Rewriting history: the slave's point of view in “The life of Olaudah Equiano”

Rt·l'isra de Estudi os Norreamerica11os. 11." 7 (2000), pp . 141 -151 REWRITING HISTORY: THE SLAVE'S POINT OF VIEW IN THE LIFE OF OLAUDAH EQUIANO MARÍA DF.L M AR GALLEGO Uni vers id ad de Huelva The ge n eral corpus of slavc narratives written in thc eighteenth ami nineteenth ccnturies bclo ngs undouhtedly to the so-callcd «abolitionist lit eraturc» of the period, that is. a typc of litcraturc whose main aim is the abolition of the slave system. To achicve this pur po se. they need to cou nteract a series of demgatory and ra cist images to portray the actuality of African American identity from the slave's point ofv icw. In so doing. th cse narra tiv es <lea l with a new sense of reality ha scd on an altered concept of h is t ory in opposition to the so-called «W hite » version of it. Moreover. such rewriting of history is also rcade r -oriented in the sense that it tak es gr eat ly into account th e white readership to which these novels are ma inly addresscd as possible upholder of the abolitionist ideal. Tlze Lijé of Olaudah Equiano. pu blished in 1789. can be considered a good example of this type or liternture due to its conscious and constant effort to shortcn the distance between the narration itself and its reader. in a clear au empt to hring home the «horrors of the slavc trade» an<l thc subsequent need to do away with it. Equ iano's narr ative cle arly co mb in es both pu rposes from the very outset: on the one hand. and de spite sorne critics· op in ions' , the abolitionist aim pervadcs the I. For instan ce Raymond Hcdin argucs that in general in cighteenth ccntury >lave narratives «thoug h anti-slavery eleme nt s appcar in them. they do no t dominate» (633). hcca usc 1he s ocia l motivation is n ot crucial at th at po int. He goes on cx pl ai ni ng thal this fact is duc to the uv cniding picares qu c tone noticeahlc in the narratives that sprí ng!-. frorn thc na O"at ors' own cxpcricnccs.in \\·hich, he insists. slavcry h as no t h ce n a dctcrmining fcaturc. Such gcncraliza ti ons do not takc into account slave narra tor s clearly po si li oning themselvcs in favour of aholitioni'l ítleals from thc vc ry bcginning. E4uiano should sufficc as a case in point. 142 María del Mar Gallego tcxt, as the very dedication addressed to the members of the British parlimnent uncornpromisingly states: May the God of Heaven inspire your hearts with peculiar benevolence on tha t importan! <lay when the qucstion of Abolition is to be discussed, when thou - sands, in consequence of your determination, are to look for Happiness or Misery! (3) The anti-sla very goal is al Lhe heart of Equiano' s text, its driving impulse, and not only at an abstract leve!, but at a quite concrete and crucial historical moment, in which th c British parliamenl is deciding upon it. Indeed, Equiano's dedication makes clear his involvement with and interest in history. The lack of bistorical import ascribed to many slave nan-ators is thus denied in Equiano's case due to bis deep concern with narrating historical events in h is attempt to offer his own version, in a sense, reintcrpreting them from his point of view. Following the slave narrators' motto of being true to fact,z Equiano engagcs in the process of rcwriting history to suit bis abolitionist zcal. On the other band. tbe effort to account for bis personal decoding of history is intimately connectcd to the redefinition of the concept of African American identity. Equiano 's nall'ative vividly exemplifies the need to reconstruct a «new self», an identity that not only deconstructs the negative image of the slave fostered by the racist ideology and supported by the plantation mystique.J but it also fulfills the compelling desire to give birth to a suitable sense of self that can respond to claims of humanity and dignity. In short, Equiano's second main motivation for writing his narrative is also another rhctorical aim: to convince white readers that «the slave was, as the inscription of a famous antislavery meda! put it, ·a man and a brother' to whiles» (Andrews J ). For the benefit of his white audience Equiano must demonstrate that he has not fallen victim to the so-called brutalizing effect of slavery, but quite the opposite. that he is, as Twagilimana argues, a rightful «member of their community» 2. Th c relationship between history and truth is usually problcmatized in slave narratives du e to thc nccd to counteract the «oflicial» version of slavcry prcscnted from a white standpoint. Sla ve narrators opposc it hy depicting «true» rendcrings of thc slavc systcm th at ex pose cruelty and hrutality as its real conscqucnc es . so they continually cmphasizc thcir position as «truth-tellers». As Andrcws puts it, onc of the main propositions uf sl avc narrativcs was «that t he black narrator was, despitc a li prejuclicc and propaganda, a truth-teller, a reliable transcriber ol' the ex.pericnce ancl character of black folk» ( 1 ). Ve racity b cc omes thus a kcy elemcnt to persuade the white audience of the authenticity of thc narrativc, and. consequently, of the nccessity to abolish such dcgraded and corrupted system. 3. Thc so-called «plantation mystíquc» consists mainly of an i<lealized portrayal of plantati on lifc, in which slaves are depicted as stercotypical charactcrs living happi ly with thcir mast er. who,as a good fathe r, takes care of his «chil<lren». This idyllic picture becomes intrinsica lly related to the racist i <leo logy of the period that defends slavery as thc natural state of he ing for African slaves. To cite a fcw examples, Thomas Di xon's two novels with very illustrative titles Th e Le opar d 's SjJo!s: ¡\ Romance afth e White Man 's Burden (1 903) and The C/ansm an (1905 ). Re11-riting Historv: The Sluve '.1· Poi11t o(View in The Life of Olaudah Equiano 143 (52). ln order to make bis narrative acceptable for bis intended audience, Equiano has to create bonds with his readers that allow for the idcntification needed to win them over to the abolitionist sidc. Hence he is forced to adopt the value system upbeld by tbis readersbip, but such choice on his part generales an importan! difficulty Lhat Byerman points out, acknowledging that a slave narrator needs to account for «How had he managed to avoid the brutalizing effects of thc system and to adopt so successfully the values of his audience'?» (70). TI1e answer to this essential question leads to the particular stance that Ec.¡uiano as a narrator employs, a dual position that acquiesces in thc values held by the intendcd audience, while sirnultaneously exposing the conlradictions of the slave system, fümly denouncing and condemning its ongoing practice. This position is the product of an inner conflict that has been rightly defined as «double consciousness»,4 that asserts yet criticises the value system of his readers. As a result, Equiano necessarily partakes of what the critic Chinosole calls a paradox: The individual most cndagcred by loss of critica) acumen toward the dominan! ideology, becausc of tbe intimacy and vulnerability of a privileged position, is the vcry one who can use that position to advantage and strike a telling blow. (50) According to Chinosole, slave naITators possess a «privileged position» insofar as their socio-economic position allows them to write at that time. which means th at they have to pay «sorne degree of mental colonization» (50). Obviously, adopting the white value system implies sorne kind of mental colonization, but working from within that white value system grants Equiano the chance to convey his abolitionist input, counteracting and discrediting contrary pro-slavery claims. Therefore, Equiano appropriates white idcology to fit his personal needs, subve11ing and reinterpreting it. To achievc his ends, Equiano uses different stralegies and disguises that, thanks to bis dual point of view, can be easily related to th e trickster's or picaro's standpoint. Many critics have commcnted on the «natural fit for picaresque» (Hedin 633) of sla ve na1rntors that could be perfectly applied to Equiano.5 Evidently, being, as Gates 4. Coming from W. E. B. DuBois' famous concept of douhle consciousness dclineatcd in The Souls ofB/ack Folk ( 1903).il hasically stands for the wan·ing sides of cach A frican American: his/her Africanness and Americanncss, and the possihle reconciliation of thcse two halvcs into a unity. In the case of slave narrators thcir double consciousness is inherent to their litcrary cndcavor:to identify with their white readers. yet to be a ble to criticise theír conception of the world and of the pair race/idcntity wíth rclalion to slavery. S. See. for examplc. Henry Louis Gates. "Binary Oppositions in Chaptcr Onc of 'Narrat iv c of thc Life of F rederick Douglass. Writtcn hy Himself,, in Afro-Amaicun Litera/u re, cd. Dextcr Fishcr and Rohert Stepto (NcwYork: Modcrn Langua ge Association of America. 19 79: 212-232); Raymond Hedin. «The American Slavc Narrative: The Justification of the Pícaro» in American Literature 53.4 (January 198 2: 630-645) or Stcfanía Píccinato. «The Slave Narratíve and the Picarcsquc Novel» in The B/ack Columbiad, cd. Wcrner Sollors and Maria Dícdrich (Cambridge: Harvard Univcrsity Press, 1994: 88-98). 144 Maria del Mar Gall ego port ra ys him. a «sel f-co ns cious writer» (Sig11ifvi11 g 158). hi s adopti on of a do u ble position is <lic tated by the need to «wear a mask» in front of hi s audience in or der to maintain i nt cr cst in his narrative and to fur the r his aholitio ni st vicw. Otherwise, an y mistake on his pat1 « Cou ld alienate the very audience t hat he needed if he w ere to acco mp lish his goal» ( Samue ls 64). To avoid the <lan ger of losin g thc very au<lience he is trying to rcach.he must suit ali thc rcquircments a n<l limitations impose<l upon slave narrators by thc value system of this same intended audience. Th e only way out of the <lichotomy hetween pl ea s ing bis audicncc and b ei ng true to history an<l to hims clf is thc use of ccr ta in rhetorical strategies that lay stress on hoth c on ventionality toge ther with ncw approaches and insights. Owing to Equiano 's cmployment of such <lifferent rh eto rical strategics, his namttive coul<l he characterized as clefinitely rcader-oriented with a twist. as it were. That is to say. Equiano makes use of rhetorical tools with a twofol cl oh j ec tive: to wi n his a u<l icnce \ favor in his hattle against s la vcry by mean~ of conventional devices . while conveying a qu ite unconventional message about African Americans and their iclcntity. Hcnce, wi thin this framework of conventions. Equiano is capab le of making a very personal statement about his position towards whitc ideology. auacking it w hile ~ ccmingly agrccing with it. At the end of the a na lysis Equiano ·s subversive critique will he clearer. especially wi th rek rcncc to two fundamental issues: the co n ccp ts of whitc civili za tion ami white religion. which wi ll prompt a final re fle ction on the nature of the slave's point of víew as far as history i~ conccmcd. Starting with the rc ade roricntcd str.itcgics now. they can he divided in two main gr ou ps: firstl y. conv entiona l authenticati on devices. such as thc inclusion of picturcs. prefaces. documents of ali kinds (legal documcnts. letters to authorities. etc ... ). Secondly. he also takes advantage o f' conventional ways of tell in g his story. which includes the traditi on of thc so -ca lled «adventure novel». to gc th cr with continuous a ddr csses to the reader. Takíng up thc first se t of conventions. the authentication ones. the first page of th e hook op ens wi th Equíano's portrait , which is a cl assic ins tance of these au thcntication tcch niques.6 The imp or tance of this picturc lies in the fact that it acknowle dges hoth hi s race and his existence as au actual human hcing. As the editor of the volume affirms: "ª signed engraving of the black au thor holding an open texl (the Biblc)» ( l) is one of the «St rategi es of self-represenlation» cffectively used by Equiano in his narrative. In the portrnit Equia no ·s holding the Bible also relat es him from the outsct with the key ideas of literacy and religion that are to play a de cisive role in the re ader 's acceptance of his autobiography. So. ri ght from the beginning of the narrativc, Equiano seems to be quite aware of the importance of the co ncepts of idcntity a nd veracity th at a ctu ally be co me the target of poss i ble char ge s a white readershíp can attach to his narrative. Actually, th ese char ges are dealt with in the very pr eface of the work, which reve al s itself as a suitable mean s of authcntication too, beca u se it recounts in greut 6. foor a full t kvclo pmcm nf authcnti ca tion co nvcntions in slavc narrati ve s,see Roben Stepto 's lirst drnptcr o l' Fro111 Bchi nd the Veil (lJrhana: U ni versity of lllinois Pr css. 19 91 ). Rell'riti11¡; Historv: The Slave 's Poi111 ofVie\\' in The Life of Olaudah Equiano 145 dctaíl the white reaction to the publication of the murntive. Basically, this response was two-sided: on the one hand, ít produced the desírable «degree of humane feeling in men's minds» (5), confírmíng t he success of the narrative's intentionality to make the reader ide ntify with the narrator in order to contribute to his antislavery propaganda. On the other, though, it recalls thc persecution to which the author is subjected. which takcs severa! forms that are very telling, continually taking to t he forefront the cruc ial ideas of identity and veracity: In the first place, «they tried to asperse bis character, by representing him as an impostor; and to invalidate his testimony, by accusing him of w il ful fal sehoods. Thcy carried the violencc of their passions to such a height as to assert that he was not a native of Africa» (5-6). So the first charge is that of falsehood, of basing bis tale on a complete lie, bccause his very existence is suspected. The pict ur e that opens the narrative tr ies to answer to this accusation, with thc hclp of the dedication. in whi ch Equiano calls his autobiography a «genuine narrative» (3 ), based on only true facts rcgarding his own li fe. In this way the author is proposing his version of history as a truthful one, aligni ng himself with the rest of slave narrators in their pursuit of truth. Secondly, Lhe author's account of bis African origins is also doubtcd on the basis of the impossihility of recalling so vividly a land that the author was forced lo leave at a very young age. Behind these apparently natural misgivings about such a dctailcd account. there seems to lie a ccrtain resistance to believe any of it on thc part of a wh ite audience who has a very different idea of what Africa is like. Nevertheless, Equiano·s own op inion about it differs comple tcly. because, as the ed itor confirms, he tries to give a «believable account of cultural life among the Igbo peoples of what is now eastern Nigeria» (XVI). Howcvcr. this last statement may soun<l contradictory due to thc fact that Equiano is using a white authrn"s desc1iption of Africa as ma in source. Anthony Benezct's in Smne Historica/ Accoun.t (Jf Guinea, published in 1789. Basically he uses this background infonnation to infuse his story with a matter-of-fact tone. that gives weight to bis «family authentication» method, because. as Twagilimana justifies. «he wants to givc authority and legitimacy to his nanative» <52). The interest ing aspect of his appropriation of Bczcnet's text lies in his i<lyllic depiction of Africa. markcdly opposing the «white» description of the same reality. So this is onJy one instance ofEq ui ano's method oftransforming history according to l1is own personal needs in the narration, thus creating a new reality. Thirdly, Equiano is charge<l with supcrstitio n, because of th e recurren! employment of the fate motif in bis narrative. Actually he seems to be quite dependent on fate, which rules his lifc, as he himself occasionally admits: «but thinking. as usual. it was no use to munnur at the decr ees of fate, I submitt ed without repining, and wc went to St. Eustatia» (98). However, bis idea of fate seems to be intimately linked to his co ncept of God, because he is ready to acknowledge his divine powcr over ali things. When confr on ted with superstilious prac ti ces by other slaves, he affirms: «Let us again face t he winds ami seas, and swear not, but trust to God, and he will deliver us» ( 117). With this unconditional trust in God , he definitely establishes himself as a Christian in the eyes of his white readers that can thus feel sorne kind of connec ti on with him. He introduces the conccpt of a Christian African American whic h caJls considerahly into question the audience 's previous prcjudices and be liefs. Religion 146 María del Mar Gallego serves Equiano' s purposes, since it compromises any adhercnce that is not founded on what critics name «true Christianity».7 Lastly, his literacy is also attacked: «it is not im probable that sorne English writer has assistcd him in the compilement, or at leas!, the correction of his book, for it is sufficiently well-written» (8). To this Equiano answers with the narrative itself, which becomes the ultimate proof of his literacy. Also in bis dedication he acknowlcdges his authorship in the following way: «I am sensible l ought to entreat your pardon for addressing to you a work so wholly devoid of literary merit; but, as thc production of an unlettered African ... » (3). Thus, by means of another convenlional strategy, that of the lack of «literary merit» of the book, the author is pointing out at his ownership of the narrative and also at his subsequent litcracy. This last allegation serves to establish the author's literacy as his own means of selfempowerment and self-representation, without thc need for externa! aid. Equiano is in this way proclaiming himself as an independent entity capable of undertaking the control of the narrative. Thcrefore, lhe basic imputations Lhat the preface shows havc to do with the author·s own identity, his literacy and his doubtful adherence to true facts. In one word, his story is suspected on the basis of being untrue. of not being an acccp tab le version of history. Obviously Equiano's account remodels history because it introduces new parameters that did not exist befare. especially the existcnce of a uniquc African Ame1ican idcntity which can be, ncverthcless, so close to the dominant ideology: Christian and literale. To su pport his outlook, apart from the conventions abovc mentioned. Equiano includes ali kinds of documents as authentication devices. These documenls can be classificd in three main categories: legal documents. letters and biblical quotations. The legal documents establish once more the reality of his own existence and the truthfulness of his account. Among these documents, the manumission form is a good cxamplc (Appendix AJ, due to the fact that thc actual circumstances of his freedom are described in gr eat det ail, granting him «all right, title, dominion, sovereignt y, and property» ( 179). This document setting him free accomplishes the purpose of Jegally declaring his free status and invoking the figures of his latter mast er Robert King and of the Rcgister Ten-y Legay, two white men, as his direct witness es . Morcover, his freedom underlines once more his spccial social status, setting Equiano aparl from the other slaves, but, at the sarne t im e. implying Equia no 's rightful belonging to the free comrnunity, that is, Equiano becomes one other member of the white group to whom he is addressing his naJTative. Wi th regards to th e letters, they range from the so-called «Certificat es of behaviour» written by his different masters to lcttcrs written by himself. Dealing with thc first ones, their main function is again to testify to his actual exislence and, ve 1y 7. As Buttcrfield right ly observes. slave narrators are «Ca rcful to distinguish between 'true' Christianity and thc rcligion used by their maslers lo juslil"y thc slavc systcm and teach the m obedicnce» (1 5). Thus religion hecomes a wcapon in lhc slavc narrators' hands to allack th c wh itc val uc systcm from within. Rewriting Historv: The Slaw 's Point ofView in The Life of Olaudah Equiano 147 significantly, to his exemplary behaviour: « ... he has behaved himself well, and discharged his duty with honesty and assiduity» (121). Another master, Charles Irvin, insists on this characteristic by recommending him as «perfectly trustworthy» (159). Here the emphasis is placed on his honesty as a distinctive trait of his character, which can be also applied to his narrativc by extcnsion. The second set of letters, !hose written by Equiano himself, perform a very specific function: to confirm the author' s literacy by bringing in severa! situations, in which the character shows his mastery of the writing skills: from a letter of thanks to lhe Quakers to another addressed to the Queen demanding the abolition of the slave systcm. The very richness and variety of his vocabulary recall a cultivated man, who, as he himself repeatedly admits, «Speaks too good English» for a slave and writes it too, as his narrative manifests. Once more literacy symbolises the path chosen by the ex-slave to disclose his ability to represent himse lf and change othcr existing versions of history. Finally, the Bible appears right from the picture of himself that opens the book as an important source of authentication. By representing himself while holding it, he ties himself to a long tradition of Christians who consider the Bible their means of self -empowerment. Besides, through the consistent strategy of quoting from it at different stratcgic poinls in the narration, Equiano proves both his literacy and his intimate union with the Christian beliefs that illuminate his life, therefore identifying himself with the Christian majority of his readers. His profound faith is stressed from the very quotation that precedes his narrative which is very significant: «Behold, God is my salvation; l will trust, and not be afraid: for the Lord Jehovah is my strength and my song; he also is become my salvation» (2). The cho ice of this passage for the opcning is quite appropriate, since it already marks the importance of the Christian religion as Equiano's «salvation»: by means of his constant references to it,Equiano is actually bridging lhe gap between his audience and himself and, consequently, rcligion becomes the most effective way to promote bis abolitionist ideal. Togethcr with these authentication methods, the autobiography relies on other strategies related to the interna! structure of the narrative, that is to say, thc way in which the narrative unfolds itself, which can be also dcfined as conventional devices, such as thc «adventure novel» tradition and the direct address to the reader. Both strategies are also reader-oriented due to the fact that they try to approach the reader from different angles, finding new devices to suit bis/h er expectations and demands. Whereas the adventure tradition is employed in disguise as it were, since Equiano systematically reverses sorne of its basic features; the constant address to the reader calls attention to the na rr ator's awareness of his readers' crucial role in sccuring his goals. In the first case, the tradition of the so-called «adventure novel», a very fashionable gcnre at the time with classic r ep resentatives like Swift's Gulliver's Tmvels, serves as one of thc main literary frameworks for the narrative. In this sense, th e author is consciously lifting from a well-known tradition for th e reader, the adventure tale, in order to create a common dis course universe with his white audience and then subvert it. By reversing sorne of the patterns the reader is familiar with, thc author is capable of pinpointing at significant aspects and make them stand out from the rest. 148 María del Mar Gallego One of these patterns concerns the narrativc struc ture itself. This traditi on dictates the structuring of the book into different chapters according to the different situations that are to be developcd. Each chapter is hcaded by a brief sununary, in which the main facts concerning those situations are given. The selection of these main facts is, huwever, clearly endowed with a sensc uf thc message the author wants to convey. Due to this desire, an apparent objective summary combines mere facts with such things as feelings, convictions, be li efs, etc ... For example, the heading of chapt er V Il talks about «the author's disgust at the West Indies», «Applies to his master, who accepts it, and grants his manumission. to h is great joy» or «Impositions on free ne groes as usual» (96). As a whole, these headings become a sort of naffative of thcir own, which shares thc same kind of purpose with the actual naffation of events: to arise the reader's sympathetic feelings for the author's cause. Another feature of the adventure genre which is reverscd in Equiano's slory is the idea of the protagonistas a conventional hero. This pattern is explicitly rejccted by the narrator himself in the following passage: «I own 1 offer here the history of neith er a saint, a hero. nora tyrant» (11 ). Despite this blunt refusal. the character of his tale is purtrayed with hcroic ovcrtoncs on many occasions, for examp le when, due to the ca ptain · s neglig.ence, they are about to drown but his efforts sa ve ma n y mcn · s livcs: «Thcre werc only four people that would work with me at the oars ... But had we not worked in this manner. I really helieve the peo pk could not havc bcen saved» (111). Again this is another illustration of the way in wh ich Equiano revises white history in th is passage because the four people were ali colored pcople, so they become the true saviours and heroes of the story. and not the whites. The narration of the variety of trials and suffcrings that he endures as a slave and. later. as a free man, also seem to support this heroic quality of bis character. In spitc of this tcndcncy. the author continually insists on his unheroic hehaviour. on his lack of vanity or personal aspirations to praise in writing his autobiography: «I am not so foolishly vain as to expect from it either imm ortality or li terary reputation» (12). The character's natural benl towards heroism is thcn limited by thc narrator's need to appear humble in the eyes of a white audience. who would not accepl him otherwise. Thus the reversa! of the conventional mude of adventure telling is adapted to the autobiography as another way of authenticating it for the white readership 's benefit. The final narrative strate gy used by Equiano is t he most direc tl y related to his white audiencc. bccause it actually consists uf t he continuous address to it through out his narration. Sometimes this address takes the form of long paragraphs fi lled with rhetorical questions, in which the author specifi es his main points: «Does not sla very itself depress the mind, and exting ui sh ali its fire. a nd every noble sentime nt ? ... « (24 ). These passages are the best sa mples of abo li tionist ideas in the hook. Otber times, they are made up of small refercnces to thc reader 's acknowledged presence: «l therefore hasten to the conclusi on of a narrative, which I fear the reader may think already sufficiently tedious» (167). Anyway, what is telling is the fact that the auth or is always aware of the presence of a specific type of readership to which his narrative is directed. Re l\'riting Hi scon: The S/ai·e 's Po in1 o/View in Thc Lifc of Olaudah Equiano 149 So far ali the different strategies above mentioned seem to take into account the reader in a very conscious way as the main target for the diffusion of the abolitionist creed. This awareness is then thc basic guideline Equiano adopts both for the externa! and intemal configuration of his nanation. Yet, beneath this main purpose there seem to be sorne undercmrents that un veil an altc red image of the narrator, that of the picaro who, due to his doub le vision, is especially keen on criticising and de bunking some importan\ concept s and myths such as white civilization, the di stinction between white and black ways of life and cultures and the reality of the C hri stian religion. These new approaches cons titute the basic foundations of Equiano's reconstruc ti on and rewriting of history from a definite perspective that is intrinsically African American. and therefore ch allenges any white definitions or interpretations. As far as white civilization and the divergences found when comparing white wi th black cultures, there seems to be a contradictory sta tement on the author' s part: on the one hand, due to the presence of a white audience, he feels almost obliged to bow to it by acknowledging its superiority with respect to him and th e other members of the black race: «I not only felt myself quite easy with these new countrymen, but relished their society and their manners. l no longer Jooked upan them as spirits, but as men superior to us; and therefore I had the stronger desire to resemble them» (51 ). This hum ble attitude contrasts strikingly with the account he gives of hi s African life, in which he takes pains in representing its good qualities. The Igbo pcoplc are depicted as a model civilization, very virtuous people, who maintain the truth as their point of refercnce and are very clean and civilized: «We aie almost a nation of dancers, musicians and poets» (14). Another basic trait is their religious affiliation. wh ic h is equated to that of the Jews in all the imponant facts: belief in one god, circumcision, ablutions, rituals,etc ... Their society is based on IO\le, family and tradition. Even if slavery exists among them, it is a very mild sort of slavery when compared to what goes on in apparently «civilized >> countries. This idcalized picture of Africa n culture obviously counteracts racist opinions and questions the very essence of civilization, since th e «civilized» whites are allowing for the cont in uation of the cruel and grirn s!ave system that violates any «civilized» conception of the world. The sa me can be applied to other black ch ara cter s who, as a whole, are represented as being capable of humane feelings, of actual caring for others a nd, even, of bravery when necessary, opposing thus the brutal white characters. The episode recalled abo ve when Equiano sa ves the crew a board the ship is also very revealing in this case: the four people that helped him wcre, significantly enough, «three black men, and a Dutch Creolc sa ilor» while «not one of the white men did any thing to preserve their lives. Jndeed they got so drunk they were not able» (111 ). A striking contrast is presented between the «good» black characte rs who are williug to risk their liv es to save the others and the «bad» white men that are either too ine ffi cient or too cruel and selfish to help other fellowmen in need. Again what Equiano is foregrounding here is tbe need to redefine the traditional conception of the hero to include brave African American men who actually dcserve to be ranked as such.