area, confirms the possibility that the hydronym form Vėversiukas could have functioned in living speech and highlights the unity of the name’s form and content as a sign. 2.3. Another designation recorded in the study area raises doubts about how its motivation should be interpreted—Kaulinis raistas b. Šl. Based on informants’ testimony recorded in the Mikališkis forest district questionnaire, a marsh surrounded by dry land, it may be assumed that the water body was probably small, and thus the person who named it could have identified it by sight in relation to the surrounding microenvironment66. To explain with supporting arguments which feature of the place prompted this designation, evidence was also sought in toponymic material recorded from living speech in other areas. A water-body name Kaulinė b. Kkn, recorded in a questionnaire from Stukų village, Krekenava district, Panevėžys County, was found. The questionnaire’s “Type, appearance, quality of the land surface” section states: a stump-filled marsh by Stukų forest. More [...] (illegible word) palga. The information provided suggests that this water body was named because of its shape67. Thus, it may be assumed that the water body in the study area could likewise have been named because of its shape (cf. also the suffixed water-body name Kaulinė b. KzR68, recorded in the study area). Semantic associations of the word forms may also have given rise in living speech to connections with bones found in those places. For example, the “Notes” section of the aforementioned questionnaire from Stukų village states that in the old days they used to bury horses that had died or been slaughtered in that marsh. 63 Attention should also be drawn to the diminutive form of the first component of the compound place name. 64 Dar žr. Savukynas 1963: 235. 65 According to VK, the water-body name was recorded in a questionnaire from Pilėnai Manor, Gūdžiūnai district, Kėdainiai County (1936). 66 The article’s author thanks the anonymous reviewer for noting that a marsh, ‘a place surrounded by dry land,’ is so in any case—a waterlogged place is always surrounded by dry land. The author also thanks the reviewer for the interpretation of the hydronym’s motivation: “the possibility cannot be ruled out that Kaulinis raistas is a place where bones are found.” 67 Cf. also the land-names recorded in VK: Kiškiaulis dr. Rim (recorded in 1966 by linguist K. Eiginas), Nugarkaulis kln. Mt (1935 Land Names questionnaire), which were probably also named because of the topographic feature’s shape. 68 No additional information was recorded in the Runkių forest district questionnaire. 94 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXVI Sudėtinių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija 2.4. Not all the factors that prompted the emergence of yet another hydronym are clear: Samanyno bog bog Brb: Lithuanian moss-covered place; regarding semantics, cf. other hydronyms formed by compounding and recorded in the study area: Samanynraistis bog Dg, Samanynpeikė pool Smn (see VK for these). It is difficult, from today's perspective, to say precisely whether wet places were named after a locally connected place where a certain kind of plant—moss—had grown abundantly, or whether the place occupied by the bog was itself that moss-covered place, the mossland (Samanynas bog Brb?). The available data support interpretations in favor of both possible motivations for the hydronym. According to LẒe, an instance of the common noun mossland in use has been recorded in the living language of the study area: In that bog, some mosslands [...] (Pv). This would indicate that the location of the mossland is specified in relation to the bog (in that bog), and thus the location of the bog could most likely be identified in relation to the mosses. However, the hydronyms Samanynas pool Lp (1975); bog Šlvn (1988), bog Ktv (1986)69 recorded in the living language of the study area attest to the possibility that the name Samanynas was in use. 3. CONCLUSIONS 3.1. It was established that compound names denoting a hydroobject’s position and location in space predominate in the area studied—30 items (40%). Naming is based on orientation toward locally adjoining topographical features: hydronyms, settlements, especially land names; buildings (barns, sheds, kitchens, bridges), a tree (an oak), and other places on the land surface (a hill, meadow, pine forest, etc.). One instance of naming based on the relative position of hydroobjects to one another was recorded (Retos balaitės b. Brb). This suggests that, for the most part, helonyms formed by compounding reflect the surrounding topographical, geographical, and cultural realities in the individual’s consciousness. The characteristics of the hydroobjects studied are expressed by 26 helonyms (36%). Naming gives the greatest detail about the hydroobject’s bottom surface3 (the quality of the bottom surface (mud), its physical properties (viscosity), persistent descent from the surface downward (depth), and the amount of water in the hydroobject3 (abundance or absence of water in the hydroobject). Names also refer to other hydroobject characteristics: a characteristic feature of the place4, plants4 and animals (birds)4, what is present or found in wet places, the size of the hydroobject, and so on. This shows what 69 According to the informant, it is very deep, overgrown with bushes, and simply difficult to reach. Moss grows in the middle of the swamp. Straipsniai / Articles 95 DALIA ŠIDERSKIENĖ most attracts the namer’s attention when forming compound water-body names in the area studied. There are 17 recorded names based on a relationship with a person (24%). The overwhelming majority express relations of ownership. The personal names chosen as the basis for naming reflect the mixed ethnic environment of the study area. The hydronymic form Gidžiūno balā (pool, Krsnos parish) preserves the personal name *Gidžiūnas, which has not survived to the present day but is attested in the church register of Krosna in the parish of Krosna as Katarzina Gidžunas (1873). Analysis of compound helonyms (as well as compound names) allows us cautiously to note that anthroponyms appear to be used more actively in the process of helonym formation than in the naming of rivers and lakes. More extensive studies of native (Lithuanian) helonyms are needed to confirm or refute this claim. One hydroobject was named according to the time of its use (Malakirių bala swamp, Ss). 3.2. Although fragmentary, metaphorical hydronyms variously reveal how members of the speech community in the study area perceive hydroobjects. In the toponymization process, when naming an object as a place, a target domain, different source domains are used: päpas, patāpas (flood) to denote the amount of water in a hydroobject (Patapų balā swamp, Krsn), and sidābras (silver) to denote the clarity of a hydroobject’s water (Sidabriniai swamp, Ldn). The form Sidabrinių balā swamp, Ldn, recorded in spoken language, may have developed through a semantic association between word forms (sidabriniai – silver coins, valuables). The microsystem Lanckava (village, KzR) – Lanckavos Kōja (meadow, KzR), which emerged during the study, illustrates the place-name “creator’s” spatial perception of wholes and parts and a tendency toward specificity. It seems that, owing to the insularity and conservatism of the interwar village community and the emphasis placed on its own identity, there were attempts to revive and enshrine memories of the nation’s past in toponymy. These attempts “settled” in its localities as Liogerio balos swamp, Ss; Razbaininkų plytė b. KzR (pseudo-mythonyms liogeris, razbaininkas), thereby revealing the community’s ethical and cultural priorities. The motivation of the helonyms Veversīkas swamp, Lby (the gender of the recorded form was corrected from Veversīko balā swamp, Lby) and Velnių balāte swamp, Brb, is based on transferring evaluative features of the realities named (a bird and a mythical being) to the plants growing beside the hydroobject and to the evaluation of the hydroobject itself. Vēverys (= lark) represents insignificance, while devils are harmful to human needs. The latter evaluation rests on an ethnocultural stereotype. Both hydroobject names are informative from an ethnocultural perspective. The observed feature of embedding ethnocultural information in place names encourages further studies of toponymization, revealing the national (cultural) inventory of features accumulated in place names that distinguish one or another 96 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXVI Sudėtinių Marijampolės apskrities... motyvacija the most typical referents (representatives) of local features. Since explaining the motivation of hydronyms (as well as other place names) also reveals the intentions of those who name and evaluate them, the results of Lithuanian onomastic research could be incorporated into the field of research on the axiology of language. OBJECT-REFERENCE AND OTHER ABBREVIATIONS ank. – questionnaire aps – county avd. – personal name b. – bog db. – ravine dv. – manor gir. – forestry district int. – tributary kl. – road kln. – hill klv. – hillock mš. – forest pk. – marsh, marshy area pk. – figurative meaning pv. – meadow pd. – surname rst. – bog s. – island vls. – district vv. – place name ž. – land ABBREVIATIONS FOR LOCALITY REFERENCES Auk – Aukštadvaris (Aukštadvaris District) Brb – Balbieriškis (Prienai District) Dg – Daugai (Alytus District) Gd – Gudėliai (Marijampolė Municipality) Gdž – Gudžiūnai (Kėdainiai District) Igl – Igliškėliai (Marijampolė Municipality) Klv – Kalvarija (Marijampolė Municipality) Kt – Kietaviškės (Kaišiadorys District) KzR – Kazlų Rūda Lb – Liubavas (Kalvarija municipality area) Ldv – Liudvinavas (Marijampolė municipality area) Lp – Leipalingis (Druskininkai municipality area) Mj – Marijampolė Pk – Pakūonis (Prienai district) Plv – Pilviškiai (Vilkaviškis district) Pn – Pienai Pv – Pivašiūnai (Alytus district) Slt – Salantai (Kretinga district) Smln – Smalininkai (Jurbarkas district) Ss – Sasnà (Marijampolė municipality area) Sg – Suginių (Molėtai district) Šl – Šilavotas (Prienai district) Švn – Šlavantai (Lazdijai district) Vv – Veiveriai (Prienai district) Straipsniai / Articles 97 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ ŠALTINIAI ATSŽ II – Lietuvos TSR administracinio-teritorinio suskirstymo žinynas 2, parengė Z. 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Motivation of Composite Helonyms of Marijampolė County SUMMARY As a continuity of the analysis of toponimization of hydronyms from a single administrative unit (Marijampolė County) recorded in the interwar period, the article provides an in-depth analysis of the motivation of helonyms formed by means of compositing. After the available division of compound toponyms into genitive and qualifying toponyms (according to Vanagas) was corrected by dividing them into compound toponyms in agreement and in non-agreement (according to Savukynas), the latter were evaluated in a complex manner: from a derivational and semantic perspective, taking into account the background information of the period in question and referring to additional data of the interwar questionnaires recording the factors of nomination and the outcomes of the communicative activity of linguistic community members which helped to find out the actually represented content of hydronyms and pseudomotivation. The analysis showed the uneven structure of composite hydronyms and different syntactic connections between the components of a binary nomination; in the process of nomination the lexical inventory reflects the direction of thought of a linguistic community member in a certain ethic field in the selection of the feature of motivation and communicative intentions. All that is closely linked to the name-giver’s reality, his/her knowledge and awareness as well as ethnic (national) consciousness. The research determined the tendencies of nomination of compound helonyms (1). The area in question is dominated by the nominations expressing the position of the hydroobject, its place in space (40 per cent). The objects are nominated with a focus on the locally connecting land names and other places and buildings located on the land surface. It shows that the helonyms formed by means of compositing are a reflection of the surrounding topographical, geographical and cultural reality in the individual’s consciousness. The peculiarities of hydroobjects are expressed by 36 per cent of hydronyms. The hydroobject’s bottom surface (its quality (clay-covered area), physical properties (viscosity), remoteness, going from the surface downwards (depth) and the amount of water in the hydroobject (plenty of water and its absence) are most commonly reflected in nominations. Hydroobjects are also named for other properties: plants, animals (birds), for what is (found) in wet places, the voluminosity of the hydroobject, etc. It shows what draws the name-giver’s attention in compounding the hydronyms in the area in question. Straipsniai / Articles 101 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ The nominations based on the relationship with a person account for 24 per cent. They are prevailed by the nominations expressing the relations of ownership. The personal names on which the nomination is based reflect the mixed ethnic environment in the area under analysis. (2) Metaphorical hydronyms reveal how a linguistic community member in this area perceives the small hydroobjects. When designing the target domain of the hydroobject as a place, different source domains are selected in the process of nomination: pãtapas, pãtapas (flood) – to denote the amount of water in the hydroobject (Pãtapų balà b. Rsn); sidãbras – to denote the hydroobject’s transparent water (Sidabrinių b. Ldn). The hydronym form Sidabrinių balà b. Ldn recorded in the living language could have originated on the basis of the semantic association of word forms (sidabriniai – silver money, valuables). (3) The name-giver’s concept of the spatial whole and part and the tendency to concretise is illustrated by the microsystem which became apparent in the research Lančkavõ (b. KzR) – Lančkavõs Kója (pln. KzR). (4) The ethnic community’s cultural priorities reveal in the attempts to revive and consolidate the memories of the past of the nation which are established in the form of the pseudoinnovators logeris and razbaininkas in such units of own toponymy as Logerio balas b. Ss and Razbaininkų plyniai b. KzR. (5) The nominations Vėversiukas b. Lbv (the place-name form is modified from Vėversiuko balà) and Velnių balà b. Brb are informative in ethnic-cultural terms. Their motivation is based on the transfer of the evaluative features of the nominating realia (bird, mythical creature) to express the evaluation of the plants growing next to the hydroobject (calamus) and the hydroobject itself. Vėversys (= vieversys, ‘lark’) represents smallness; velnias (velniai, ‘devil’) represents usefulness for human needs. The latter evaluation is based on the stereotypes of ethnic consciousness. The analysis of the motivation of compound hydronyms revealed that theonyms in question are not only a reflection of the surrounding geographical and topographical reality in the individual’s consciousness. They also reflect the cultural priorities and axiological indicators of the ethnic community. Įteikta 2017 m. spalio 3 d. DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT–10308 Vilnius, Lietuva [email protected] 102 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXVII