Traditional agricultural practices enable sustainable remediation of highly polluted soils in Southern Spain for cultivation of food crops

1 T adi ional ag icul u al p ac ices enable sus ainable emedia ion o highly 1 pollu ed soils in Sou he n Spain o cul i a ion o ood c ops. 2 3 Madejón, P.1*, Ba ba-B ioso, C. 2 Lepp, N.W.3, and Fe nández-Caliani J.C.4 4 5 1 Ins i u o de Recu sos Na u ales y Ag obiología de Se illa (IRNAS-CSIC), A . Reina 6 Me cedes 10, 41012 Se illa, Spain. [email p o ec ed] 7 8 2 Depa amen o de C is alog a ía, Mine alogía y Química Ag ícola. Facul ad de 9 Química. Uni e sidad de Se illa. C/ P o eso Ga cía González s/n, 41012 Se illa, 10 Spain. cin a.ba [email protected] 11 12 3 35, Vic o ia Road, Fo mby, Li e pool L37 7DH, UK. [email p o ec ed] 13 14 4 Depa amen o de Geología, Facul ad de Ciencias Expe imen ales. Uni e sidad de 15 Huel a, 21071, Huel a, Spain. [email p o ec ed] 16 17 *Co esponding au ho : [email p o ec ed]. Telephone numbe 0034 954624711 18 FAX: 0034 9544624002 19 20 *Manusc ip Click he e o iew linked Re e ences 2 Abs ac 21 This s udy ela es elemen al con en o a ange o edible c ops g own in soils se e ely 22 pollu ed by me als and me alloids as a ec ed by adi ional smallholde managemen 23 p ac ices. Fi e ag icul u al plo s close o a sul idic was e dump we e moni o ed. Soil 24 analysis demons a ed ele a ed concen a ions o As, Cu, Pb and Zn ha we e g ea ly in 25 excess o maximum s a u o y limi s o ag icul u al soils in his egion. The main 26 ege ables (le uce, cha d, onion, po a oes) and lemon, oge he wi h hei associa ed 27 soils, we e measu ed o elemen al con en . Ex ac able soil elemen concen a ions 28 we e e y low. The e we e di e ences in elemen al accumula ion be ween c ops, bu 29 none exceeded s a u o y concen a ions in edible pa s. Soil-plan ans e ac o s we e 30 uni o mly low o all elemen s and c ops. I is concluded ha adi ional soil 31 managemen p ac ices (annual liming and applica ion o animal manu es) ha e c ea ed 32 condi ions o sus ainable long- e m sa e y use, wi h po en ial o mul iple end-use, o 33 hese highly pollu ed soils 34 35 Keywo ds: T ace elemen s, edible plan s, soil pollu ion, Tha sis mines, Spain 36 37 1. In oduc ion 38 Plan s a e he i s compa men o he e es ial ood chain. Due o hei 39 capaci y o accumula e po en ially oxic ace elemen s, hey can ep esen a h ea o 40 animals and humans ha consume hem (In awongse and Dean, 2006; Liu e al., 2006). 41 The isk ha ace elemen s pose o he en i onmen and human heal h is a 42 unc ion o hei specia ion in soils and subsequen accumula ion and pa i ioning wi hin 43 plan s (Kaba a-Pendias, 2004). The solubili y o ace elemen s a ies widely because 44 many ac o s in luence hei concen a ion in he soil solu ion: edaphic cha ac e is ics 45 (pH, ex u e and o ganic ma e con en ), clima ic condi ions, and ag onomic 46 3 managemen (Alloway, 1995, Chojnacka e al., 2005; Tokalioğlu and Ka al 2006). The 47 a e o me al ansloca ion om he soil o edible and ha es ed pa s o cul i a ed plan s 48 depends, in addi ion, on ege a ion ype and me al in ol ed, besides he soil and 49 clima ic ac o s (Alloway, 1995; McLaughlin e al., 1999). 50 Chaney (1980) in oduced he concep o he „soil-plan ba ie ‟ and classi ied 51 ace elemen s in ou g oups wi h espec o hei po en ial o ood chain ans e : 52 G oup 1 (Ag, C , Sn, Ti, Y and Z ) wi h low isk o human heal h because hey a e no 53 usually aken up by plan s due o hei low solubili y in soil. G oup 2 (As, Hg and Pb) 54 which a e s ongly so bed by soil colloids, o may be immobilized in plan oo s wi h 55 e y limi ed ans e o edible shoo issues, and he e o e pose ma ginal isks. G oup 3 56 (B, Cu, Mn, Mo, Ni and Zn) a e phy o oxic a concen a ions ha pose li le isk, 57 al hough „ he soil-plan ba ie ‟ p o ec s he ood chain om hese elemen s. G oup 4 58 consis s o Cd, Co, Mo and Se, which pose human o animal heal h isks a plan issue 59 concen a ions ha a e no phy o oxic. 60 Soil pollu ion wi h ace elemen s, mainly hose om G oups 2 and 3 desc ibed 61 abo e, ep esen s one o he mos p ominen en i onmen al haza ds om abandoned 62 mine si es in he Ibe ian Py i e Bel (Fe nández-Caliani e al. 2009a, b; Fe nández-63 Caliani and Ba ba-B ioso, 2010). Pas mining and o e p ocessing ac i i ies esul ed in 64 de o es a ion and des uc ion o he na u al ege a ion, ans o ming soils in o ma ginal 65 lands unable o sus ain comme cial ag icul u e. Howe e , adi ional small-scale 66 ag icul u e has pe sis ed on limi ed a eas o a able land adjacen o he mining illages 67 in his egion. 68 The goals o he s udy epo ed he e we e o: 1) de e mine o al concen a ions o ace 69 elemen s in di e en pa s o ui and ege ables, and in he soil in which hey g ew, 70 ocusing on hei edible pa s; 2) assess he mobile and po en ially-mobile ac ions o 71 4 he soil ace elemen pools and he soil-plan ans e ac o s o he c ops g own he e; 72 and 3) e alua e he long- e m sus ainabili y o he adi ional soil managemen p ac ices 73 used in his egion o ma ginal o soils o low e ili y in ela ion o soil-plan ans e 74 o ino ganic pollu an s. 75 76 2. Si e desc ip ion 77 The Tha sis Mines (UTM coo dina es: X= 666,746 and Y= 4,162,779) a e 78 loca ed in one o he oldes and bes -known mining dis ic s in he Ibe ian Py i e Bel 79 (Sou h-Wes Spain), wi h a leng hy his o y o exploi a ion ha da es back o p e-Roman 80 imes (Checkland, 1967). The mos in ensi e pe iod o mining ope a ions occu ed 81 be ween he end o he 19 h cen u y and he middle o he 20 h cen u y, when py i e was 82 he main aw ma e ial used o sulphu ic acid manu ac u e by he Eu opean chemical 83 indus y. Pas mining and smel ing ac i i ies we e ca ied ou wi hou conce n o e en 84 awa eness o hei nega i e en i onmen al impac , esul ing a p esen -day landscape o 85 la ge opencas mines, was e ock piles and ailings dams ha encompass an a ea o 86 abou 350 ha (Figu e 1a). 87 Du ing mining and a e closu e, pollu an s ha e been ans e ed om he mine 88 was es o nea by soils by acid mine d ainage and/o a mosphe ic deposi ion o wind-89 blown dus . Soils and ege a ion show ele a ed ace elemen concen a ions up o 2-3 90 km away om he mining a ea (Chopin and Alloway, 2007a,b). The e a e also a numbe 91 o small holdings, none o which exceeds one hec a e in ex en , loca ed in he 92 immedia e icini y o he mine was e dumps, all a isk o con amina ion wi h me als. 93 Fi e ag icul u al plo s, close o he sul idic was e dumps o he “Filón No e” 94 open pi (Figu e 1 b, c) we e selec ed o his s udy. The allu ial soils o hese plo s a e 95 de o ed o adi ional ho icul u e, despi e he ac ha hey a e occasionally looded by 96 5 acid wa e s emana ing om nea by was e dumps and su ace mine wo kings. To co ec 97 soil acidi y, a me s ou inely amend soils wi h lime, oge he wi h egula addi ions o 98 animal manu e. These p ac ices ha e aken place o a leas 25 yea s in he in es iga ed 99 plo s, a ac es ablished by in e iews wi h each plo owne . The main c ops cul i a ed 100 by he smallholde s a e ege ables, ypically le uce (Lac uca sa i a L.), cha d (Be a 101 ulga is (L.) a . cicla K. Koch), onion (Allium is ulosum L.) and po a o (Solanum 102 ube osum L.). Some plo s also con ain ma u e Lemon ees (Ci us limon L. B um). 103 104 3. Me hodology 105 3.1 Ma e ials and me hods 106 A sui e o ege able samples, comp ising lea , bulb, ube and ui c ops, along 107 wi h hei associa ed soils we e andomly collec ed om each plo in Ap il 2008 a he 108 indica ed s age o ma u i y (Table 1). 109 Composi e soil samples we e aken o a dep h o 20 cm (Ap ho izon) om each 110 plo whe e sampled ege ables we e g owing. These we e anspo ed o he labo a o y 111 in polye hylene bags, ai d ied, disagg ega ed wi h a wooden olle , passed h ough a 2 112 mm s ainless s eel sie e, and homogenized p io o analysis. The pa icle-size 113 dis ibu ion was de e mined by a combina ion o sie ing and lase di ac ion (Mal e n 114 Mas e Size ins umen ) me hods. The pH, Eh and elec ical conduc i i y alues we e 115 measu ed wi h calib a ed glass elec odes in a 1:2.5 (w/ ) soil o wa e suspension. The 116 con en o o al o ganic ma e was de e mined by oxida ion wi h po assium dich oma e 117 in a s ong acid medium (Walkley-Black me hod), as desc ibed by Pansu and 118 Gau hey ou (2006), and he ca bona e con en was measu ed by he Be na d calcime y 119 me hod. 120 Soil mine alogy was in es iga ed in bo h bulk samples (<2 mm) and clay-size 121 6 ac ions (<2 µm) by powde X- ay di ac ion (XRD) on a B uke -AXS D8-Ad ance 122 di ac ome e , using monoch oma ic CuK adia ion a 40 kV and 30 mA. The ine 123 ac ion was sepa a ed by sedimen a ion and analyzed in o ien ed agg ega es o ai -124 d ied, e hylene glycol- ea ed and he mal- ea ed samples o clay mine al 125 iden i ica ion. Selec ed soil samples we e examined by scanning elec on mic oscopy 126 using a JEOL JSM-5410 ins umen coupled wi h an ene gy dispe si e X- ay 127 spec ome e (SEM-EDS). 128 To al concen a ions o po en ially oxic ace elemen s (As, Cu, Pb and Zn) in 129 soil samples we e de e mined by induc i ely coupled plasma-op ical emission 130 spec ome y (ICP-OES), (Jobin Y on ULTIMA 2), a e 4-acid (HF-HClO4-HNO3-131 HCl) diges ion o 0.1 g soil sample o en d ied o 24 hou s a 110 °C. Quali y con ol 132 included he use o a me hod eagen blank and se e al ce i ied e e ence ma e ials 133 (SARM-1 and SARM-4 o soil analysis) o check accu acy and p ecision o he 134 analy ical da a ( ela i e s anda d de ia ion below 10%). 135 In o de o de e mine he mos labile me al pools, an aliquo o each soil sample 136 (2 g) was subjec ed o single ex ac ions by shaking o one hou wi h deionised wa e , a 137 mild neu al sal solu ion (0.01 M CaCl2) o a complexing agen (0.05 M EDTA a pH 138 7) a a soil:solu ion a io o 1:10 (w/ ) (e.g. Houba e al. 1996; U e e al., 1996). The 139 i s wo soil ex ac solu ions we e analyzed a e cen i uga ion ( o 10 min a 4500 140 pm) by induc i ely coupled plasma mass spec ome y (ICP-MS), using a Hewle 141 Packa d 4500 ins umen wi h de ec ion limi s o 0.01 µgL-1, whils EDTA-ex ac able 142 me als we e de e mined by ICP-OES. All ace elemen concen a ions we e epo ed on 143 an o en-d y basis. 144 All plan samples (lea es, oo s, bulbs, peel and seeds) we e washed ( o 10 s 145 app oxima ely) wi h a solu ion o phospha e- ee de e gen , hen wi h a 0.1 N HCl 146 7 solu ion and inally wi h dis illed wa e . Plan ma e ial was o en-d ied a 70ºC, g ound 147 and passed h ough a 500 µm s ainless s eel sie e. A 0.5 g aliquo was diges ed by we 148 oxida ion wi h concen a ed HNO3 unde p essu e in a mic owa e diges e (Jones and 149 Case, 1990). Th ee consecu i e s eps (5 min. each) o powe (250 W, 450 W and 600 150 W) we e applied, and hen hese ex ac s we e dilu ed o 50 ml olume wi h deoinised 151 wa e o 18 mΩ quali y. The analysis o ace me als in he diges s was pe o med by 152 ICP-MS. The accu acy and p ecision o he analy ical me hod we e assessed by ou ine 153 analyses o he e e ence sample CRM-279 (Sea le uce) and CS DC73350 (popla 154 lea es). Reco e y a es o e e ence plan samples we e be ween 90 and 110%. 155 156 3.2 T ea men o analy ical da a 157 Quan i a i e assessmen o o e all soil pollu ion was based on he pollu ion load 158 index (PLI), as de ined by Tomlinson e al., (1980), aking in o conside a ion he 159 concen a ion ac o (CF), which is he a io be ween each ace elemen in he soil and 160 i s backg ound alue. The PLI o each soil sample was calcula ed by de i ing he n- h 161 oo o he n ac o s (CF1xCF2xCF3x...CFn). Thus, alues o PLI close o one indica e 162 hea y me al loads nea he backg ound le el, while alues >1 indica e soil pollu ion 163 (Cab e a e al., 1999). 164 In o de o ind ou wha p opo ion o he o al soil me al concen a ion was 165 a ailable and ans e ed o di e en o gans o he ege ables g own by he 166 smallholde s, he ans e coe icien (TC) was calcula ed. This is de ined as he a io o 167 me al concen a ion in he plan , [M]plan , o he o al me al concen a ion in he soil, 168 [M]soil (Ad iano, 2001). 169 TC = [M]plan / [M] soil 170 8 The da a was s a is ically analysed using S a So S a is ica 7.0 o ecognize 171 a iables ends and g oupings. Kolmogo o -Smi no and Shapi o-Wilk‟s no mali y 172 es s we e ca ied ou o all a iables, e using he no mal dis ibu ion o almos all o 173 hem. Because he a iables equi ed a non-pa ame ic analyses, a Spea man co ela ion 174 ma ix (signi icance le el p<0.01) was ob ained, co ela ing o al ace elemen con en s 175 in soils wi h hose measu ed in soil ex ac s and plan s. 176 177 4. Resul s and discussion 178 4.1 Soil cons i uen s and p ope ies 179 The uppe pa o he soil p o ile shows a well-de eloped o ganic ho izon wi h 180 g anula s uc u e and had simila edaphic p ope ies in all he sampled soils (Table 2). 181 The soil is b own (10YR 5/3, 10YR 6/3 d y) in colou and has a sil y loam ex u e wi h 182 <10% o clay-sized pa icles. Some soil samples con ain signi ican amoun s o coa se-183 g ained componen s (g ea e han 2 mm), consis ing o sub-angula li hic agmen s o 184 he e ogeneous was e ocks and slag esidues. 185 The soil had an a e age pH alue o 7.4, and elec ical conduc i i y anged 186 be ween 0.15 and 0.95 mS cm-1, indica ing a low salini y le el in he soil solu ion. The 187 soil appea s o be well d ained and ae a ed spanning a na ow ange o posi i e Eh 188 alues (457-505 mV) ha e lec mode a ely oxidizing condi ions. 189 The soil has a high con en o o al o ganic ma e (8.1-14.9%) and ca bona es 190 (up o 14%) esul ing om he applica ion o o ganic amendmen s and lime o imp o e 191 soil e ili y and o p e en soil acidi y. 192 Soil mine als, iden i ied by XRD, we e composed o phyllosilica es (50-60%), 193 qua z (30-40%), eldspa s (5-10%), calci e (<5%) and dolomi e (<5%). The clay 194 mine al assemblage was domina ed by illi e and kaolini e, wi h mino e miculi e 195 9 and/o poo ly de ined mixed-laye phases. In addi ion, SEM-EDS analysis e ealed he 196 occu ence o amo phous o poo ly c ys alline Fe oxyhyd oxides and a numbe o 197 accesso y mine als, such as ba y e, apa i e and monazi e. 198 199 4.2 To al concen a ions o ace elemen s in soil 200 The sampled soils con ained high le els o As, Cu, Pb and Zn (Table 3), 201 al hough o al concen a ions a ied, depending on he loca ion o he sampling plo 202 (Figu e 1). The highes concen a ions o ace elemen s (up o 621 mg kg-1 As, 752 mg 203 kg-1 Cu, 2395 mg kg-1 Pb, and 593 mg kg-1 Zn) we e ound in plo s 4 and 5, loca ed in 204 he immedia e icini y o he mine was es. Simila o al soil elemen concen a ions 205 ha e been epo ed o cul i a ed soils adjacen o o he abandoned mine si es in he 206 Ibe ian Py i e Bel (López e al., 2008; Fe nández-Caliani e al. 2009a). 207 The o al concen a ions o As, Cu, Pb and Zn in hese soils a e be ween one and 208 wo o de s o magni ude abo e bo h he egional geochemical baseline (Galán e al. 209 2008) and no mal le els ound in Spanish ag icul u al soils (López-A ias and G au-210 Co bí, 2005). Fu he mo e, hese alues g ea ly exceed he maximum allowable 211 concen a ions o ag icul u al soils es ablished by he Regional Go e nmen o 212 Andalusia (Aguila e al., 1999). This indica es po en ial heal h isks associa ed wi h 213 consuming edible c ops g own in hese soils. 214 The Concen a ion Fac o , CF, de ined as he a io be ween each ace elemen in 215 he soil sample and i s backg ound alue (50 h pe cen ile), was pa icula ly ele a ed o 216 As (up o 24.8), Cu (up o 23.5), and Pb (up o 63.0), indica ing soil pollu ion. The 217 lowes CF alues we e ound o Zn, al hough he a io was highe han 1 o all 218 samples. Pollu ion load indices (PLI) a each plo a e shown in Table 3. The PLI alues 219 16 onions, he high As TC in oo s, (TC= 3.03) coupled wi h he g ea ly educed ans e o 369 ae ial pa s (TC= 0.03) and bulb (TC= 0.001) would indica e ha he As accumula ed in 370 oo issues. In case o Cu and Zn, TC we e always low, wi h maximum alues ound in 371 onion oo s (TC= 0.15 o Cu and 0.18 o Zn). Simila esul s we e ound o o he 372 plan s g owing in mul i-elemen pollu ed soils by Madejón e al. (2007). The p esen 373 esul s imply ha he e is a low ans e o pollu an s om hese soils o p ima y 374 p oduce s. 375 376 5. Conclusions 377 The e a e se e al conclusions ha can be d awn om his s udy: 378 Fi s : The e is limi ed soil-plan ans e o po en ially haza dous ace elemen s (As, 379 Cu, Pb, Zn) o selec ed ege ables and ui cul i a ed on a mine-pollu ed soil. One 380 eason may be he cu en managemen p ac ices employed on he ag icul u al small 381 holdings unde in es iga ion such as egula inpu s o o ganic ma e and lime o 382 main ain soil pH close o neu ali y. 383 Second: The ege ables in es iga ed a e ypical o hose g own in his egion, and no 384 edible pa showed elemen accumula ion ha could be conside ed as a signi ican isk 385 o human heal h, based on s a u o y limi s o ood c ops. The ege ables showed 386 di e en pa e ns o ace elemen accumula ion: highes concen a ions in non-edible 387 pa s o onions and lowes concen a ions in po a oes ube s. 388 Thi d: The da a om his su ey is a clea illus a ion o he use o simple, ou ine 389 ag onomic p ocedu es as a means o a) cul i a ing c ops on po en ially phy o oxic soils 390 and b) educing he concen a ions o po en ially oxic elemen s (As, Pb) in hei edible 391 issues. Rou ine applica ion o a combina ion o li es ock manu e and ag icul u al lime 392 has c ea ed a soil en i onmen whe e he labile pools o As and Pb a e e y low, in 393 17 con as o he e y ele a ed o al con en o hese elemen s in he soil. In addi ion, his 394 ea men has egula ed plan up ake o bo h Cu and Zn, educing po en ial phy o oxici y 395 whils s ill p o iding a sou ce o ace concen a ions o bo h mic onu ien s o main ain 396 no mal g ow h. The ad hoc ea men s applied by he smallholde s appea o ha e 397 success ully con ibu ed o he sa e use o he pollu ed soils whe e i can sus ain c op 398 p oduc ion o e an ex ended pe iod o ime. The e a e clea lessons o u u e 399 de elopmen o ield scale emedia ion o soils wi h mixed me al/me alloid pollu ion 400 om he success ul and sus ainable ou come o he „in si u‟ ea men s applied o hese 401 highly pollu ed soils by he smallholde s who use adi ional p ac ices o a m hese 402 si es. 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Pe cen ages o elemen s ex ac ed wi h (a) deionised wa e , (b) CaCl2, and (c) 541 EDTA in soil g owing young onion (C1, C3, C4, C5), ipe onion (C2), le uce (L1, L2, 542 L3), cha d (A1, A2, A3), lemon (S5), and po a o (S12). 543 Figu e 3. Dis ibu ion o ace elemen s (mean alues in mg kg-1) in di e en pa s o 544 he onion. 545 Figu e 4. Dis ibu ion o ace elemen s (mean alues in mg kg-1) in di e en pa s o 546 he le uce. 547 Figu e 5. Dis ibu ion o ace elemen s (mean alues in mg kg-1) in di e en pa s o 548 he lemon ee. 549 550 Table 1. Plan species, analyzed o gans (numbe o samples in b acke s) and hei 551 associa ed soil samples. 552 Table 2. Physico-chemical pa ame e s o he soils whe e ege ables a e cul i a ed. 553 Table 3. Mean and s anda d de ia ion o he o al ace elemen concen a ions and 554 pollu ion load index (PLI) and ace elemen s ex ac ed wi h deionized wa e , CaCl2 and 555 EDTA. All alues a e exp essed in mg kg-1. Numbe o samples (n) appea s in b acke s 556 Table 4. T ace elemen con en (mean and ange alues in mg kg-1) in di e en o gans 557 o ege ables g owing in he ag icul u al plo s. 558 Table 5. T ans e coe icien s (TC) o As, Cu, Pb and Zn in he di e en o gans o he 559 s udied ege ables. 560 1 Figu e 2 Figu e 2 4 Table 4. T ace elemen s con en s (mean and ange alues) in di e en o gans o ege ables g owing in he ag icul u al plo s unde s udy. * * Possible backg ound alues compiled by Kaba a-Pendias and Mukhe jee (2007); **Sze e and N iagu, (2007); *** Da is and Whi e (1981) Plan species O gan As Cu Pb Zn Ripe Onion (n=6) Lea es 7.14 (0.75-15.2) 12.1 (3.5-31.4) 0.65 (0.10-1.92) 14.1 (12.8-16.2) Bulbs 0.31 (0.1-1.2) 4.15 (2.9-5.0) 0.33 (0.1-0.83) 23.9 (14.9-29.1) Roo s 627 (267-905) 53.3 (39.5-80.5) 44.5 (35.9-51.8) 82.0 (43.2-135) Onion bulbs* - 4.0-6.0 1.1-2.0 22-32 Young Onion (n=6) Lea es 9.56 (0.10-15.2) 20.4 (14.1-20.5) 3.44 (0.1-8.8) 24 (19.2-28.0) Bulbs 8.81 (1.95-23.5) 13.3 (9.0-18.0) 2.65 (3.01-8.3) 62.4 (34.9-101) Le uce (plo 1, n=3) Lea es 1.00 (0.86-1.1) 13.5 (13.3-13.6) 0.76 (0.75-0.77) 64 (61.6-66.0) Le uce (plo 2, n=3) Lea es 0.93 (0.2-1.6) 9.48 (7.6-11.7) 0.45 (0.35-0.65) 49 (37.6-60.3) Le uce lea es* - 6.0-8.0 0.7-3.6 44-73 Cha d (plo 1, n=3) Lea es 0.45 (0.20-0.70) 14.8 (13.6-15.9) 0.90 (0.75-1.1) 43.9 (41.4-46.4) Cha d (plo 2, n=3) Lea es 1.07 (0.77-1.30) 18.4 (16.0-19.9) 1.50 (1.2-1.76) 79.8 (54.2-110) Po a o (n=5) Peel 0.1 11.5 (8.9-12.6) 0.1 21.1 (19.2-24.0) Tube 0.1 10.3 (8.2-12.0) 0.1 25.0 (20.8-28.8) Po a o ube s* - 3.0-6.6 0.5 10-26 No mal le els in ege ables** 0.0001-0.46 0.04-2.4 0.0004-0.8 0.5-118 S a u o y limi s*** 1.00 - 1.00 5 Table 5. T ans e coe icien s (TC) o As, Cu, Pb and Zn a he di e en o gans o he s udied ege ables. Vege able o gan As Cu Pb Zn Ripe onion Lea es (n=6) 0.034 0.034 0.001 0.03 Bulbs (n=6) 0.001 0.011 0.0004 0.05 Roo s (n=3) 3.03 0.150 0.052 0.18 Young onion Lea es (n=7) 0.020 0.03 0.002 0.04 Bulbs (n=7) 0.017 0.02 0.001 0.11 Le uce Lea es (n=6) 0.003 0.03 0.0005 0.13 Cha d Lea es (n=6) 0.003 0.04 0.001 0.14 Lemon Lea es (n=3) 0.003 0.015 0.0007 0.03 Pulp (n=3) 0.0002 0.010 0.0001 0.02 Peel (n=3) 0.0002 0.005 0.0002 0.01 Seed (n=3) 0.0002 0.014 0.00005 0.04 Po a o Peel (n=5) 0.0002 0.015 0.00004 0.035 Tube (n=5) 0.0002 0.014 0.00004 0.04