Priesaginių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija

DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language Research field: onomastics (research into the formation, origin, and motivation of proper names). DOI: https://doi.org/10.35321/all81-05 THE MOTIVATION OF SUFFIXAL HELONYMS OF MARIJAMPOLĖ COUNTY Motivation of Suffixal Helonyms in Marijampolė County ABSTRACT The article analyzes a distinctive and interesting layer of non-equivalent lexis: suffixal helonyms. To reveal the motivated relationship between their formal structure and meaning, these representatives of the hydronym class are examined using the linguistic methods of structural, semantic, and motivological analysis. The most comprehensive information possible about the denotatum is available; the data on the linguistic consciousness of informants from the area under study, recorded in the “Land Names” questionnaires (1935–1937), are also used, together with surviving supplementary information reflecting their knowledge, experience, and awareness and helping to understand the onomastic situation. The article is valuable to the science of lexicology and its other branches: ethnolinguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, cognitive linguistics, the practice of local toponymy, and the understanding of the phenomenon of the proper name. In the context of cultural globalization, the interpretation of a fragment of nature (marshy places) emerging from the study within the language system of a particular area is important. The findings of the study could contribute to addressing questions of regional self-consciousness and identity. KEYWORDS: place names, hydronyms, helonyms, toponymic naming, motivation, naming principles, naming methods, metaphor, metonymy, ellipsis, semantic derivation. ABSTRACT The article addresses suffixal helonyms, which constitute a peculiar and interesting layer of the so called non-equivalent lexis. In order to reveal the motivated connection between 110 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXI Priesaginių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija their formal structure and meaning, these representatives of the hydronym class are analysed using the linguistic methods of structural, semantic, motivological analysis. As comprehensive information about the denotatum as possible is in use; the article also makes use of the data about the linguistic consciousness of the informants from the area under analysis, which were recorded in the “Land Names” questionnaires (1935–1937), as well as the surviving additional information enabling us to grasp their knowledge and experience and helping to understand the onomastic situation. The article is valuable for the science of lexicology and its other branches: ethnolinguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, cognitive linguistics, the practice of local toponymy, and the conception of the phenomenon of the proper word. The interpretation of the fragment of nature (marshy places) in the language system of a certain area emerging from the study is important in the context of cultural globalization. The findings of the study could contribute to the solution of the issues of regional self-consciousness and identity. KEYWORDS: toponyms, hydronyms, helonyms, toponymization, motivation, principles of nomination, ways of nomination, metaphor, metonymy, ellipsis, semantic word-formation. INTRODUCTION Humanity’s cognitive and communicative activity, and the existence of unnamed objects, reveal one of the main tasks of language: to “fill” all areas of linguistic activity with new designations¹. Therefore, lexical nomination is studied in two directions: by examining the structure of the linguistic sign and the relationship between the process of nomination and the object being named. From what has been said, and from the most recent studies of nomination and motivation conducted in recent years (by Milda Norkaitienė (zoonyms), Aurelia Gritėnienė (phytonyms), Jūratė Lubienė (myconyms), and Dalia Sviderskienė (toponyms)), it is evident that scholarly approaches are turning toward multifaceted descriptions of linguistic phenomena. Naming is understood not only as the process of formation of new linguistic units, but also as the result of a complex process; therefore, its analysis is connected with addressing several questions: the method of naming, the identification of means, and the clarification of different features (the linguistic aspect); and the resolution of questions related to the interaction of language, thought, and the surrounding environment (the epistemological aspect). In the final decades of the last century, word meanings began to be studied in two complementary directions: semasiology (the direction of inquiry from form to content) and onomasiology (the direction of inquiry from… ¹ Kazys Alminauskis stated in the Instructions for compiling the Register of Lithuanian Land Names: “Hundreds of thousands of land names are hidden among the people” (Alminauskis 1934: 4). Straipsniai / Articles 111 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ from content to form). As Evalda Jakaitienė observes, the aim of semasiological research into meaning was to answer the question “What does a particular word mean?”, while that of onomasiological research was to answer “What word expresses a particular concept, names an object, or conveys an evaluation?” (cf. Jakaitienė 2010: 42). Thus, analysing the lexical inventory from an onomasiological perspective means tracing the process of nomination from knowledge of the object being named to the result of nomination—the naming, or the bestowal of a name. This means that an onomasiological analysis of the nomination process gives priority to analysing linguistic units from the perspective of the namer, the “creator” of names: the expression of particular non-linguistic content in a particular linguistic form. Moreover, the relevance of research into the nomination process from an onomasiological perspective lies less in selecting linguistic forms to express particular content than in clarifying the ways and principles by which these linguistic forms (signs) are structured. Thus, a full analysis of naming processes requires identifying the principles, methods, and means of nomination. According to Olga I. Blinova (the Tomsk school of motivology), the principles of naming are points of departure, rules formed on the basis of generalisations about motivational features among members of a linguistic community in a particular area, and at the same time they themselves serve as points of departure for new names to emerge (Блинова 1984: 77)² In Lithuanian toponymy, the greatest attention has been devoted to the formation and origin of suffixed place names: helonyms by Laimutis Bilkis, oikonyms by Marija Razmukaitė, and oronyms by Dalia Kačinaitė. Of these, helonyms have been studied most comprehensively from the perspective of formation (Bilkis 2008). This study of the motivation of regional helonyms supplements the existing state of research and encourages further studies on the topic. Research has already been conducted into the motivation of compound and complex helonyms in Marijampolė County (Sviderskienė 2016; 2017). These studies did not limit themselves to identifying the reasons for the emergence of helonyms; they also distinguished principles of naming hydro-objects, thereby providing an additional semantic criterion for explaining helonym motivation. To highlight what is new about this study of the motivation of suffixed helonyms, it should be noted that helonyms, like other toponyms, are representatives of secondary nomination. They are not all alike: some result from secondary direct nomination, while others result from secondary indirect nomination. “Secondary indirect nomination differs from direct secondary nomination in its result: in this case, no independent new word is created; rather, a word with the same formal structure is given a new meaning in a particular combination with other words. This type of nomination produces what are known as semantic formations” (Jakaitienė 2010: 22). This definition is elucidated by an observation grounded in Jūratė Lubienė’s research practice on the nomination and motivation of myconyms: “In semantic nomination, the formal aspects of the nominate and the lexical motivator are identical, while their meanings are associated ² Dėl įvardijimo principų dar žr. Голев 1972a. 112 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXI Priesaginių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija ryšių“ (Lubienė 2015: 62). Neišleistinas iš akių ir kitas svarbus mokslininkės pastebėjimas dėl elipsinio įvardijimo būdo: „Toks nominacijos procesas gali būti suvokiamas taip: iš dvižodžio pavadinimo padaromas vienažodis, formaliai praleidžiant pagrindinį kolokacijos narį, o semantiškai – jo reikšmę inkorporuojant į buvusio determinacinio nario semantiką“ (ten pat). Representatives of both semantic formation and the elliptical mode of naming have long been distinguished in the toponymy of other countries. Ukrainian onomastician Yurii A. Karpenko notes the genetic dependence of toponyms on adjectives that describe place names. Since toponyms are specific distinguishing markers of places, adjectives in ordinary usage generally express the features of the places being named; grammatically, this means that they modify physiographic terms, and this mode of naming in toponymy, following the “term–toponym” pattern, is quite common. This claim is also supported by historical records, which clearly document how many complex place names were shortened and the adjective became substantivised (for details, see Карпенко 1966)3 The elliptical mode of naming, which arose through linguistic economy, is also equated with another mode that likewise reflects linguistic economy: metonymic transfer. J. A. Karpenko also mentions metonymy as one of the most prominent features of microtoponymy (for details, see Карпенко 1967: 18). Other Russian scholars have also written about it as one of the most active modes of naming in toponymy: Yulia I. Chaykina, Nikolai D. Golev, Liudmila A. Zakharova, Natalia G. Nesterova, Galina N. Starikova, and others.4 It is particularly important to note that cases of elliptical and metonymic naming formed for the sake of linguistic economy are examined and presented in this article. They constitute the most vulnerable layer of a vanishing (or vanished) helonymy (and toponymy as a whole). Because of their “economical” form (feature ⇔ helonym, place ⇔ helonym), these names of places are precisely those that enter a “risk zone” during fieldwork: they may not be identified as proper names and may go unrecognised and unrecorded. They are also the most likely to succumb to the passage of time and the changes it brings—land reclamation, collectivisation, and other factors characteristic of the period in which place names were being recorded. Thus, the risk of losing these names also makes their study and publication necessary. In this article, in addition to the aspects mentioned above, account is also taken of other new approaches to evaluating toponymy that have come to the fore amid a shift in linguistic paradigms (recent linguistic research emphasises representations of ways of perceiving the surrounding environment and of conceptualising it). As will become clear in the study below, all 3For the formal expression of complex (unshortened) Russian and Lithuanian toponyms and the corresponding models, see also: Просвирнина 2001: 35–48; Sviderskienė 2017: 78–102. 4For more, see: Чайкина 1983; Палкина 1983; Голев 1991; Захарова, Нестерова, Старикова 2003. Straipsniai / Articles 113 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ The naming methods are expressed by corresponding schemes, enabling a better understanding of the direction of the namer’s thinking developed during the onomastic situation. The word schema itself means a certain image or figure, and then also a particular internal structure corresponding to a certain order of grammatical rules that helps identify conceptual structures. In analysing the material, the aims are (1) to reveal the feature that became the basis⁶ for naming marshy places; (2) to determine (interpret) what a place name meant at the time of its formation and its becoming nomina proprium; and (3) to explain how a representative of the ethnic group under study perceived, understood, and evaluated the place, and the logical explanation they gave for it, grounded in their own cultural experience, as well as to reveal the name “creator’s” strategy during the naming process. To achieve this aim, representatives of the hydronym class are investigated using the linguistic methods of structural, semantic, and motivological analysis. As comprehensive information about the denotatum as possible is available; data on the linguistic consciousness of informants from the area under study, recorded in the Land Names questionnaires (1935–1937), are used, along with surviving additional information reflecting their knowledge, experience, and understanding, which helps to better comprehend and explain the onomastic situation. The study applies the scientific method of inquiry (grouping helonyms into particular groups according to their similarities or differences based on selected criteria), the method of internal reconstruction, as well as pragmatic, cognitive-interpretive, and descriptive methods. In analysing the interwar material, proper words were compared with common words recorded in dialect dictionaries that gathered the vocabulary of the area under study, and in the comprehensive, large-scale multivolume dictionary of Lithuanian vocabulary, also published in electronic form, the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (hereafter LKŽė). Since the combinability of words in living speech, which brings out their meanings and shades of meaning, is important for the study of motivation, the latter dictionary was especially useful as a source of diverse, multilayered information about words, as its compilers themselves note. Moreover, “Lithuanians are more closely connected with the village than any other people. The twenty-volume Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language [...] is considered a distinctive documentation of rural life, presenting older and dialect [...] vocabulary. In it ⁵ As will become clear below, the content of the second section of the article, Suffixal helonyms whose motivation is not entirely clear, is informative. It reveals how important it is, when conducting toponymic research, to know onomasiological schemes and to have such knowledge at one’s disposal. ⁶ In the case of naming with secondary non-equivalent lexis, one can speak of motivated naming, since it is based on a particular feature of the denotatum. Motivation is a condition of the process of naming objects, things, phenomena of reality, and the like (cf. Толстая 2002: 120). “A feature that becomes the basis of nomination in creating a new name is called the inner form of a word or the feature of motivation” (Gritėnienė 2006: 24). 114 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXI Priesaginių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija is documented particularly beautifully: the vision of the folk world, established in language and acting upon us through language, and the values that are cherished” (Rutkovska 2016). Therefore, it should be emphasised that this dictionary is especially valuable for addressing questions concerning the naming and clarification (interpretation) of the motivation of representatives of the semantic groups of helonyms in the interwar administrative unit (Marijampolė County). The study was conducted with due regard for the entire toponymic context; individual place names are assessed primarily within the toponymic system of the area under study, and only in certain cases are representatives from the whole linguistic area used, recorded from living speech and collected on slips in the Place-Name File (hereafter VK), as well as published in the Dictionary of Lithuanian Place Names. In selecting illustrative examples, preference is given to place names recorded from living speech. The article follows the same customary and established criteria for presenting material in Lithuanian toponymy⁷. 1. SUFFIXAL HELONYMS WITH CLEAR MOTIVATION 1.1. Names based on particular characteristics of hydrographic features. 1.1.1. Names based on shape. (1) Direct naming representatives. feature ⇔ helonym A marsh whose shape stood out from its surroundings was named Apvaliukė b., rst. KzR (Jūrė GA)⁸, cf. Lithuanian apvalùs, -ì ‘shaped like a cylinder or sphere; round’. The meaning of the place name is easily inferred: round. Another name belonging to this microgroup is Riestukė b. KzR, cf. Lithuanian riẽstas, -à ‘semicircular in shape, curved’. According to informants from Jūrė GA, [the marsh] resembles half a circle⁹, that is, a semicircular, curved marsh. Thus, it was named on the basis of the shape of the marsh feature. The suffix –(i)ukė indicates a positive emotional evaluation of places in this microgroup. (2) Indirect naming representatives. a) Several representatives of indirect naming based on shape are discussed below; the feature of an object’s shape often correlates with its size. feature ⇔ helonym ⁷ Dėl medžiagos skirstymo ir analizės tvarkos dar žr. Sviderskienė 2016: 246–247. ⁸ For the explanation of the formation and origin of place names, see also LVŽ I 168, where helonyms are linked to Lithuanian apvalùs, -ì. ⁹ According to later fieldwork data, attested by an entry on a VK slip, in 1982 the local name Riestukė was recorded in Marackai village (KzR district); according to the informant, the bog was horseshoe-shaped. Straipsniai / Articles 115 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ Because of its curved shape (probably semicircular) and perhaps somewhat larger-than-usual size, the pool may have been described as Kirvunė b. Šil. For this hypothesis, cf. Lithuanian kirvìnė, kirvìnė ‘a curved stick nailed to a wall for hanging an axe; cf. also kirvìnis, –ė, kirvìnis: Geležis kirvinis yra stambus, dera kirvio ausims (Šts)¹⁰. The elongated, small pool may have been described by members of the ethnic area as Pupinė b. Klvr; cf. Lithuanian pupìnis, –ė ‘resembling a bean’ [Pupinis beetle (cockchafer) Lnt]. A natural landscape area in the Agurkiškė forestry district, distinguished from its surroundings by its resemblance to a cut-out, was named Langinė b. KzR (Agurkiškė GA); cf. Lithuanian langìnis, –ė ‘having a window-shaped cut-out’; cf. also Lithuanian lángas ‘a hole, an abyss in a bog, an eye’¹¹ (Lithuanian skylė ‘a cavity or natural opening’; Lithuanian praraja ‘a hollow place, an eye in a bog’; Lithuanian akìs ‘a hollow place in a bog’). For the semantics, cf. the marsh name Langiaraistis, marsh, Jz (VK). Thus, it may be assumed that, besides its being similar to a window-shaped cut-out, the pool may have had other characteristic features, such as small size, depth, or the unstable, swaying surface of the banks surrounding it, and so on. This interpretation is also supported by a sentence reflecting human experience, recorded from spoken language: You can’t even get near the abyss, because it sways so much—it seems you’ll suddenly plunge down (Mrs). Užakusi bala buvo įvardyta Baltakinė b. Lbv. Saulėgrąžų ir Pagraužių kaimų Žemės vardų anketoje užfiksuota pateikėjo pastaba: [baloje] visada baltas vanduo. Dėl semantikos plg. raistavardį Baltākė Sug (LVŽ I 342)¹². Nominatyviniu požiūriu akivaizdu, kad įvardijama per tam tikros ypatybės turėtoją (regos organą, esantį viršutinės kūno dalies, galvos, srityje), kurio ypatybė isivaizduojamai būdinga ir įvardijamajam geoobjektui, plg. liet. baltākė ‘balta, išversta akis’ [Dėbtelėjo su savo baltakėm, neit (net) baugu pasidarė Gs; Išvertęs savo baltakės ir spokso Plv], dar plg. liet. akis ‘liūne kiaura vieta; pelkių ar baigiančių užaugti ežerų nedidelis vandens plotas. Dėl semantikos plg. tiriamajame plote užfiksuotą balovardį Aklõji b. Mškč (LVŽ I 36). A certain landscape zone was named Káulinė marsh, KzR (Runkių GA), so the implied meaning of the place name is a bone-shaped marsh [Lithuanian bone ‘hard ¹⁰ Since, as noted in the introduction, the collocability of words in spoken language is important for the study of motivation, revealing their meanings and shades of meaning, certain passages from sentences recorded from spoken language, folklore, fiction, and documented in LKŽe are highlighted in order to explain the direction in which marshy places are named and the logic of their motivation. Abbreviations in LKŽe are not explained separately. ¹¹ Dėl šio vv. darybos dar žr. Bilkis 2008: 186. ¹² Dar žr. Bilkis 2008: 185. Čia balovardis kvalifikuojamas kaip ne visai aiškios kilmės (Baltakinė b. Lb, plg. Baltākė rst. Sug). Dar kitaip kvalifikuojama LVŽ I 342: helonimas kildinamas iš asmenvardžio Báltakis, Baltákis. 116 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXI Priesaginių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija body tissue, part of the skeleton]. To explain on sound grounds which feature of the place gave rise to this name, answers were also sought in the toponymy of other areas, recorded from living speech. The VK contains the recorded marsh name Kāulinė b. Krkn¹³, accompanied by the informant’s comment elongated, which shows that a particular aspect of the visual form of the geo-object—its spatial arrangement—may have been foregrounded in naming (cf. also kaulas ‘bone’ – ‘part of the skeleton’)¹⁴. On the other hand, perhaps the depressions and elevations characteristic of the place, as of a bone, could associatively have linked these representatives of different domains. The explanation of the motivation provided by the informant for the marsh name recorded in the same area¹⁵ Kāulinis raištas, marsh, Šil (Mikališkio GA), a marsh surrounded by dry land, suggests that the water feature was probably small in size, and that the namer may therefore have identified it in relation to its surrounding microenvironment and differentiated it according to its spatial arrangement (configuration)¹⁶. The case of naming under analysis also seems to be amenable to such an explanation. b) Metaphorical names. vessel ⇒ helonym The name of a vessel of a particular shape and depth served as the basis for naming the marsh Bliūdelis, marsh, KzR (Runkių GA) (Lith. *bliūdelis, cf. bliūdas ‘bowl; the quantity it holds’ [round like a bowl, Gs]). More semantically related place names are recorded in the linguistic area: Bliūdelis, lake, Kpč; Bliūdelio kalnis, hill, Sdk; Bliūdelinis, stream, Vln¹⁷ (cf. neighboring forms of this place name: Bedugnis and Mežymėlio Bliūdelis)¹⁸. Regarding semantics, cf. also the names recorded in the area under study, which differ from one another in the degree of a particular feature—shallowness (depth)—and in the imagined quantity of water they could hold: Bliūdas, marsh, KzR (Papilvio GA); Šaukštas, marsh, KzR (Runkių GA); Torielka, marsh, KzR. Most likely because of its shape and a certain degree of depth, the marsh was named Druskinė, marsh, Mrj; cf. Lith. druskinė ‘vessel for storing salt; the quantity that fits in a salt container’ [Bring a salt container of salt down from the attic, Mrj]; cf. also Lith. druskinis, -ė. ¹³ Questionnaire on land names, Stukų village, Krekenava rural district, Panevėžys County. ¹⁴ Dėl vv. darbo žr. Bilkis 2008: 167; dėl šio ir sudėjimo būdu padaryto helonimo Kāulinis raištas bela (pelkė), apsupta sausuma, (Šil Mikališkio GA) motyvacijos aiškinimo žr. Sviderskienė 2017: 94. ¹⁵ The mismatch between the second element and the feature designation indicates either inaccurate identification of the geo-object or a change in its natural-geographical status. ¹⁶ Dėl vv. motyvacijos paaiškinimo žr. Sviderskienė 2017: 94. ¹⁷ For these place names, see LVŽ I 418. ¹⁸ For these place names, see ibid., p. 414. Straipsniai / Articles 117 D A L I A S I D E R S K I E N Ė ‘used for storing salt19. The actual range of meaning of the marsh name may also have included several other features (a light-coloured surface, etc.). Also, because of its shape and the amount of water it could (imaginarily) hold, the marsh was named Ragutis marsh, Ldv; cf. Lithuanian ragutis ‘a small vessel shaped like such a hollow or made from it, for storing tobacco, gunpowder, oil, etc., or for drinking wine or mead; the quantity it holds’ [This time he brought a full little ragutis of fat [to grease the wheel], but [someone] fell in and licked it all up V]. Thus, the generalized meaning attributed to both place names is round, small, shallow. part of an oven ⇒ helonym A part of an oven, that is, a particular hollow in it, became the basis for naming a landscape feature, a natural hollow: Pečiukas marsh, Lbv; cf. Lithuanian pečiukas ‘a niche with a door in an oven for keeping food warm, an oven recess, a shelf’ [Put the meat in the oven recess; it will get cold standing here Mr]; [Put the meat in the oven recess; the cat can’t reach it there Krsn]. It seems that the dimensions of the household objects known to be (potentially) placed there also played a role in the naming process; in this connection, cf. Lithuanian niša ‘a hollow made in a wall for placing something’, Lithuanian pečinė ‘a hollow, a hole [...] for putting small objects [...]’ [A hole in the oven for placing cups is called a pečinė /. (LKŽė)]. person ⇒ helonym A topo-object distinguished from its surroundings by its shape was given an emotionally coloured name, Panaitė marsh, Vv20; cf. Lithuanian panaitė, panaitė ‘a gentleman’s daughter’. This formal shape apparently seemed to a representative of peasant culture the most suitable way to express the natural feature’s roundness and positive evaluation. For the semantics, cf. Apvalukė marsh, rst. KzR (Jūrės GA)21. The helonyms in this microgroup represent figurative MM22. 1.1.2. Names based on colour. Representatives of indirect naming. feature ⇒ helonym 19 For this and other Lithuanian place names with drusk-, see LVŽ II 342–343. Here they are associated with Lithuanian druska ‘a certain salty mineral compound (sodium chloride)’. 20 The questionnaires state: a drowned young lady. This explanation is associated with remotivation, whereby a morphologically and lexically unclear word is “translated” into an intelligible one. For further discussion of this phenomenon, see: Голев 1972; Ныблин, Фабуш, Хойзер 2012: 38; Кабашкайте 2014. 21 For the place names, see LVŽ I 168. Cf. also another designation: a flower growing in sandy areas, the wild onion, is also called panaitė [This year there are many panaitė flowers in our flax field Rdm]. 22 For the meaning and use of the term motivation model (MM), see: Блинова 2007; 2012; Lubienė 2015. 118 A c t a L i n g u i s t i c a L i t h u a n i c a L X X I Priesaginių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija Since Lith. brōkas means ‘beet’, and the latter, as is known, is not an aquatic plant. Thus, it may be assumed that the geographical feature was named Brōkinė marsh Vv²³ because of the colour of its water / bottom; cf. Lith. burōkinis, -ė, burōkinis, -ė ‘beet-coloured’, in appearance²⁴. Accordingly, the inferred meaning of the marsh name is a marsh whose reddish, beet-like colour stands out from its surroundings. This supposition is also confirmed by other semantically similar helonyms from this area: Raudōnė marsh Krsn, Raudōnplynė quagmire KzR²⁵. The motivation of these latter waterbody names is explained by the questionnaire’s metatext. In the Notes column of the questionnaire for the marsh name Raudōnė, it is written: the soil beside the marsh is reddish in colour, and rust forms in the marsh. On this basis, it may be inferred that members of the ethnic group perceive marshy geographical areas where iron ore is widespread as “red” or “russet” (cf. Lith. rūšas, -a ‘light red, reddish’). For comparison of semantics, cf. also the helonym Burokėlių balais marsh Pns²⁶, recorded in another area. The woodland marsh Tabakinis quagmire Ss is also named on the basis of comparison; cf. Lith. tabakinis, -ė ‘characteristic of tobacco, like tobacco (of colour)’ [their (grains’) colour is more tobacco-like Ss; Tabakinė brown colour BTŽ³⁰⁶ (LKŽe); I offered her a tobacco-coloured dress lg]. The inferred meaning is a somewhat rusty-brown woodland marsh. The topographical feature was named Bérōkas open marsh Vv (Šališkiai GA)²⁷ because of the somewhat brownish hue of the surface of a particular natural zone (open marshland); cf. Lith. bérōkas ‘somewhat bay, brownish’²⁸ and Lith. bėras, -a ‘dark brown in colour (primarily of a horse)’. Also cf. other representatives of proper names, including cases of naming based on the relation between whole and part: e.g. Rudōkas (LPŽ II 631), e.g. Rudōkas ‘brown-bearded’ Krn (Butkus 1995: 371), and Lith. rūdas, -a ‘dark yellow; brown-haired (of a person)’ as well as rudōkas, -a ‘somewhat brown’. For semantics, cf. Granpievė meadow, upland meadow Mšk (Lith. grānas, -a ‘a particular cow-coat colour: legs, head, back and belly white, sides black or grey; white-backed’)²⁹. Apparently, it is possible to agree 23 According to the questionnaire data, a stream called Brōkinis flows through Brōkinė. For the latter, see LUEV 22: Brōkinis stream Vv. 24 Differently in LVŽ I 571: a possible explanation of the origin of the marsh name is given here: from the personal name Brōkas; the possibility that it derives from Lith. brōkas ‘beet’ is not ruled out either. 25 Plačiau dėl šio vv. motyvacijos aiškinimo žr. Sviderskienė 2017: 251. 26 For an explanation of its origin and formation, see LVŽ I 571. 27 The Šališkiai forestry district questionnaire states that only the older people of Naudžiai village know the local name. 28 For the formation and origin of the place names, see also LVŽ I 439, where two possible etymons for the place names are considered: perhaps Lith. bėris, bėris ‘bay horse, bay mare; somewhat bay’ (LKŽ I 766), though the possibility that some of the place names derive from the personal name Bėris (LPŽ I 237) or a similar name is not ruled out. L. Bilkis likewise connects the marsh name with a personal name (see Bilkis 1998: 132). 29 See also LVŽ III 254, where these place names are associated not only with the adjective mentioned above, but also with Lith. granys ‘grey-headed’. Straipsniai / Articles 119 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ The observations of Jelena E. Ivanova, a linguist at the University of the Urals30, that toponymic data extend the range of uses of animal coat-colour terms. Two more representatives of indirect naming by colour (hue) are discussed below; this feature correlates with the quality of the hydro-object’s bottom (a) and with its dimensions (b). In the latter case, the salient meaning ‘to encompass, to extend’ also comprises several other features (an elongated shape, a hard surface). feature ⇒ helonym a) Because of the dark hue of the marshy place’s surface and perhaps its physical state (hardness), it was named Geležinė marsh, Šl31; cf. a sentence recorded from living speech in the area under study that supports this understanding: Such iron-hard, stony ground here (Pn). Also cf. the interpretation of the river name Geležupis, based on the results of a study of the motivation of hydronyms in another area: “Perhaps the river was named so because of the similarity in colour between water and iron, or because iron tools and other iron objects were deliberately plunged into the river” (Bilkis 2009: 358). The first part of this explanation may be accepted as supporting the interpretation of the marshy place’s naming motivation. b) A marshy place, probably small and dark, shaped like a wedge and distinguished by its form from the surrounding area, was named Ragaišinė marsh, Vv; cf. Lithuanian ragaĩs ‘bread made of coarse wheat or barley flour, karaiš’; also cf. Lithuanian ragaĩduonė ‘bread baked from coarse flour, a small loaf’; [dark ragaiš – hard wheat, Dks]. For semantics, cf. Ragaĩbalė and marsh, Pn32, Juodagraĩšė bog, Dnl (VK). 1.1.3. Representatives of physiographic naming describing the nature and quality of the water (1) and the quality of the bottom (surface) (2)—more often, an uneven surface. (1) a) attribute ⇒ helonym A representative of direct naming. Because of the dark, brackish, viscous contents of the pool, it was named Dumblinė pool, Pn; cf. Lithuanian dumblinis, -ė ‘made of mud’; also cf. Pila bala dumblė, Dks [Lithuanian dūblas ‘settled sediment, wet, trampled mud’33; Lithuanian pūvas ‘wet, softened by water, sticky soil’34] b) Another representative of this microgroup is Rūdnas pool, KžR (Aukiršė GA); cf. Lithuanian rūdnas ‘containing rust, rust-coloured water’ [Here is a muddy little pool, black 30 Dėl jo plačiau žr. Иванова 2015: 128–130. 31 See also LVŽ III 128–129, which gives as the etymon Lithuanian geležis ‘the most widespread metal in nature (Fe), from which tools, weapons, and other things are made’, geležas ‘an iron object’. 32 Dėl pastarojo vv. motyvacijos aiškinimo žr. Sviderskienė 2016: 258. 33 Būtent šis etmonas ir nurodomas monografijoje bei Lietuvos vietovardžių žodyne (2014) – dar žr.: Bilkis 2008: 154; LVŽ II 386–388. 34 A gander came flying with a flock of geese, mixing the water with black mud (KlpD98); Don’t stick your hands in the mud: your hands are white, the mud is black (Vlk). 120 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXI Priesaginių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija the little bog, where I waded every day JD 308 (LKŽe). This is a case of metonymic naming, in which the surname is based on the relationship between the whole and a part. (2) a) feature ⇨ helonym Representatives of indirect naming. Uneven, a pool with a knobbly bottom was named Gumbinė b. Lbv, cf. Lithuanian gum-binis, –ė⁳⁵ ‘knobbly’ [Lith. gumbotas, –a ‘covered with knobs, uneven, lumpy’³⁶]. For the formal structure and semantics, cf. the toponyms Gumbindaržis a., ar., krm. Vlkj³⁷. Uneven, geo-objects with a tussock-covered surface were named Kupstinė b. KzR (Pa- p. pavlo GA), Lbv; rst. Gdl, cf. Lith. kupstinis, –ė; Lith. kūptas ‘some small elevation, mound, hillock, or hummock’. Also cf. sentences reflecting the actual natural situation, recorded from spoken language in another area: These pools overgrown with hummocks cannot be waded through (Kp); The whole marsh is flooded; only the hummocks stick up above the water (Slnt) [Lith. kėsas ‘hummock, tussock’]. For the semantics, cf. Kūpstabalė b. Vy³⁸. The semantic content conveyed by representatives of this microgroup competes not only among them, revealing the degree of a certain aspect of the named objects—their unevenness—but also with the semantic content of another helonym recorded in this area, Parakalbe b. Ss [Lith. párkai ‘a kind of skin disease, scabies, scabs—unevenness, protuberances like scabs’]³⁹. b) Two more naming representatives to be presented below were formed according to another model (a feature of a place ⇨ helonym); during the naming process, their meaning became specialized. A pool in which, according to the informant, there were many tussocks was named Kupstynas b. Krsn, cf. Lith. kupstynas ‘a place with many tussocks, a tussocky place’ [We’ll drive [the animals] into the tussocky place Klv]; Kupstynė b. Klvr, cf. Lith. kupstynė ‘a tussocky place, meadow’ [The tussocky places are full of hummocks, and there isn’t a hand’s breadth of good land Lk; What can you expect from those fields—they’re nothing but tussocks Gs]. Representative of direct naming. attribute ⇨ helonym 35 Cf. Lith. gumbinė ‘a place behind the stove, a nook behind the stove’ [The children, seeing the bear, hid in the nook Šl; Even if you throw the bundle of flax there, it dries quickly in the nook Prn; Put the bundles of flax in the nook Brb; A dark nook Auk]. 36 Alternatively, LVŽ III 353: here, as with all the toponyms cited by the authors of the Dictionary of Lithuanian Place Names (2018), all toponyms containing gumb- are associated with Lith. gumbas ‘a growth, thickening at some point, or bend on a tree (plant); some kind of swelling’, gumba ‘a crooked part of a tree’, gumbti ‘to grow, increase, form a knob’. 37 For the formation and origin of the toponyms, see LVŽ III 354. A somewhat different explanation is offered here: perhaps from *gumbinis, cf. the hydronym Gumbis. 38 For an explanation of the motivation of the toponyms, see ibid. 39 Dėl pastarojo vv. motyvacijos aiškinimo žr. Sviderskienė 2016: 250. Straipsniai / Articles 121 DALIA SVIDERKSIENĖ A somewhat different shade of meaning is conveyed by plyne where irregularities of another kind were visible on the surface—traces of crawling, tracks: Šliužinė pl. Vv (Šalškių GA), cf. Lithuanian šliužė, šliužė ‘a crawling trace, track’ [A flock of geese got into the grain and left tracks Žr]. In addition, pėdsakai means ‘a sign, mark of something that was there’. Thus, on the basis of the data presented, it is easy to infer what the “creator” had in mind when describing the plyne in this way. As is known, plynes provide shelter for and are crawled through by⁴⁰ adders, grass snakes, vipers, and other snake-like creatures. Moreover, in plynes, only here and there is an occasional very stunted tree found (excerpt from LKŽ); the surface is clearly visible. 1.1.4. Naming associated with the object's size: Valakinė bog Prn, cf. Lithuanian valakinis, -ė ‘the size of a valakas’, and also valakas ‘a plot of land of about twenty desetinas’. This conjecture seems to be confirmed by the entry ¼ ha in the Size column of the Land Names questionnaire for Strelčiai village. Naming schema: feature ⇒ helonym. 1.1.5. Names based on the growth of certain plant species on the banks and surface (cover). (1) attribute ⇒ helonym The meaning of the marsh name Ajerinė bog Prn is easy to infer: a bog overgrown with sweet flag, covered with sweet flag, cf. Lithuanian ajerinis, -ė ‘overgrown with sweet flag’ [Ajerinė sietuva Šts], and also Lithuanian ājeras ‘a marsh plant with long, strongly aromatic leaves (Acorus calamus)’. Folk knowledge based on experience is reflected in this sentence recorded from spoken language: Sweet flag grows in a plyne where it never dries out (Jrb). A bog whose banks are covered with horsetails is named Asiūklinė (Asiūklinė?) bog Krsn; Asiūklinė bog Lbv⁴¹; Asiūklinė bog Lbv⁴². According to the questionnaire data (Krsn), horsetails used to grow there (Lithuanian asiūklis, asiūklis ‘a spore-bearing plant of the horsetail family with small scaly leaves, horsetail (Equisetum)’). Encyclopedic information—horsetails grow in damp soils, in spring-fed places, forests, and meadows⁴³—seems not to contradict this explanation of the motivation for the name of marshy places. Marshy places overgrown with particular plant species are named Bužinė bog⁴⁴ Mr, cf. Lithuanian bužė ‘bulrush, cattail (Typha)’ [Šimet kone pilna durpinčia bužių prauga Mr]—a bog of bužės (cattails); Lakišinė bog Ldn, cf. Lithuanian lakišius ‘a plant of the daisy family that grows in bogs and along shores’ 40 Cf. Lithuanian šliužti, -ia, -ė ‘to crawl, creep along a surface’. 41 Questionnaire for Salaperauja village. 42 Questionnaire for Naujoji Valia village. 43 See the access link online: https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/As%C5%ABklis [accessed 2019-10-18]. 44 A discrepancy between the place name and the reference to the object indicates either that the object's status has changed or that the reference to the object provided (recorded) is inaccurate. 122 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXI Priesaginių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija with yellow flowers and very sticky seeds (Bidens) – lake; Foxy bog, Lbv, cf. Lithuanian lapūkas ‘marsh marigold (Caltha palustris)’ [A full pond of leaves Kt]⁴⁵ of leaves. Mossy bog, marsh Prn; Mossy marsh Gd (Ivo niškis GA) – moss bog, cf. Lithuanian mossy ‘covered with moss’. Testimonies of an encyclopedic nature support this understanding of such a natural segment of the marsh landscape: White grouse prefers open mossy pools, overgrown with small birches and pines T. Ivan.; Mossy bog ŽŽ19 (according to LKŽ). For the semantics, cf. Samų raistelis marsh Gd⁴⁶. A bog overgrown with sedges is named Viksuvinė bog Lbv, cf. Lithuanian viksūvinis, -ė; viksūvinis ‘overgrown with sedges’ (Lithuanian viksva, viksvas ‘a perennial herb of the sedge family’ (Carex); Pelkinė viksva (C. acutiformis) LBŽ). Cf. Lithuanian viksūpelkė ‘a marsh overgrown with sedges’; also compare a sentence recorded in written sources that helps clarify the naming situation: Herbs grow abundantly among the sedges: rushes, tussock sedges, bristly sedges, and others. (LKŽ)⁴⁷. Following the same model, which is alive in the language, these names were also “constructed” for naming purposes: Reedy bog Prn⁴⁸, Reedy bog Prn⁴⁹. Dictionaries do not, as far as is known, record the meaning of the Lithuanian adjective chosen as the basis for naming, reedy, ‘overgrown with reeds’ or ‘covered with reeds’⁵⁰; however, the naming motives given by informants in the Šaltupis and Ašminta villages’ Land Names questionnaires—reeds grow there, it does not dry out—suggest that these forms functioned in the living language with the meanings mentioned. For the formal structure and semantics, cf. also Reedy bog Mrj⁵¹. The meaning of the helonym Reedy bog Mrj is reeds pool, cf. the informants’ testimony: a lot of reeds used to grow there, now it is drying up. The latter shows that as the pool dries, the reeds disappear [cf. Lithuanian reed ‘a grass-family aquatic plant with a long hollow stem (Phragmites communis)’]. Thus, this interwar record provides additional information about changes in the natural zones of the study area. Bogs whose banks are overgrown with particular kinds of trees or other plants are named Beržinė marsh Prn [The black grouse likes bare mossy bogs, 45 Cf. Lithuanian lapūgas ‘marsh plant’ [The whole meadow is turning yellow – lapūgai are blooming] (DKŽ 81). 46 Dėl šio vv. motyvacijos aiškinimo žr. Sviderskienė 2017: 85. 47 For the semantics, cf. also Viksūnas bog Vv (Lithuanian viksūnas ‘a place overgrown with sedges, a sedge meadow’) and this information based on folk experience: Viksūnai are bone-dry, though there is water (Lp). 48 Šaltupis village Land Names questionnaire. 49 Ašmintos village Land Names questionnaire. 50 According to LKŽ, Lithuanian nendrinis, -ė means ‘living among reeds’. 51 Dėl šio vv. motyvacijos aiškinimo žr. Sviderskienė 2016: 249. Straipsniai / Articles 123 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ overgrown with small birches and pines T. Ivan.52, for the semantics cf. Berželį balaitė marsh Krsn53; Drebulinė bog KzR (KzR GA), cf. Lithuanian drebulė ‘a tree of this kind with trembling leaves, aspen (Populus tremula)’); for the formal structure and semantics cf. Drebulis upland marsh Snt54; Girtuoklinis bog Pn, cf. Lithuanian girtuoklė ‘a plant of the heather family, bog bilberry (Vaccinium uliginosum)’; Javarinė marsh Igl, cf. Lithuanian jāvaras ‘a tree of the willow family, poplar (Populus nigra)’. This microgroup is supplemented by one more representative: because of the abundance of mushrooms in a particular pasture zone, the latter was named Grybė bog Lbv, cf. Lithuanian grýbė, -ė ‘mushroom-rich’ (PPŠŽ I 315). Encyclopedic information55 does not contradict this interpretation: birch boletes grow in marshes and wooded bogs where birches are common. (2) Helonimai, sudarę iš kuopinės reikšmės augalų pavadinimų: Nendrýnas b. Lbv, Mr (anot informanto, [bal] palga, apaugusi nendrėmis); rst. Brb (Babieriškio GA, Prienų šilo ank.), plg. liet. nendrynas ‘nendrėmis apaugęs plotas’; Pupelšynė b. Klvr – informanto paaiškinimas, regis, reprezentuoja balovardžio reikšmę: [bal] klampė, gausiai auga pupelškės, plg. liet. pupalaiškynas ‘vieta, kur auga pupalaiškiai’; Švendrynas rst. Gd, plg. liet. švendrynas ‘švendrių ar švendrų priaugęs plotas’, dar plg. liet. švendrė ‘nendrė (Phragmites)’56; Vištynas b. KzR, Vištynė b. Ss – įvardytos viščių priaugusios balos, plg. vištynas, vištynė ‘viščių priaugusi vieta’ [Vištynuose yra daug plaušių Skr]. Anketos (KzR) duomenimis, auga višriai, yra šaltinių, dar plg. liet. viškė ‘viščių šeimos žiedinis degnu vietų augalas (Juncus)’ [Liūninis vikšris (J. supinus) LBŽ; Upių vanduo ištekės,... nendrės ir vikšriai suvs Skvl219,6]; ‘viksva’ (Carex) [vikšrio pelė toje baloje] šimet Plv; Vikšriai į pelkes auga Krg]; ‘balinis asiūklis (Equisetum fluviatile)’. Galbūt neatmes­tina galimybė, kad įvardijimo metu kai kuriais atvejais nebuvo konkretizuojama ir vikšriais galėjo būti vadinta bet kokia prasta žolė, dar plg. liet. vikšris ‘bet kokia prasta žolė’. Viksų priaugusi bala įvardyta Viksūynas b. Vv, plg. liet. viksūynas ‘viksų priaugusi vieta, viksų pieva’, dar plg. liet. viksva, viksvas ‘viksinių šeimos daugiametė žolė (Carex)’. Iš pateiktų mikrogupės pavyzdžių matyti, kad įvardijimo proceso metu vyko šių vietų vardų reikšmės specializacija. 52 Cf. an example of appellative lexical nomination: Lithuanian beržinė ‘a place made from birch buds poured over with deginė’. According to encyclopedic information, this is a dark-red and sometimes bitter liquid. 53 Dėl šio vv. motyvacijos aiškinimo žr. Sviderskienė 2017: 85. 54 See LVŽ II 324. 55 Available online: https://www.grybai.lt/valgomi/lepse/ [accessed 2019-10-18]. 56 Cf. the explanatory-descriptive sentence recorded in written sources: The reed beds end and the water lilies begin (written source). A human-experience-based observation connected with this situation was also noted and recorded from living speech: You can dig a well: if bulrushes grow there, there will be water (Rdm). 124 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXI Priesaginių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija Following the same structural model (from plant names with collective meaning), these names were also “made up” and used in living speech to designate wet natural areas: Buōžynas marsh Vv, cf. Lithuanian buožė ‘bulrush, cattail’ (Typha); Kalaūnas (< Kalaūjynas) marsh Klvr, cf. Lithuanian kalavijas ‘a marsh, lake, or river plant with sword-like leaves, sweet flag (Acorus calamus). Their meanings are readily inferred: *‘a marsh overgrown with cattails, a cattail marsh’, *‘a marsh overgrown with sweet flag, a sweet-flag marsh’. According to informants’ data in the Ivoniškis forest district questionnaire, a marsh overgrown with willows was named Atažēnas marsh Brb, cf. Lithuanian *atžēlas or similar forms, cf. atžēla, atžēlas ‘a young shoot growing from a tree trunk or root, a sprout, a shoot’. An explanation of this kind is also supported by Lithuanian karklas ‘a tree or shrub of the willow family (Salix cinerea, S. aurita, S. nigricans or S. pentandra)’, while examples recorded in LKŽe from written sources and literary texts confirm the conception of the place: Willows grow along rivers and lakes (written source); Ė karklai po slēni terp liulančių paversmių pamėgo paēni (A. Baran.). Thus, the inferred meaning of the marsh name is a marsh overgrown with willow shoots57. An instance of indirect naming has also been recorded. food ⇒ helonym In the questionnaire for the area near Meškėnai village, under the category Type, appearance, and quality of the land surface, the marsh name Cibulynė marsh Iglk is recorded as: klampynė (Lithuanian klampynė ‘a boggy, quaggy place’). Lithuanian cibulynė means ‘onion soup’, while Lithuanian cibulienė means ‘a dish containing many onions’ (KŽŽ I 102). Most likely, this marsh was a place where a plant grew abundantly, cf. Lithuanian variaciublis58 ‘a plant resembling an onion’. Thus, the marshy place was given not only a name formally identical to a food name, but was also named by analogy with an unusual ingredient. For the semantics cf. Varliabulynė marsh KŽr. According to VK data, more place names Cibulynė have been recorded in Lithuania: a marsh in Jankai GA, a bog in the village of Akmenai, Krakės district, and a sunken meadow in the village of Akuotai, Vilkija district (all data identifying the objects are based on the 1935 Land Names questionnaires). 1.1.6. Names based on marshy natural areas inhabited by a particular species of animal. (1) Representatives of direct naming. attribute ⇒ helonym a) Because leeches breed in the swamp, it was named Dielinė swamp Krsn, pl. Lith. dielė ‘a blood-sucking aquatic worm, leech (Hirudo medicinalis; snail’. According to informants, there used to be leeches there, and there are still some now. Thus, the meaning of the swamp name is ‘leech swamp.’ 57 Cf. another swamp name from this area, Lapinė swamp Mrj. For an explanation of its motivation, see also Sviderskienė 2016: 253. 58 According to LKŽe, this common noun is used throughout the entire Rūda area. Straipsniai / Articles 125 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ b) Swamps were named for being places where a particular species of fish breeds: Karosinė swamp Ldv; swamp Karosinė Klvr, cf. Lith. karõšinis, -ė ‘in which crucian carp breed’; cf. also Lith. karõšinė ‘pond containing crucian carp’. This interpretation is also supported by the questionnaire data: there are many fish in it, especially crucian carp (Ldv); crucian carp breed very well there; it got its name from this species of fish (Klvr). Encyclopedic data confirm that these fish use such places for breeding (living): In terms of fishery, shallow lakes are of the crucian-carp-and-tench or crucian-carp type (T. Ivan.). For the semantics, cf. Karšbalė 2 swamp Klvr⁵⁹. Probably for the same reason, the swamp was named Lydekinė swamp Klvr. According to the encyclopedic data⁶⁰, pike prefer still or slow-flowing water and deep, densely overgrown places. The description of this microgroup can be concluded with a sentence illustrating folk knowledge, recorded in this area from living speech: There are lots of fish in our peat bogs (Plv). From what has been said, it can be understood that many of these marshy places were named according to their use. c) place ⇒ helonym Who lived in the marshy places is also shown by this microgroup of helonyms. Its representatives are names formed in accordance with an established model, corresponding to a typical naming situation in living speech; here, the motivating word denotes a place: Karosynas marsh near a village – a marsh of karosų. Žalčiūnės wet meadow near a village – a place where reptiles occur (a habitat), cf. Lithuanian young grass snake ‘a young grass snake’. It is also worth noting that in the area under study, the word for grass snake may refer not only to the venomous, snake-like reptile, but also to any animal belonging to the snake family⁶¹. The case analysed appears to be no exception: the most typical name for an animal belonging to the snake family is chosen as the naming basis without further specification, cf. Žalčiabalė marsh near a village⁶². The place where mole crickets occur (their habitat) was named Parplinė bog KzR (Runkių GA), cf. Lith. parplýs ‘mole cricket’⁶³; cf. also Lith. kurklys ‘an insect of the cricket family that lives in damp soil, mole cricket, parlys (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa)’ [Mole crickets like damp, unmown soil.]. (2) Two representatives of indirect naming were recorded: according to a questionnaire informant from Petkeliškės village, the swamp Velnyne swamp Vv had been very boggy; no one ever got out [of it]. These data from living speech partly reveal the namer’s reasoning. The derivative with the suffix -ynė indicates that the marshy place was associated with representatives of the ethical sphere 59 Dėl vv. motyvacijos aiškinimo žr. Sviderskienė 2016: 248. 60 Available online: https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europin%C4%97_lydeka [accessed 2019-10-18]. 61 Cf. Lith. žaltys ‘a venomous, snake-like reptile (Natrix); any animal belonging to the snake family’. 62 Dėl jo motyvacijos aiškinimo žr. Sviderskienė 2016: 248. 63 Dėl vv. darbos žr. Būki 2008: 296. 126 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXI Priesaginių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija is understood as a misleading, vanishing place “inhabited” by devils. This conjecture was inspired by the knowledge that formations with the suffix -ynė, derived from personal names, denote places where people live or have lived in the area under study (cf. Ambrazas 2000: 55). The name Velnyne rst. Vv apparently also reveals links in individuals’ perceptions between devils and wet, boggy places, and the demonization of the latter64. For the semantics, cf. Velniabalė b. KzR (Runkų GA); Mj (Šunskų GA), Velniabalė 2 b. Krsn; b. KzR (Velniakalnio GA); Velniaplynė pl. KzR65, Velnių balaitė b. Brb66. As the locational references show, the place names were recorded in forestry district questionnaires; thus, most of the aforementioned marshy features that stirred the individual’s imagination lay outside residential areas. 1.2. Names based on the location of the marshy features. feature ⇨ helonym Location in relation to a structure (1), another natural zone (2), and an imagined place (3): (1) The marsh lying beside the baragas was named Baraginė b. KzR (Papilio GA); cf. Lithuanian barāgas ‘a shelter for hay, straw, or peat, attached to four poles and raised or lowered’, a threshing-floor shelter, ‘shed’). (2) Beside the lūgas – Lūgānė b. Mrj (Šunskų GA)67; cf. Lithuanian lūgā, lūgās, lūgās ‘a low-lying place flooded by a river; a boggy river branch’; also cf. the sentence reflecting the linguistic worldview, recorded in another area from living speech: We call every muddy little lake a lūgelis (Ds). For formal structure and semantics, cf. the land name Galūnė krtm. Vv68, and the marsh name Lūgo bala b. KzR69. (3) A name of a somewhat different meaning, with colloquial stylistic and evaluative colouring, was recorded in the Velniakalnio GA. The marsh, probably lying far from the village in the depths of the forest, was named Pelìnė b. KzR; cf. Lithuanian pelìnis, -ė ‘located in a marsh’; also cf. Lithuanian peklà ‘hell; a very remote, distant place’ [Įstruk į vandens agurką – tuo kai peklà (juodas) pasidaro Jřb; LKŽe 64 The Russian scholar Nadezhda I. Konovalova, who studied the psychological nuances of demonological terms as reflected in the consciousness of contemporary Russian speakers, identified the following naming tendencies: on the one hand, the continued use of demonological terms seeks to preserve a stereotypical (negative) attitude, directed toward the relevant “evil force.” On the other hand, rational or emotional pragmatic adaptation of the stereotype can be observed (for more detail, see Konobalova 2017: 411). 65 For an explanation of the motivation of these place names and representatives of demonological motivation in Russian toponymy, see Sviderskienė 2016: 252. 66 Dėl pastarojo vv. motyvacijos aiškinimo žr. Sviderskienė 2017: 86. 67 According to the informants, [the marsh] was overgrown with trees. 68 For the origin of the latter marsh name and related studies, see: LVŽ III 31–46; Bilkis 2009: 256; 2018: 212–234. 69 Dėl vv. motyvacijos aiškinimo žr. Sviderskienė 2017: 87. Straipsniai / Articles 127 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ A recorded example from folklore: Dark as a threshing floor (very dark). For the semantics, cf. Pėkliauritis, a marsh in Šil70. Thus, the inferred meaning of the marsh name Pėklė is a marsh situated in a secluded, out-of-the-way place⁷¹. 1.3. Names based on the spatial position occupied by hydro-objects. 1.3.1. Names based on the part of space occupied by hydro-objects. feature ⇨ helonym (1) Representatives of direct naming. Geo-objects located at the end of the territories of the villages of Venglenicōs and Būdnikai, respectively, were named Galinis marsh; a lake, Gdl [And the last Jonas had come (who lives at the end of the village), Alv; cf. also Lithuanian galas ‘[...] the outermost part of an object (beginning, end)’. In the first case of naming, the mismatch between the object referred to and the place name (Galinis – masculine gender, marsh – feminine gender) raises some doubt as to whether the marsh was given the name of another object located nearby⁷². The marsh occupying an area of the territory of Šiauliai village, most likely bordering the territory of another village, was named Kampinis marsh, Pn; cf. Lithuanian kampinis; -ė; cf. also Lithuanian kampas ‘a place where two lines, planes, walls, or objects meet; a corner’ [The field has an edge, while the interior always has a corner /]. (LKŽė). This place name reveals the name-“creator’s” strategy during the naming process: the object is identified in relation to the surrounding micro-locality and differentiated according to its spatial arrangement. (2) Representatives of indirect naming. According to the conception of local residents at the time, a marsh located in the centre of the residential area (village) was named Ašinė, a marsh in Mrj; cf. Lithuanian ašinis; -ė ‘running through an axis’; cf. also Lithuanian ašis ‘a straight line passing through the centre of something’. 1.3.2. Names based on the hydro-object’s distance from the surface. feature ⇨ helonym The local position in relation to the earth’s surface is recorded by a geo-object situated below the usual level of the surface, named Katilinė, marsh, Pn; cf. Lithuanian katilinis; -ė [Katilinis atavaras (a deeper place in a river shaped like a cauldron) OG174 (LKŽė). Thus, the place conceived by the presumed “creator” of the names in the ethnic area is a marsh situated deep down (according to the informant, it dries up). For the semantics, cf. Pūdžiaplynė, marsh, KzR, Pūdžiaristis, marsh, KzR⁷³. Patasaris, marsh, apparently represents a figurative MM. 1.3. Names that have adopted the names of natural zones where certain plant species grow naturally (1) or certain animal species live (2). 70 Dėl balovardžio motyvacijos aiškinimo žr. Sviderskienė 2016: 252–253. Dėl vandens įprasminimo lietuvių tautosakoje dar žr. Būgienė 1999. 71 Cf. also Lithuanian pelkinis; -ė, figuratively ‘very large’ [Pievos tos pelkinės – kol nusienauji! Grg]. 72 Dėl šio vv. darybos dar žr. Bilkis 2018: 212–234. 73 Dėl pastarųjų vv. motyvacijos aiškinimo dar žr. Sviderskienė 2016: 254. 128 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXI Priesaginių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija (1) According to Aleksandras Vanagas, hydronyms derived from plant names with collective meaning denote a place where those plants are abundant. But that place is not necessarily the water itself, since the plants in question are not aquatic. In any case, toponyms of this type are characterized by reference to plants [...] (see also Vanagas 1981: 90). What is said about river and lake names seems to apply to helonyms as well. The following are attested in living speech: toponymic cases of metonymic transfer that fit the pattern: a place where a certain kind of non-aquatic plant is abundant ⇒ helonym. Thus, other marshy places situated beside places overgrown with non-aquatic plants or mushrooms were named after the latter: Aietynas, marsh, Krsn (Kalniškės GA), Baravykynas, swamp, KzR (Jūrės GA), Beržynas, marsh, KzR (Papilvio GA), Dilgėynas, marsh, Krsn (Kalniškės GA), Karklynas, marsh, Vv; Paparÿnas, swamp, Vv, Rūkynynas, swamp, KzR (Velnikalnio GA), Šaltėkynas, swamp, Ldv, Uosynas, swamp, Igl (Varnabūdės GA). The helonym Variaciulynė, marsh, KzR (Runkių GA), also belongs to this microgroup: a place where variaciulis grows; cf. Lithuanian variaciulis74 ‘a kind of grass resembling an onion’. Apparently, another helonym belongs to this microgroup. According to data from Agurkė GA, a marsh with bushes is named Karklynė, marsh, KzR (Agurkės GA); cf. Lithuanian karklynė ‘a place overgrown with willows; willow bushes’75. (2) According to the metonymic transfer pattern “a place where a certain kind of non-aquatic animal is abundant ⇒ helonym,” a marsh name was formed: Barsukynas, marsh, KzR (Runkių GA); cf. Lithuanian barsukynas ‘a place inhabited by badgers’. 1.4. Names according to the purpose of hydro-objects. a) attribute ⇒ helonym A marsh suitable for human needs with a certain kind of flooring, which could be crossed (on foot or by vehicle), was named Dilinė marsh KzR76; compare Lithuanian dilė ‘a rough plank, a paved surface’ [A road through a bog paved with thick paving /]. Regarding formal structure and semantics, compare water names: Dilnaviš stream Skv (LVŽ II 277)77, Grįstabalė 2 marshes Ss [Lithuanian grįstas ‘a log used for the paving of a bridge (road, flooring...)’, 74 The usage area (VšR) and the location of the hydro-object coincide in Leskinis’s interpretation. 75 Dėl vv. darbų žr. Bilkis 2008: 285. 76 Dar žr. Bilkis 2008: 174, 178; LVŽ II 276, kur vv. siejami su asmenvardžiu. Nors analizuojamas vv. į Lietuvos vietovardžių žodyną (2014) dėl nežinomų priežasčių nepateko, žodynas fiksuoja tos pačios formosios raiškos kitų plotų toponimijos duomenis (Dilinė b. Sk; Dilinė || Dilynė b. Krn). 77 Here, the latter water name seems to be classified differently: as a compound water name. The first component is from Lithuanian *dilnis, compare personal names Dilis, Dilys, Dilius (LPŽ I 497, 498); the second component is from Lithuanian rãvas ‘ditch, small stream’ (LKŽ XI 333). Incidentally, A. Vanagas also questioned the personal-name origin of the first component of the river name Diliaupė (see also Vanagas 1981: 86). Straipsniai / Articles 129 DALIA ŠVIDERSKIENĖ grinda⁷⁸, Tiltabalė marsh Krsn⁷⁹. Also compare the presumed naming situation and the sentence describing the features of marshy, wet places: From the meadow the cart turned onto a boggy, muddy road through the marshes (P. Cvir.). A covering feature of the bog—peat—inspired the name Durpinė bog Prn, compare Lithuanian durpinis, -ė ‘containing peat’ [here durpinė meadow, land, etc.]. This explanation is supported by the informant’s description of this place, recorded in the questionnaire: [in that place] they used to dig peat. The presumed meaning of the helonym Kanāplinis, marsh, Prn, is ‘hemp’; cf. Lithuanian kanãplė ‘hemp’⁸⁰. According to an informant’s questionnaire data from Ginių village, [in the marsh?]⁸¹ they retted flax and hemp, reflecting the processing of fiber plants carried out in the area under study. Cf. also the place name Mirkyklė, marsh, Krsn, which corroborates this observation and was recorded from living speech in the area under study [Lithuanian mirkykla ‘a place (pond) where flax and hemp are soaked’; Mirkyklė: hemp is soaked for two weeks, Lp]. Several marshy places may have been named according to their purpose, their use for human needs. Plaūšinė marsh Vv (questionnaire from Mozūriškės village); bog Vv (questionnaire from Meškinai village)⁸²—a marsh with bast fiber. Data provided by the informants in the questionnaire from Mozūriškės village indicate that raw-material gathering was carried out in this ethnic area—people went [to the marsh] to strip bast fiber⁸³. Also compare Lithuanian plaušinis, -ė ‘made of bast fiber’ [Plaušiniai ties are strong as wire Žvr]. From these latter records, which capture people’s lived experience, it may be inferred that hemp fiber could have been used here (ropes were made from it, and strong sackcloth was woven, etc.). b) feature ⇨ helonym The material under study showed that marshes lying next to buildings could also be named according to their purpose: Garbarinė marsh KzR, compare Lithuanian garbarinė, garbarė, garbarni, garbarnią ‘a tannery for hides and leather, workshop’⁸⁴—a marsh by the hide and leather workshop; Avišinė bog Prn, compare Lithuanian avinė ‘sheepfold’—a marsh by a sheepfold. The mismatch between the form of the latter place name and its referent indicates that it was probably a marsh, rather than a bog, that was named. This supposition is also supported by 78 Dėl pastarojo vv. motyvacijos aiškinimo žr. Sviderskienė 2016: 250. 79 Dėl šių vv. motyvacijos aiškinimo žr. Sviderskienė 2016: 254. 80 Dėl šio leksinio motyvatoriaus rusų onomastikoje žr. Полякова 2010: 11. 81 Attention should be drawn to the discrepancy between the name and the identification of the object. 82 The discrepancy between the identification of the object and the name probably indicates an inaccurate identification of the object or a change in the natural zone. 83 The surnames Plaušinis, Plaušinaitis are (or were) in use in this area (the people of Jrb call the latter Plaušinis) (LPŽ II 469). 84 For other water names, see LVŽ III 77. 130 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXI Priesaginių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija The informant data given in the questionnaire: a sheep washed85. Both pools lying beside the sheds were apparently used for other purposes related to the sheds’ function as well. c) The name of a place where washing is done was transferred metonymically to a pool Skalbynė pool, Ss, plural ponds. skalbynė ‘a place for washing [Go to the washing place; you’ll find soap on the board and can wash yourself VšR]. In this case, the motivating word denotes a place (place ⇒ helonym). 2. SUFFIXAL HELONYMS WHOSE MOTIVATION IS NOW NOT ENTIRELY CLEAR 2.1. In order to explain the motivation of the pool name Jaučėnė pool, Pr86, attention was drawn to other formations of analogous structure functioning in the linguistic area: Čiuotėnė || Čiuotėnis lake, Ab (Bilikis 2008: 173)87 [Lith. čiūotė ‘pig, porker’, affectionate čiūotis ‘young boar’; Gaidėnė pool, Krn (Bilikis 2008: 190; LVŽ III 11–15), the agronym Genė field, Nt (LVŽ III 117)88 [Lith. gėgė, gėgė ‘a forest bird that calls in spring (Cuculus canorus)’]. Today, the motivation of these place names can only be interpreted. The pool lying on the territory of the Ašminta manor may have been named Jaučėnė because of its dimensions, that is, its largeness. On the basis of the example of folk evaluation recorded in folklore, Big as an ox, stupid as a ram (Pšl), compare the place name Gaidėnė, presumed to have the opposite meaning (the form was most likely chosen because of the object’s dubious value and its suitability for ordinary human needs). This latter interpretation is supported by the material in the Dictionary of Lithuanian Place Names (2018) and its interpretation: many names of uncultivated places may derive from Lith. gaidys ‘domestic bird, male chicken (Galus gallinaceus)’, and the motivation of some place names of this origin is apparently associated with a negative attitude toward the objects named, indicating their poor quality, small size, or infertility (for example, beside the place name Gaidprūdis it is noted that poor grass grows there, while beside Gaidmiškis it is written that nothing grows in the forest) (LVŽ III 11–15)89. In this case 85 Dėl pastarojo vv. darbose ir kilmės dar žr.: Bilikis 2008: 65; LVŽ I 244–246, kur nurodoma dvejopa kilmės galimybė: iš liet. avinas, kita vertus, iš avd. Avinas. 86 The Ašminta manor questionnaire states: a drowned ox. 87 For the presentation of the place names’ authentic genders, see also LVŽ III 78: Čiuotėnis || Čiuotėnius lake, Ab. 88 Also compare names of a different structure Gėgairistis pool, Skm; Gėgių bala pool, Lkm (LVŽ III 117). 89 According to ethnolinguist Jelena L. Berezovič (Ural Federal University), in Russian toponymy the image of the rooster manifests the named object’s proximity, its presence in the nearby rural residential surroundings. The typical position of the namer, when orienting themselves in the space envisaged, has the namer’s home as its point of reference (for more, see Березович 2001: 37–38). Straipsniai / Articles 131 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ This name would be grouped with others, perhaps in a folk classification based on function (purpose): a pool for oxen to drink from (larger), and a pool from which only a little water is available for roosters (smaller, lesser). Most likely, because of the dark (opaque, non-transparent, or similar) water of the pool, it was named Ṡakaline b. Prn. For this conjecture, cf. sentences reflecting folk standards of thought about this bird: Sakalės juodas, juodas nedarytas NS366 (LKŽ); Vienas buvo juodas kaip sakalas, antras buvo margas kaip genelis JD791 (ibid.). The VK slips also record topographical features named thus in other parts of Lithuania, which may likewise have been named because of the dark appearance of the ground cover: Sakalinė meadow by the Merkys River, Varėna district, Jakėnai rural municipality, Maskauka village (1985); Sakalinė, a former pasture in Gargždai rural municipality, Maciuičiai village (PKk card). The references to the features (their local position by a river, etc.) lend some support to the earlier conjecture. On the other hand, the formation of the name Sakalinė b. Prn. may also have been determined by the size of the feature named, i.e. its smallness [Lith. šakalas ‘a bird of prey of this kind (Falco); a falcon is smaller than a hawk.’⁹⁰]. Although the questionnaire for Apūstas village gives no additional informative data about the pool that would help clarify the naming motivation, VK data lend some support to the former conjecture: the 1936 questionnaire for Maciuičiai village, Gargždai rural municipality (another area) records that Sakalinė was a hillock measuring 0.2 ha⁹¹. 2.2. The name of the water feature Ciganska b. Mrj is associated with Polish cygański ‘Gypsy’ (SJP I 358)⁹². What characteristics of the denotatum (the pool) led the namer to associate it with “Gypsiness” in the area under study can only be interpreted—perhaps its size, that is, the small extent of the pool lying within the residential area. Most likely, the same characteristic (the small size of the water feature) motivated the name of another natural feature (the hydronym was recorded at Agurkė GA), Možurinė b. KzR⁹³; cf. Možurigė, another name in the study area motivated by size, with the feature described as a small grove, Ldn (VK). This source also contains further records showing that the name is based on a designation for a person belonging to a small ethnic group (Lith. mužūras, -ė ‘a person belonging to a small ethnic group’), which represents the smallness of the feature named, and at the same time 90 A migratory falcon species was entered in our country’s Red Data Book in 1976; in their natural environment, its members most often choose extensive raised bogs, pine forests, and mixed coniferous forests as habitats. In the 20th century, nests of this bird were also discovered in Prienai district, in the Žuvintas Reserve (for more, see online: https://www.delfi.lt/grynas/gamta/nykstanti-pauksciu-rusis-vis-dazniau-sutinkama-miestuose.d?id=6656376 [accessed 2019-11-18]). Thus, these birds may have been known and familiar to the inhabitants of the area under study. 91 The field “Type, appearance, quality of the earth’s surface” contains the following entry: sandy ground, many stones, and marshy patches. 92 For an explanation of the meaning and origin of this place name, see LVŽ II 18. 93 Dėl helonimo Možurinė, užfiksuoto kitame Lietuvos plote, darb os žr. Bilkis 2008: 166. 132 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXI Priesaginių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija and expresses the namer’s judgments about people of this ethnic group: Mozūras (nk.), a 200 m-long ditch in Kaunas county, Raudondvaris rural municipality, and GA 1936; Mozūras, a 0.3 ha upland in Marijampolė county, Sasnava rural municipality, and GA 1936 (ibid.). Žydinė b. Mrj is a pool, most likely named so because of its opaque water (perhaps it was deep), that is, a dark pool. This explanation might be supported by the common noun for a person, Lith. žydas, -ė ‘a person of Jewish ethnicity’ (DKŽ 170). The former (person) is described by members of the linguistic community in this area as “dark”: Aš panašus toks į žydą, juodas buvau (Ss). On the other hand, in the area under study žydas can denote a structure: ‘a stack of peat or firewood arranged in rows and cut to length’ [Kap džiūsta durpės, krauni in žydus po penkias kubkes Brb; Kai suvedavom durpes, į žydus sukraudavom Vlk]. Thus, a pool that was next to the structure may have been named Žydinė. In that case, with regard to the structure and semantics of the place name, cf. Baraginė b. KzR, assuming that the latter name means a pool that was situated next to a structure. 2.3. In order to understand and explain which characteristic of the place became the basis for the name Laumikis rst. Prn⁹⁴, attention was drawn to instances in living speech of the use of the common-word lexical item that became the basis for the name: Lith. laũmė ‘an ugly, overgrown (with tangled growth) thing’ (Lith. kẽrnoti, -oja, -ojo ‘to mess up, befoul’); laumšluotės (‘witches’ brooms’, Viscum album) is the name for stunted tree branches grown and clustered together in broom-like forms⁹⁵. The botanical term skaisė (Claviceps purpurea) is also called laumė because of the plant’s dark colour [Laumės [rugiuose] yra juodos spalvos /sv]. Considering the general linguistic worldview that emerges from the usage examples given, it may be assumed that the bog was most likely named because of its dark, perhaps uneven (owing to plants clustered in clumps⁹⁶), that is, tangled surface. In support of this interpretation, cf. Juodis lake, Ob (VK), the personal-name equivalent Juodis (LPŽ I 858), and common-noun naming examples Lith. báltikis, báltikis ‘white [mushroom]’ [Baltikis iš miško į laukus nebėga Lkč], Lith. kẽrikas ‘a bushy growth’. For the presumably salient feature of a tangled surface, cf. also Čulkinės bog, Gdl (Lith. čulkinės ‘clumps, lumps’). For the semantics, cf. other Lithuanian water names Laumėlis lake, Aln, Laumis lake, Płt⁹⁷. Thus, in the process of naming, the bog was given the name Laumikis, linking the geographical area not only to distinguish it from its surroundings and other landscape areas, but also to evaluate it. 94 Dėl raistavardžio dar žr. Bilkis 2008: 39. 95 Lith. laũnšluotė ‘tree branches damaged by a parasitic fungus and grown together into a broom-like form; a witch’s broom’ [And so even today, the stunted branches in trees are called laumšluotės, S. Dauk.]. 96 Cf. also a sentence recorded in written sources: Žolynė gusiai auga viskos: šluotelinė, kupstinė, šeriuotoji ir kt. (LKŽ). 97 Dėl pastarųjų vv. žr. Vanagas 1981: 111, kurie pateikiami Demonologinės reikšmės hidronimų poskyryje (ten pat, 110–112). Straipsniai / Articles 133 DALIA ŠVIDERSKIENĖ CONCLUSIONS 1. The study of suffixal derivatives broadened the conception of the phenomenon of motivation, making it possible to understand this phenomenon as a source of important ethnocultural information. The worldviews and distinctive modes of thought of representatives of the ethnographic areas examined in this study were revealed in detail not only through comparison and metaphors based on perceived analogies, but also through metonymies. Particularly valuable are the metaphor a place is a person – a bog Panaitė Vv and the metonymy a place is the colour of an animal’s coat (shade) – a meadow Bėrokas Vv. In the first case, the place is equated with a person, violating the semantic binary opposition living vs. non-living; in the second, it is named according to the part–whole relationship, revealing a broader field of use for animal-coat colour shades. Both names are grounded in peasant cultural experience. Metaphors universal in nature and grounded in the standards of human thought are also found in the toponymy of other peoples: a place is a vessel – Blūdėlis bog, KžR, Drusinė bog, Mrj, Ragūtis bog, Ldn. They also reveal a certain imagined gradation in the depth of a place (the imagined amount of water it can hold). The study revealed that the semantic content expressed by the place name Blūdėlis competes with the meanings of other locally co-occurring recorded bog names: Blūdas bog, KžR (Lith. bliūdas ‘a hollow; the amount it can hold’), Šaukštas bog, KžR (Lith. šaukštas ‘an implement for putting liquid, thick, or loose food into the mouth; the amount taken with this implement’), Torielka bog, KžR (Lith. torielka ‘plate; the amount a plate can hold’). Their content reveals the degree of a particular aspect of the named object—its flatness or depth. A distinctive case of metonymic naming from the perspective of nomination is Baltakinė bog, Lbv, where the basis for the name is the bearer of a particular feature: a rare organ (Lith. baltakė ‘a white, turned-out eye’) located in the upper part of a living creature’s body (the head), whose feature (blindness) is imagined to be characteristic of the named wetland feature as well (a blind bog). A representative of semantic nomination of value from a linguocultural perspective is Cibulynė bog, Igl, which corresponds to the cognitive schema: a dish containing lots of onions – a boggy place where, apparently, many onion-like plants grow (variable forms?), revealing how associations arising in an individual’s mind generate new meanings. 2. The study drew on the most comprehensive information possible about the denotatum and devoted considerable attention to the local position of the helonym in space (whether it lay within or beyond the boundaries of a settlement). This made it possible to reach additional findings: it was observed that most cases of metonymic naming were probably caused by the locations of the objects being named—beyond the settlement boundaries. When the distinctive features of a particular place are unknown and the place is of less social significance, it is named economically, using the name of another nearby place at an unspecified distance, without “creating” a new one. In addition, metonymically 134 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXI Priesaginių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija transferred helonyms are, in some cases, witnesses to a transformed landscape. 3. This study of the motivation of suffixal helonyms in Marijampolė County also revealed a fairly pronounced pragmatic tendency in the naming of marshy places: (a) what is present or found in marshy places, and their suitability for human needs, is revealed by helonyms with attributive meaning (attribute ⇨ helonym); (b) formations with the suffixes -inė, -inis, corresponding to the naming schema feature ⇨ helonym, reveal that the “creators” of marshy place names perceive these places as containers for certain kinds of plants and animals; (c) formations with the suffixes -ynas, -ynė, used synonymously, designate the places where plants of this natural zone grow abundantly, as well as places that provide refuge for real and imagined animals (Velnyne bog, Vv). 4. The study also broadened and tested the conception of the phenomenon of the word: (a) attention was drawn to processes of toponymic nomination and toponymisation that occurred without structural change and involved substantivised adjectives describing the shape, size, colour, form, and other features of objects. In informal usage, names of this kind are shortened to a single element with communicative significance, while the reference to the object is not eliminated from the semantics of the place name; (b) onomastic motivation is subject to time, landscape change, and fading, but this does not prevent place names from functioning or from being socially and communicatively significant in (dis)tinguishing one place from another. ABBREVIATIONS FOR OBJECT REFERENCES AND OTHER ABBREVIATIONS a. – open area ar. – arable land ank. – questionnaire apyl. – district aps. – county avd. – personal name b. – marsh ež. – lake g. – forest GA – forestry questionnaire grv. – ditch k. – village kl. – hill krm. – shrubs krtm. – clearing Pol. – Polish Lith. – Lithuanian yr. – year dim. – diminutive fem. – feminine unstressed cf. – compare marsh – marsh, marshy place in the open bog fig. – figurative meaning meadow surname nickname district bog stream masc. – masculine municipality (historical administrative unit) place name Straipsniai / Articles 135 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ ABBREVIATIONS OF LOCALITY REFERENCES Ab – Abrauskai (Lazdijai District) Aln – Alanta (Molėtai District) Brb – Balbieriškis (Prienai District) Dl – Deltuva (Ukmergė District) Dnl – Danilava (Vilnius District) Gd – Gudėliai (Marijampolė Municipality) Igl – Igliškėliai (Marijampolė Municipality) Jž – Jieznas (Prienai District) Klvr – Kalvarija (Marijampolė Municipality) Kpč – Kapčiamiestis (Lazdijai District) Krkn – Krekenava (Panevėžys District) Krsn – Krosna (Lazdijai District) KzR – Kazlų Rūda Lb – Liubavas (Kalvarija municipality territory) Ldn – Liudvinavas (Marijampolė municipality territory) Mrj – Marijampolė Mšk – Meškūčiai (Marijampolė municipality territory) Nt – Notėnai (Skuodas district) Ob – Obeliai (Rokiškis district) Plt – Plateliai (Plungė district) Prn – Prienai Sdk – Sudeikiai (Utena district) Skdv – Skaudvilė (Tauragė district) Ss – Sasnavà (Marijampolė municipality territory) Sg – Sugirčiai (Molėtai district) Šil – Šilavotas (Prienai district) Vl – Veliuona (Jurbarkas district) Vln – Vilūnai (Kaišiadorys district) Vv – Veiveriai (Prienai District) ŠALTINIAI DKŽ – Dauksių krašto žodynas, autorius V. Labutis. Vilnius: Alma littera, 2002. KzRŠŽ I – Kazlų Rūdos šnektos žodynas 1, autorius Aldonas Pukis. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 2008. LKŽe₂ – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas I–XX (1941–2002), elektroninis variantas (antras elektroninis leidimas), redaktorių kolegija: G. Naktinė, J. Paulauskas, R. Petrokienė, Z. Šimėnaitė, V. V itkauskas, J. Zabarskaitė, vyr. red. G. Naktinė. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2013. LPŽ – Lietuvių pavardžių žodynas 1–2, autoriai V. Maciejauskienė, M. Razmukaitė, A. Vanagas, atsak. red. A. Vanagas. Vilnius: Mokslas, 1985–1989. LUEV – Lietuvos TSR upių ir ežerų vardynas, atsak. red. E. Grinaveckienė. Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla, 1963. LVŽ I – Lietuvos vietovardžių žodynas 1, redaktorių kolegija: L. Balode, V. Blažek, G. Blažienė, V. Kardelis, A. Ragauskaitė, S. Temčinas, J. Udolph. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 2008. 136 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXI Priesaginių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija LVŽ II – Lietuvos vietovardžių žodynas 2, autoriai L. Bilkis, G. Blažienė, M. Norkaitienė, A. Ragauskaitė, M. Razmukaitė, D. Sviderskienė, atsak. red. L. Bilkis. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 2014. LVŽ II – Lietuvos vietovardžių žodynas 3, autoriai V. Adomonytė, L. Bilkis, G. Blažienė, D. Kacinaitė-Vrubiauskienė, M. Norkaitienė, A. Ragauskaitė, M. Razmukaitė, D. Sviderskienė, atsak. red. L. Bilkis. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 2018. LŽ VI – Lietuvos žemės vardynas. Instrukcija Lietuvos žemės vardynui surašyti, sud. K. Alminauskis. Klaipėda: Akinė „Rytų“ bendrovė, 1934. PAŠŽ I – Pietinių pietų aukštaičių šnektų žodynas 1, Ata Leskauskaitė, Vilija Ragašienė. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 2016. SJ – Słownik języka polskiego 1, Warszawa: Nakładem prenumeratorów, 1900; 2–6, Warszawa: Nakładem prenumeratorów i Kasy im. Mianowskiego, 1902–1915; 7, Warszawa: Przez K. Króla i W. Niedźwiedzkiego, z zapomogi Kasy im. Mianowskiego, 1919; 8, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Kasy im. Mianowskiego, 1927. VK – Vietovardžių iš gyvosios kalbos kartoteka, Lietuvių kalbos instituto Baltų kalbų ir vardyno tyrimų centro fondas. L I T E R A T Ū R A Ambrazas Saulius 2000: Daiktavardžių darybos raida 2. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Bilkis Laimutis 2008: Lietuvių helonimų daryba: priesaginiai ir priesagėtieji helonimai. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla. Bilkis Laimutis 2009: Baisogalas valsčiaus vandenvardžiai. – Baisogala. Vilnius: Versmė, 356–365. Bilkis Laimutis 2018: Lietuvių vietovardžių su šaknimi gal (< liet. gãlas ‘pabaiga, kraštas’) darybos ypatybės. – Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 79, 212–234. Būgienė Lina 1999: Minis vandens įprasminimas Lietuvių sakmėse, padavimuose ir tikėjimuose. – Tautosakos darbai 11(18), 13–85. Butkus Alvydas 1995: Lietuvių pavardės. Kaunas: Ėsti. Gritėnienė Aurelia 2006: Augalų pavadinimų motyvacija šiaurės panevėžiškių patarmėje. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla. Jakaitienė Evalda 2010: Leksikologija. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. Straipsniai / Articles 137 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ Kabašinskaitė Birutė 2014: Etimologijos menes. Istorija – teorija – skaitiniai. Vilnius: UAB „Eugrimas“. Prieiga internete: http://www.espama.lt/es_parama_pletra/failai/ESFproduktai/2014_Etimologijos_menes.pdf [žiūrėta 2019-09-02]. Lubienė Jūratė 2015: Lietuvių kalbos mįnimai: nominacija ir motyvacija. Klaipėda: Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla. Nübling Damaris, Fahlbusch Fabian, Heuser Rita 2012: Namen. Eine Einführung in die Onomastik (Narr Studienbücher). Tübingen: Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH + Co. KG. Rutkovska Kristina 2016: Namų konceptas lietuvių kalboje ir kultūroje. – Lietuvių kalba 10. Prieiga internete: www.lietuviukalba.lt [žiūrėta 2020-01-02]. Sviderskienė Dalia 2016: Sudurtinių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija. – Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 75, 243–273. Sviderskienė Dalia 2017: Sudėtinių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija. – Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 77, 78–102. Vanagas Aleksandras 1970: Lietuvos TSR hidronimų daryba. Vilnius: Mintis. Vanagas Aleksandras 1981: Lietuvių hidronimų semantika. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 21, 4–153. Березович Елена Л. 2001: «Обычный» топоним как объект этнолингвистического исследования. Имя: внутренняя структура, семантическая аура, контекст. Тезисы международной научной конференции. Часть 1, 35–38. Блинова Ольга И. 1984: Явление мотивации слов: Лексикологический аспект. Томск: Издательство Томского университета. Блинова Ольга И. 2007: Мотивология и её аспекты. Томск: Издательство Томского университета. Блинова Ольга И. 2012: Ключевые термины мотивологии: испытание временем (1971–2011 гг.). – Вестник Томского государственного педагогического университета 10(23), 5–10. Чайкина Юлия И. 1983: К интерпретации микрогидронимии Сухоны. – Вопросы ономастики 16, 89–97. Голев Николай Д. 1972: Функции мотивации и народная этимология. Prieiga internete: http://lingvo.asu.ru/golev/articles/z59.html [žiūrėta 2019-10-11]. Голев Николай Д. 1972a: О принципах номинации и методе их исследования. Prieiga internete: http://lingvo.asu.ru/golev/articles/z66.html [žiūrėta 2019-12-09]. 138 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXI Priesaginių Marijampolės apskrities helonimų motyvacija Гоев Николай Д. 1991: Мотивационные типы ономастических образований в художественной литературе и публицистике. – Номинация в ономастике: Вопросы ономастики 19, 51–60. [Свердловск: Изд-во Урал. ун-та]. Захарова Любовь А., Нестерова Наталия Г., Старикова Галина Н. 2003: Аспекты изучения топонимической системы города Томска. – Вестник Томского государственного университета 277, 177–185. Иванова Елена Э. 2015: К вопросу о редких цветообозначениях в русской топонимии. – Этимпивистика. Ономастика. Этимология. Материалы III междунар. науч. конф. Екатеринбург, 7–11 сентября 2015 г. [отв. ред. Е. Л. Березович; ред. Е. О. Борисова, Н. В. Кабинина, М. Э. Рут, Л. А. Феоктистова]. Екатеринбург: Издательство Уральского университета, 128–130. Карпенко Юрий А. 1966: Становление восточнославянской топонимии (Закономерности словообразования). Prieiga internete: http://karpenko.in.ua/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Stanovlenie_66.pdf [žiūrėta 2019-12-09]. Карпенко Юрий А. 1967: Свойства и источники микротопонимии. – Микротопонимия, 15–22. Коновалова Надежда И. 2017: Рациональное и эмоциональное в семантике демонологии. – В созвездии слов и имен: сб. науч. ст. к юбилею Марии Эдуардовны Рут, редкол.: Е. Л. Березович (отв. ред.), Т. Н. Дмитриева, Н. В. Кабинина и др. Екатеринбург, 401–413. Палкина Елена Э. 1983: Структуро-словообразовательные модели русских гидронимов в бассейне реки Чусовой. – Вопросы ономастики 16, 98–100. Полякова Елена Н. 2010: О связи языка и культуры по данным лексики и ономастики (фамилия Коноплё и слово конопля). – Российская и зарубежная филология 5(11), 7–17. Просвирнина Ирина С. 2001: Особенности семантики русских составных топонимов. – Известия Уральского государственного университета 20, 35–48. Толстая Светлана М. (2002): Мотивационные семантические модели и картина мира. – Русский язык в научном освещении 1(3), 112–127. Straipsniai / Articles 139 DALIA ŠVIDERSKIENĖ Motivation of Suffixal Helonyms of Marijampolė County SUMMARY The article addresses Lithuanian suffix helonyms constituting a peculiar and interesting layer of the so called non-equivalent lexis. The data analysis sought to reveal the feature forming the basis of nomination of marsh places, to determine (interpret) what the name of the place actually meant at the time of its formation and conversion into nomina proprium, to explain the understanding, conception and evaluation of this place by a representative of the ethnic area concerned as well as its logical interpretation based on own cultural experience, to reveal the “name-giver’s” strategy followed at the time of nomination. To achieve the aim, the representatives of the class of hydronyms were studied using the linguistic methods of structural, semantic, motivological analysis. As comprehensive information about the denotatum as possible is in use; the study makes use of the data about the linguistic consciousness of the informants from the area under analysis, which were recorded in the “Land Names” questionnaires (1935–1937), as well as the surviving additional information enabling us to grasp their knowledge and experience and helping to understand the onomastic situation. The research applies the scientific cognitive method (the grouping of helonyms into certain groups based on their similarities or differences according to the selected criteria), the internal reconstruction method, pragmatic, cognitive interpretation and descriptive methods. The study is important from both practical/informative and theoretical perspectives, as it helps to reveal the specificities pertaining to the language practice in the field of onomastic nomination; it expands the picture of the lexical system and enables us to take a look at local (Lithuanian) toponyms in the context of national identity as the expressers of the outlook, worldviews, culture and psychological states of the representatives of a certain ethnic group and as spatial landmarks, which function and are important from the social and communicative perspective and separate certain places from others. Įteikta 2019 m. gruodžio 19 d. DALIA ŠVIDERSKIENĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas Petro Vileišio g. 5, Vilnius LT-10308, Lietuva [email protected] 140 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXI