Gestión de proyectos en la cuarta revolución industrial. Proyecto de producción de cerveza

UNIVERSIDAD DE VALLADOLID ESCUELA DE INGENIERIAS INDUSTRIALES Grado en Ingeniería de Organización Industrial Gestión de Proyectos en la Cuarta Revolución Industrial. Proyecto de producción de cerveza. Autor: Rodríguez Martínez, María Estefanía Responsable de Intercambio en la Uva: Ángel Manuel Gento Municio Universidad de destino Hochschule Albstadt-Sigmaringen Valladolid, Julio 2021. TFG REALIZADO EN PROGRAMA DE INTERCAMBIO TÍTULO: Project Management in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Beer production project. ALUMNO: María Estefanía Rodríguez Martínez FECHA: 28 de Julio de 2021 CENTRO: Hochschule Albstadt-Sigmaringen UNIVERSIDAD: Hochschule Albstadt-Sigmaringen TUTOR: Bernd Stauß Faculty of Engineering Course of Study Business Administration and Engineering TOPIC Project Management in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Beer production project. Bachelor - Thesis Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the academical degree Bachelor of Science Submitted in the spring semester 2021 on 20.07.2021 Inquiries about this publication should be addressed to María Estefanía Rodríguez Martínez Student number: 91794 PostraBe 22/2 72458 Albstadt Business Engineering and Administration Semester 7 E-Mail: [email protected] Supervisor/Examiner: Prof. Dr. Bernd Stauß, University of Albstadt-Sigmaringen Examiner: Prof. Dr. Derk Rembold, University of Albstadt-Sigmaringen ABSTRACT AND KEYWORDS II ABSTRACT El objetivo de este documento es encontrar soluciones a los problemas de gestión de proyectos que surgen como consecuencia de la cuarta revolución industrial, que está cambiando la industria tal y como la conocemos y nos sitúa en un punto crítico de adaptación a una nueva realidad que traerá consigo grandes oportunidades y también grandes riesgos. Además, la gestión de los nuevos proyectos 4.0 supondrá un reto de comunicación entre expertos en tecnologías y lenguajes informáticos muy diferentes, por lo que este documento destaca los elementos a tener en cuenta en la revolución tecnológica y estudia cómo gestionar un proyecto en una Smart factory. The aim of this document is to find solutions to the project management problems that arise as a result of the fourth industrial revolution, which is changing industry as we know it and places us at a critical point of adaptation to a new reality that will bring great opportunities as well as great risks. In addition, the management of new 4.0 projects will pose a challenge for communication between experts in very different technologies and computer languages, which is why this document highlights the elements to be taken into account in the technological revolution and studies how to manage a project in a Smart factory. KEYWORDS Cuarta revolución industrial, gestión de proyectos, Smart Factory, metodologías de gestión de proyectos. Fourth industrial revolution, project management, Smart Factory, Project management methodologies. Table of Contents III TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... II KEYWORDS ................................................................................................................... II LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ VII LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ IX ACADEMIC HONESTY DECLARATION .................................................................. XI INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ XIII 1 THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ...................................................... 1 HISTORICAL CONTEX ................................................................................. 1 FOURT INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ......................................................... 3 1.2.1 WHAT IS THE FOURT INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ........................... 3 1.2.2 FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION TECHNOLOGIES ................... 6 ▪ INTERNET OF THINGS ............................................................................. 7 ▪ ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING ............. 12 ▪ BIG DATA AND CLOUD COMPUTING ................................................ 13 ▪ BLOCK CHAIN ......................................................................................... 15 ▪ AUTONOMOUS CARS ............................................................................ 16 ▪ 3D PRINTING ............................................................................................ 16 ▪ ADVANCED ROBOTICS ......................................................................... 17 ▪ NEW MATERIALS ................................................................................... 17 1.2.3 IMPACT AND CHALLENGES ................................................................ 18 2 PROJECT MANAGEMENT ................................................................................. 23 PROJECT CONCEPT .................................................................................... 23 2.1.1 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROCESS, PROJECT AND PROGRAMME 23 PROJECT MANAGEMENT ......................................................................... 24 Table of Contents IV 2.2.1 PROJECT MANAGEMENT CONTEXT .................................................. 25 2.2.2 PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES .................................. 26 3 METHODOLOGIES COMPARISON ................................................................... 49 WHEN THE METHODOLOGIES SHOULD, OR SHOULD NOT, BE USED 50 3.1.1 Traditional Methodologies ......................................................................... 50 ▪ WATERFALL ............................................................................................ 50 ▪ PRINCE2: ................................................................................................... 51 ▪ PMBOK ...................................................................................................... 52 3.1.2 Agile Methodologies .................................................................................. 53 ▪ SCRUM ...................................................................................................... 54 ▪ KANBAN ................................................................................................... 55 ▪ LEAN ......................................................................................................... 56 ▪ XP ............................................................................................................... 57 ▪ OTHER METHODOLOGIES .................................................................... 57 COMPARISON BETWEEN METHODOLOGIES ....................................... 59 3.2.1 AGILE VS TRADITIONAL ...................................................................... 59 3.2.2 TRADITIONAL: WATERFALL VS PMBOK ......................................... 63 3.2.3 AGILE ........................................................................................................ 63 ▪ SCRUM VS KANBAN .............................................................................. 63 ▪ XP VS SCRUM .......................................................................................... 65 ▪ SIMILARITIES BETWEEN ...................................................................... 65 HYBRID METHODOLOGIES ...................................................................... 66 4 BEER PROJECT 4.0 .............................................................................................. 69 PROJECT CONTEXT .................................................................................... 69 4.1.1 PARTICIPANTS ........................................................................................ 69 Table of Contents V 4.1.2 PROJECT MANAGEMENT ..................................................................... 70 METHODOLOGIES FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF 4.0 PROJECTS APPLICABLE TO THIS PROJECT. ......................................................................... 76 4.2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION PROJECTS ............................................................................................................. 76 ▪ PRESSURE ON PROJECT DEVELOPMENT TIMES ............................ 76 ▪ BUSINESS MODEL ORIENTATION ...................................................... 76 ▪ INTER-RELATION BETWEEN FIRMS: COOPERATING IN A NETWORK ........................................................................................................ 77 4.2.2 PROJECT OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION ARE COMPLEX IN NATURE ........................................................................................................... 78 PROBLEM SOLUTION ................................................................................ 78 4.3.1 JUSTIFICATION OF THE METHODOLOGY ........................................ 78 4.3.2 CONCLUSION OF THE METHODOLOGY TO BE USED ................... 82 5 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 86 6 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 87 VI List of tables VII LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Fourth Industrial Revolution Technologies. Source: (Klaus Schwab, 2016). .... 6 Table 2. Classification of project management methodologies. Source: (Matovic, 2020) ........................................................................................................................................ 26 Table 3. PRINCE Organisation Source: (AXELOS, 2017)............................................ 32 Table 4. PM2 project phases. Source: (European Union, 2021) ..................................... 34 Table 5. Areas of waterfall methodology. Source: Own made following (Bhavsar, 2021; Infinity, 2021 Alshamrani & Bahattab, 2015; Andrei et al., 2019; Balaji & Murugaiyan, 2012; Haworth, 2021; Morton, 2011) ............................................................................. 36 Table 6. Waterfall requirements. Source: Own made (Azanha et al., 2017; Aston, 2021; Monday, 2019; Team Work, 2021) ................................................................................ 51 Table 7. PRINCE2 requirements. Source: Own made ( Azanha et al., 2017; Aston, 2021; Monday, 2019; Team Work, 2021) ................................................................................ 52 Table 8. PMBOK requirements. Source: Own made (Azanha et al., 2017; Aston, 2021; Monday, 2019; Team Work, 2021) ................................................................................ 52 Table 9. SCRUM requirements. Source: (Aston, 2021; Azanha et al., 2017; Monday, 2019; Team Work, 2021)................................................................................................ 55 Table 10. KANBAN requirements. Source: (Aston, 2021; Azanha et al., 2017; Monday, 2019; Team Work, 2021)................................................................................................ 56 Table 11. Differences between agile and traditional project management approaches. Source: (Shenhar & Dvir, 2007) ..................................................................................... 59 Table 12. Traditional vs Agile project Management. Source: Own made. (Azanha et al., 2017; Haworth, 2021; Layton et al., 2020; Matovic, 2020; Shaydulin & Sybrandt, 2017; Špundak, 2014) ............................................................................................................... 60 Table 13. Differences between agile and traditional software project management. Source: (Hoda et al., 2010) ............................................................................................. 61 Table 14. Comparison between XP ans SCRUM. Source: (Kniberg, 2007) .................. 65 Table 15. Beer production project. Deficits and Improvements. Source: AlbstadtSigmaringen University. ................................................................................................. 69 Table 16. Situtation A project beer porduction. Source: selfmade. ................................ 73 Table 17. Situation B project beer production. Source: self-made. ................................ 74 INTRODUCTION XIV At the University of Albstadt Sigmaringen, a beer production project is being carried out with the aim of improving the quality of beer production and to be a leader in innovation. To this end, the production process is based on Industry 4.0 technology and thus simulates a smart factory. Due to the technical nature of the project and the participation of students from different specialities, we are faced with the aforementioned problem that arises in projects of the fourth industrial revolution: communication between experts in different technologies. The aim of this document is to study the possible solutions to the problems that arise in the management of this project and the elements to be taken into consideration for projects in the fourth industrial revolution. To do this, the fourth industrial revolution will be studied, the factors that have led us to it and the technologies that make it up, not only at an industrial level, but also in the different fields it covers. Afterwards, project management and the existing methodologies used to manage projects will be presented. Subsequently, these methodologies will be compared in order to know when they should or should not be used. And finally, all the knowledge obtained will be applied to the search for the best solutions for the project in a Smart factory. The document will be structured as follows: in the first chapter we will go into the fourth industrial revolution in depth, in the second chapter we will study project management and its methodologies, and then in the third chapter we will focus on comparing them, so that in the fourth chapter, focused on the beer production project, we can provide solutions based on what has been analysed, and finally, we will present the conclusion of the work. THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 1 1 THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION HISTORICAL CONTEX The industrial revolutions that began in the mid-18th century led to the mechanisation of industries and the replacement of human labour and have evolved into what is now known as the fourth industrial revolution. Before delving into this last revolution, we need to know the background that has led us to where we are today. In the following it fist has to be specified what is meant by the industrial revolution. There are many definitions for this term. David Landes, professor, economist and historian at Harvard, Columbia and Berkeley universities, details that there are at least three meanings to this term. The first definition refers to technological innovations that promote a shift away from artisanal production to factory production, replacing human skill with machinery and animal power with plant-based source energy. The second definition is used to point out an important technological change at some historical point in time or as a result of innovative techniques. And finally, the third definition refers specifically to the period in the 18th century, beginning in England and spreading unevenly across continental Europe, which brought about socio-economic change as a result of mechanisation and industrialisation. (Landes & Antolín Fargas, DL 1979) Therefore, we could determine that an industrial revolution is a process of change, caused by a reallocation of power and wealth between groups and individuals, based on new technological possibilities and bringing with it strong social changes and a redistribution of economic wealth. In short, it is about changes in three fields: technology, wealth and society, which are intertwined over time and build on each other, leading to a situation that is so different from the initial one that it justifies the use of the term "revolution". (Silva et al., 2019) A better understanding of the term Industrial Revolution leads to the assumption that the revolutions have taken place throughout history when new technologies and novel ways THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 2 of perceiving the world trigger a profound change in economic systems and social structures. The revolution represents a radical turning point, changing and influencing all aspects of life. (Klaus Schwab, 2016, pp. 6–7) The Agricultural Revolution led to an increase in food surplus and quality, stimulating economic and population growth. The introduction of mechanised farming systems generated a surplus of agricultural labour, which was later converted into industrial labour, leading to the migration of the working class, resulting in urbanisation and the emergence of cities. This factor was one of the fundamental pillars for the first industrial revolution. The first industrial Revolution spanned from about 1760 to around 1840, originated in England. This revolution was driven by the construction of the railway and the advent of the steam engine. The latter, led and enabled production to be mechanized for the first time, marking the beginning of the mechanical production, and further driving social change. The second industrial revolution, which took place between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, spread to other countries such as France, Germany, Belgium, Japan and the United States. Technological and scientific innovations and the advent of new energy sources such as oil and electricity made mass production and the development of the assembly line possible. Production management was improved, production times were reduced, and the quantity of products manufactured at lower prices increased. In addition, the development of means of transport led to the globalisation of the market. The third industrial revolution, beginning in the 1950s, led to the increasing automation of manufacturing and the disruption of industries. In 2007, Jeremy Rifkin, sociologist and advisor to the European Commission and Parliament, established in his book “The Third Industrial Revolution: How Lateral Power is Transforming Energy, the Economy and the World” the concept of the third Industrial Revolution, which was approved by the European Commission (Rifkin, 2011). But was in 1996 when Jeremy Rifkin, states in his book “The end of work” that: “We are indeed experiencing a great moment of historical transformation towards this third industrial revolution, and we are inexorably heading towards a world of near worklessness. The software and hardware already in place are enabling a rapid transition to a silicon-based civilisation. The unresolved question is how THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 3 many human beings will be left in the path of the industrial transformation and what the final world on the other side will look like”. (Rifkin, 1996). FOURT INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION In this section, the concept of the fourth industrial revolution it will be described in depth, followed by a study of the technologies that comprise it and, finally, an analysis of the most important projects that are being developed. 1.2.1 WHAT IS THE FOURT INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The first thing to note is that there is yet no single globally accepted definition to refer to and describe this revolution. This is reflected in the number of completely homologous meanings that exist. One of the best known is the German term "Industry 4.0" but it is not the only one. Some of the most commonly used terms are "Digital Factory", "Digital Manufacturing", "Smart Factory", "Networked Factory", "Integrated Industry", "Digital Revolution", "Production 4.0", "Human-Machine Cooperation", in the United States it is known as "Industrial Internet" or "Advanced Manufacturing", in the European Commission as "Factories of the Future" and in the United Kingdom as "The Future of Manufacturing". (Büchi et al., 2020) 1.2.1.1 HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The term Fourth Industrial Revolution was first used by Klaus Schwab at the 2016 World Economic Forum, referring to the historic event we are currently experiencing. However, the use of the concept "the fourth industrial revolution" is not new. It was first introduced in 1988 (Rostow, 1988) to identify the processes of transformation and evolution of inventions into innovations by scientists involved in production teams. From then on, the term became associated with the development and application in nanotechnologies. From then on, the term became associated with the development and application in nanotechnologies. (Parthasarathi & Thilagavathi, 2011, pp. 392–398) until 2016, when THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 4 Klaus Schwab used it again, but this time to relate it to Industry 4.0 and the technological revolution we are experiencing. On the other hand, the Industry 4.0 concept emerged in 2011 in Germany due to the German industrial plan "Industrie 4.0". (Kagermann et al., 2013, pp. 1–84) whose aim was to promote the advancement of manufacturing. In 2013 the German government published the document 'Recommendations for implementing the strategic initiative Industrie 4.0' by ACATECH 2013 (Kagermann et al., 2013) causing a worldwide impact that triggered the development of similar strategies in other countries. (Kagermann et al., 2013)(Kagermann et al., 2013) 1.2.1.2 THE FOURTH INDUTRIAL REVOLUTION OR INDUSTRY 4.0 The fourth industrial revolution, or Industry 4.0, is globally associated with the industrial environment. Some authors describe it as a new revolution characterised by the use of cyber-physical systems in the manufacturing environment (Liu & Xu, 2016) the aim of which would be cost-effective mass customised manufacturing with short product life cycles (Veza et al., 2015, pp. 555–560). Moreover, this revolution is characterised by the combination of technological and human capabilities with the aim of improving productivity and wealth in production. Industry 4.0 could even go further and become a manufacturing network in which machines and products interact with each other without human control (Ivanov et al., 2016, pp. 386–402). Erik Brynjolfsson y Andrew McAfee, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), describe it as "the second machine age", 2014, stating that digital technologies manifest themselves especially with industrial automation (Brynjolfsson & McAfee, 2014). Industry 4.0 therefore aims to develop a communication system between production equipment and products based on hyperconnected technology and integrating all production processes (Shao et al., 2019, pp. 1– 12). This revolution, however, is not just about connecting intelligent machines and systems in industries. Its scope is much broader, encompassing technological advances in many different fields such as genetic sequencing, nanotechnology, renewable energies or THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 5 quantum computing. Indeed, it is precisely this fusion and interaction of different technologies across physical, digital and biological domains that makes the fourth industrial revolution fundamentally different from previous ones (Klaus Schwab, 2016, p. 12). Another major difference with previous revolutions is that, thanks to globalisation, the spill-over effect and diffusion of emerging technologies and innovation is much faster and more rapid (Klaus Schwab, 2016, pp. 12–13). The Fourth Industrial Revolution creates a world in which virtual and physical manufacturing systems cooperate with each other in a globally flexible way. Moreover, this revolution is manifesting itself in all aspects of society, including technology, production, consumption and business, and is influencing all areas of human life. (Li et al., 2017, pp. 626–637). Finally, in order to understand why there is no uniform and globally accepted concept to describe this revolution, it is necessary to consider that there is currently a very large number of technologies that make up this revolution, more than 1200 according to (Chiarello et al., 2018, pp. 244–257). In addition, there are many stakeholders - politicians, managers, entrepreneurs, academics and others - each seeking their own benefit and with different needs. And finally, taking into account the speed with which innovations become obsolete nowadays and that there is a wide variety of applications from smart factories, cities, medicine, homes to objects, we can understand why there are so many concepts, meanings, terms, to describe (Büchi et al., 2020, p. 3). All these factors increase the complexity of establishing a common concept, but what we can determine are the common elements that make up Industry 4.0, which are devices, connectivity, appropriate data, good service orientation, automation systems and connections between the physical and virtual world (Harrison et al., 2016, pp. 1046– 1051). THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 6 1.2.2 FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION TECHNOLOGIES In this section, a study is made of the technologies that are shaping this revolution in order to better understand it. The fourth industrial revolution has previously been defined as the fusion of technologies, and their interaction, in physical, digital and biological domains (Klaus Schwab, 2016). Following this description, we will proceed to classify the technologies that characterise this revolution into digital, physical and biological. The following table shows the division of these technologies: The following sections analyse each of these groups, as well as the techniques and technologies of which they are composed. 1.2.2.1 DIGITAL The first technological field presented is Digital. As can be seen in the Table 1 within this section we find the following technological trends: • The Internet of Things (IoT) • Artificial intelligence and machine learning • Big data and cloud computing • Digital platform • Block chain FIELDS TECHNOLOGIES AND EXAMPLES 1. DIGITAL The Internet of Things (IoT) Artificial intelligence and machine learning Big data and cloud computing 2. PHYSICAL Autonomous Cars 3D printing Advanced robotics New Materials 3. BIOLOGICAL Neurotechnology Genetic Engineering Table 1. Fourth Industrial Revolution Technologies. Source: (Klaus Schwab, 2016). THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 7 ▪ INTERNET OF THINGS The term “Internet of Things” was proposed by Kevin Ashton back in 1999 (Ashton, 2009) and he used it to describe the network connecting physical objects in the world to the Internet. However, the idea of being able to connect objects in an intelligent way took root at the end of the 19th century when the first telemetry experiments in history were carried out on Mont Blanc, and later, notable scientists such as Nikola Tesla and Alan Turing continued their research. However, it was not until the end of the 1970s that the first ARPANET network was developed, which became the INTERNET in the mid1990s. Since 1999, when Kevin Ashton used the term IoT, an exponential growth was experienced, a revolution that has led to the popularisation of wireless connectivity, WIFI, and to a moment of evolutionary effervescence within the IoT. According to Eduardo Omar Sosa “IoT is considered as a second wave in the ICT industry after the computer, Internet and mobile networks” (Eduardo Omar Sosa, 2012, p. 28). Indeed, as we have been analysing throughout this paper, we are facing a revolution in which the Internet of Things is the fundamental pillar. Further elaborating on the concept, it could be described as a system composed of physical devices (including embedded devices and digital machines with internet connectivity, humans, sensors, etc.) that have the capability to interact with each other autonomously through the use of the internet, in order to improve everything from people's lives, through a country's economy, to industrial and natural resource efficiency. In its simplest form, it can be described as a relationship between products, services, places, etc. and people, made possible through connected technologies and various platforms. (Klaus Schwab, 2016, p. 22). Currently, the largest volume of interaction with the internet is carried out by humans connecting through their devices. However, in the future this interaction will be carried out by the devices themselves without the need for human supervision. As a result of this evolution and growth, the number of internet-connected devices per person has increased. According to the Cisco Internet Business Group (IBSG, 2011), in 2010 there were 12.5 billion connected devices and 6.8 billion of the world's population had 1.84 connected devices per person. Thus, before 2010 there were more connected THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 8 devices than people. This study predicted that by 2020 there would be a world population of 7.6 billion and 50 billion connected devices at 6.58 connected devices per person. This means that one person would have almost 7 devices connected to the internet. Figure 1. Connected devices per person. Source: (Cisco, 2011) shows the number of connected devices per person. In March 2020 Cisco published the Cisco Annual Internet Report (2018-2023) (Cisco, U. annual internet report, 2020), which states that 66% of the world's population, 5.3 billion people, will have internet access by 2023 Figure 2. In addition, 29.3 billion connections/devices will be connected, which translates into 3.6 per person and almost 10 per household Figure 3. Of those 29.3 billion, 50% will be M2M connections supporting a range of IoT applications, i.e., 14.7 billion devices on a global scale Figure 4. The following images show the data just mentioned. Figure 1. Connected devices per person. Source: (Cisco, 2011) THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 9 Figure 2. Global Internet user growth Source: (Cisco, U. annual internet report, 2020) Figure 3. Global device and connection growth. Source: (Cisco, U. annual internet report, 2020) Figure 4. Global M2M connection growth. Source: (Cisco, U. annual internet report, 2020) THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 16 1.2.2.2 PHYSICAL In this section some examples of the Fourth Industrial physical technologies are presented. • Autonomous Cars • 3D printing • Advanced robotics • New Materials ▪ AUTONOMOUS CARS This technology is still in an experimental phase. Autonomous vehicles interpret data and make decisions, and there is even the possibility of an external higher control taking over the operation of the vehicle in certain circumstances. These vehicles know the mapping, read the signs and interpret the traffic data. By defining the origin and destination of the vehicle, the vehicle chooses the trajectory and executes it. However, there are other autonomous vehicles such as trucks, drones, planes and boats. As technologies such as sensors and artificial intelligence progress, the capabilities of all these autonomous machines will increase at a rapid pace. The problems are associated with several aspects: The vehicle is not able to interpret the reactions of other drivers, which may handicap some of the decisions made. Legislation does not yet recognise the use of autonomous vehicles in a general way, requiring the presence of a driver. In the event of an accident, the responsibilities of each party are not defined, and may affect the owner and/or driver of the vehicle as well as the insurance company or the manufacturer/programmer of the vehicle. Given the potential of a vehicle to cause damage, it is essential to ensure that there is no external control capable of manipulating the vehicle. ▪ 3D PRINTING Additive manufacturing or 3D printing consists of creating a physical object by printing a 3D digital model or design in layers. Until now, subtractive manufacturing was carried out in reverse, removing layers of material until the desired model was obtained. Therefore, 3D printing allows manufacturing companies to print with less material, less tooling, more product customisation, at a lower cost and faster than subtractive THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 17 manufacturing. In addition, this manufacturing has the potential to create very complex models without the need for tools (Klaus Schwab, 2016, p. 147). It is being used in a wide range of applications, from large (wind turbines) to small (medical implants). But the current focus is on automotive, medical and aerospace applications. 3D printing has limitations of size, cost and speed, but as these are overcome, it will be included in other electronic components such as printed circuit boards and even human cells and organs. In addition, researchers are already working on 4D printing that would lead to a new generation of self-modifying products that would respond to environmental changes and could be used to make clothing or footwear, as well as for healthcare as implants designed to fit the human body (Klaus Schwab, 2016). ▪ ADVANCED ROBOTICS Robots have evolved so much that they are increasingly used in all sectors for a wide range of tasks. New technologies are creating more flexible and adaptable robots, which, thanks to the evolution of sensors, are able to better understand their environment and develop responses accordingly. Human-machine collaboration is becoming an evercloser reality and is already taking place in many industries. (Klaus Schwab, 2016) ▪ NEW MATERIALS This technology refers to materials that are light, strong, recyclable and adaptable. Moreover, these new smart materials are capable of self-repairing, cleaning and even returning to their original shape, and could be a breakthrough in the fight against climate change and have a major impact on new forms of manufacturing. (Klaus Schwab, 2016) 1.2.2.3 BIOLOGICAL Biotechnology harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes to develop new technologies and products for a range of uses, including developing new pharmaceuticals and materials. Researchers in Stockholm, for example, are working on what is being touted as the strongest biomaterial ever produced. Secondly, medicine. Robots and high tech can fast track a cure for paralysis. Moreover, 3D x-ray analysis allows scientists to fabricate a piece of living bones ready por implantation in 3 weeks. And being able to use genome editing in order to understand changes that lead cancer bring us closer to find a cure. THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 18 1.2.3 IMPACT AND CHALLENGES “From the perspective of human history, there have never been a time of greater promise or potential peril” –Klaus Schwab. Like its precursors, the fourth revolution is generating both enormous economic potential and fears about the changes it implies. Living through a revolution is not easy, the models of the past are obsolete while the future ones are not fully developed and socially accepted. (Silva et al., 2019, pp. 7–8). Klaus Schwab warned of the situation we find ourselves in at the World Economic Forum, adding that we are currently on the brink of an economic revolution that will impact and change our lives, jobs and even the way we relate to each other. He warned that the scale, scope and complexity of this revolution will result in a transformation unlike anything humanity has experienced before (Klaus Schwab, 2016) Precisely how and when people and societies adopt new patterns of behaviour and thinking will determine, to a large extent, how they will be affected by economic and technological change (Silva et al., 2019) In this section we will study the main repercussions that this revolution will have, both the positive aspects that it will bring and the challenges and negative impacts that could affect us, focusing on three main points: business, the economy and the labour market. 1.2.3.1 COMPANIES One of the biggest benefits of the fourth industrial revolution for businesses will be improved productivity. The basic principle is that companies will be able to create smart grids that will be able to control themselves, along the entire value chain. (Perasso, 2016) The automation of actions will reduce production times, costs and failures, increase workers' safety and allow them to spend their time on actions that really add value. The application of new technologies facilitates data-driven decision making, improves product quality, enables the creation of new products and services of higher quality, making manufacturing more flexible and the flow of information between different departments and stakeholders more efficient. THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 19 However, not everything is positive. According to experts, only those who are able to innovate and adapt will benefit, and as these are recent technologies, they will require a great economic effort that not all companies will be able to afford. Moreover, the cyber risks involved in automating a company mean that cybersecurity must be stepped up, the digital divide and technological dependence and the difficulty of finding people specialised in the new technologies are some of the major challenges that companies will have to face. 1.2.3.2 ECONOMY The fourth revolution has the potential to raise global income levels and improve the quality of life for entire populations (Klaus Schwab, 2016) . Each revolution has led to increased productivity and industrial quality, as well as socio-economic growth for countries. The fourth industrial revolution will add $14.2 trillion over the next few years and intensify globalisation that will positively affect technological impact. (Schäfer, 2018, pp. 5–7). Proof of economic improvement is the increase in GDP after each industrial revolution shown in the figure. Figure 7. GDP after the industrial revolution Source: TEDX On the other hand, it also suggests that it will increase wage inequality and lead to geopolitical clashes. The WEF itself acknowledges that "the benefits of openness are at risk" from protectionist measures, especially non-tariff barriers and global trade THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 20 regulations, which have been exacerbated since the 2007 financial crisis: a challenge that the fourth revolution will have to overcome if it is to deliver what it promises. 1.2.3.3 LABOUR MARKET Employment is one of the great challenges of the fourth industrial revolution, which will drive the creation of jobs that are difficult to replace in terms of technology, creativity and leadership, but nevertheless, many jobs will disappear. In 2020, the World Economic Forum (WEF) presented the report entitled "The future of Jobs", which analyses the destruction and creation of jobs in the coming years as a result of automation. Many jobs involving repetitive and precise tasks have already been replaced by new technologies and the automation of processes (The Future of Jobs Report, 2020). 1.2.3.4 REFLECTIONS As discussed above, each revolution has led to an increase in industrial productivity and quality, as well as socio-economic growth for countries. However, the wealth of countries has not been equitable for all, the revolutions have also brought inequality. The goal in the fourth industrial revolution is not only to achieve higher production but to do so with sustainable development that advocates sustainability and inclusive social and economic development (United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland/2014) Finally, I would like to end this topic with Klaus Schwab's thoughts on the subject: "First, I feel that the required levels of leadership and understanding of the changes underway, across all sectors, are low when contrasted with the need to rethink our economic, social and political systems to respond to the fourth industrial revolution. As a result, both at the national and global levels, the requisite institutional framework to govern the diffusion of innovation and mitigate the disruption is inadequate at best and, at worst, absent altogether. Second, the world lacks a consistent, positive and common narrative that outlines the opportunities and challenges of the fourth industrial revolution, THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 21 a narrative that is essential if we are to empower a diverse set of individuals and communities and avoid a popular backlash against the fundamental changes underway." (Klaus Schwab, 2016, p. 13) 22 PROJECT MANAGEMENT 23 2 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROJECT CONCEPT A project could be defined as a temporary endeavour composed of a set of interrelated activities carried out in a coordinated manner by a person or entity to produce a unique product, service or result and to achieve goals and objectives, usually to achieve benefits, change or added value. (Nokes & Kelly, 2007). Being temporary, it has a defined beginning and end in time, (usually with time constraints and often with funding or staffing constraints). According to the (PMBOK, 6th edition) a temporary effort that is undertaken to create a unique product, service or result. (A Guide to the Fundamentals of Project Management (PMBOK Guide), Sixth Edition, 2017, p. 4). A temporary, single, multidisciplinary and organised effort that is carried out with deliverables subject to predefined requirements and constraints (Individual Competence Baseline Für Programmmanagement, 2017). Moreover, it is a complex and dynamic system, (consisting of multidisciplinary activities), which needs to be acted upon throughout its life, in order to achieve the objectives of: scope, time, cost, quality and stakeholder satisfaction. (Pajares et al., 2017, pp. 125–126). The main objective of a project is to satisfy a client's need. (Gray & Larson, 2018, p. 6). Furthermore, the main characteristics of a project are the following: Having an established objective; a defined life span with a beginning and an end; the involvement of several departments and professionals; doing something that has never been done before; specific time, cost, and performance requirements. (Gray & Larson, 2018, pp. 7–8). 2.1.1 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROCESS, PROJECT AND PROGRAMME A common conceptual problem is to refer interchangeably to process and project. It is important to stress that projects should not be confused with day-to-day work (processes). Although both are aimed at achieving a goal, processes usually involve doing the same PROJECT MANAGEMENT 24 work or simulating it repeatedly, whereas a project is carried out only once and when completed results in a new product or service. Recognising the difference is important because too often resources can be depleted in day-to-day operations, which may not contribute to the organisation's long-term strategies that require innovative new products. (Gray & Larson, 2018, pp. 8–9). Moreover, in practice, managing these different production approaches requires the development of different technical skills and management strategies. (Cattani, 2011) Another common conceptual misconception is the use of the terms project and programme as synonyms. A programme is a group of interrelated projects designed to achieve a common goal over a long period of time. Each project within a programme has a project manager. The main differences are in scale and duration. Programme management is the process of managing a group of ongoing, interdependent and interrelated projects in a coordinated manner to achieve strategic objectives. While each project retains its own objectives and scope, the project manager and team are also motivated by the overarching programme objective. (Gray & Larson, 2018, pp. 8–10). PROJECT MANAGEMENT The official definition provided by the Project Management Institute (PMI) states that project management is the use of knowledge, skills and techniques to execute projects effectively and efficiently. It is a strategic competence for organisations, enabling them to link project results with business goals to better position themselves in the marketplace. Project management is understood as the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements. (A Guide to the Fundamentals of Project Management (PMBOK Guide), Sixth Edition, 2017, pp. 10–11). The official definition provided by the Association for Project Management (APM) states: project management focuses on controlling the introduction of the desired change. This involves: understanding stakeholder needs; planning what needs to be done, when, by whom and to what standards; creating and motivating the team; coordinating the work of different people; monitoring the work being done; managing any changes to the plan; PROJECT MANAGEMENT 25 achieving satisfactory results. (Directing Change, 2008, pp. 3–5). Project management, then, is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the project requirements. 2.2.1 PROJECT MANAGEMENT CONTEXT Although projects can be found in ancient civilisations, such as the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, it was not until recent years that project management was developed as a discipline with the development of the CPM (Critical Path Method) and PERT (Project Evaluation and Review Techniques) methods by the United States Department of Defence, in the context of the Polaris Programme. As a discipline, project management has mostly been developed by professionals who bring together and structure the knowledge, skills, tools and techniques (that) can increase the chances of success in many projects (A Guide to the Fundamentals of Project Management (PMBOK Guide), Sixth Edition, 2017). In fact, the most commonly used management methodologies have been developed by international professional associations, such as the Project Management Institute (PMI) and the International Project Management Association (IPMA). These professionals study the tools of project management in different areas with the aim of increasing the scope and quality of project management; providing a forum for ideas, applications and solutions; stimulating the use of project management for the benefit of business and the public; collaborating with universities and other educational institutions; fostering academic and industrial development; and engaging in international networking. (Lledó & Rivarola, 2010, p. 16). Other popular bodies of knowledge, guidelines and methodological frameworks include PRINCE2 (Projects in Controlled Environments), developed and widely used by the UK Government, the P2M (Program and Project Management for Enterprise Business Innovation) of the Project Management Association of Japan and the APM Body of Knowledge of the British Association for Project Management (APM), among others. PROJECT MANAGEMENT 32 Topica (WHAT) Principles (WHY) Process (HOW) Business Case Business justification Start-up Organisation Learning from experience Defined roles and responsibilities Starting a project Quality Management by phases Project management Plans Management by exception Controlling a phase Risk Product focus Management of product delivery Change Adaptation to the environment Management of phase limits Closing of a project Progress Learning from experience Defined roles and responsibilities Starting a project Table 3. PRINCE Organisation Source: (AXELOS, 2017) PM2 A methodology endorsed by the European Commission, which offers solutions and benefits through effective project lifecycle management. PM² has been created with the needs of EU institutions and projects in mind but is transferable to projects in any organisation. The PM² Methodology is built on Project Management best practices and is supported by four pillars (European Union, 2021). The basis is market best practices that support 4 pillars (Figure 10), namely Governance, Lifecycle, Processes and Tools. The spirit of the PM2 methodology is defined in detail in the PM2 Philosophy, which includes PM2 best practices and provides a common set of beliefs and values for PM2 project teams (Kourounakis & Maraslis, 2018). PROJECT MANAGEMENT 33 Figure 10. PM2 Pillars. Source: (European Union, 2021) As mentioned above, PM2 is based on the best practices of other methodologies such as PMBOK. Proof of this is the following Figure 11 which shows the project lifecycle, very similar to the one shown in Figure 9. Figure 11. PM2 lifecycle. Source: (European Union, 2021) PROJECT MANAGEMENT 34 The following Table 4. PM2 project phases shows a summary of the concepts of each: phase of the project. WATERFALL This methodology is a classical model developed and prioritised in the life cycle process (Bhavsar, 2021, pp. 23–24). This model, presents a sequential development (Balaji & Murugaiyan, 2012, p. 27). This methodology is distributed in several stages. The output, or end of the previous stage will form the input for the next stage, and so on. (Alshamrani & Bahattab, 2015, p. 106). An example of this can be seen in the following image: Figure 12. Waterfall methodology. Source: (Infinity, 2021) Table 4. PM2 project phases. Source: (European Union, 2021) PROJECT MANAGEMENT 35 ▪ WATERFALL AREAS As it could be seen in the Figure 12, the waterfall areas are: AREAS DESCRIPTION REQUIREMENT GATHERING o The collection of customer and stakeholder requirements is the first step of this methodology. It is the first step in organising and planning the entire project without the involvement of the customer. o The requirements must be documented detailing the necessary characteristics and data. ANALYSIS o As discussed above, the input to this area is the output of the previous area, so the input to the analysis stage is the requirements document from the previous stage. o The requirements document is analysed and the models that will be used to design logical and theoretical solutions are developed. DESING o The input to this section are the solutions elaborated in the previous analysis. o In this section the decisions made earlier are modified if necessary and all technical requirements are reviewed. o After all this has been done, a concrete plan is obtained in which the theoretical solutions have been translated into concrete specifications. CODING o Following the concrete specifications of the previous section, the actual code is developed. PROJECT MANAGEMENT 36 TESTING o With the actual code written in the previous stage, the code is examined for defects and bugs. o Sometimes this stage may take us back to coding to ensure zero defects. o If there are no defects, the final stage is passed. OPERATIONS o With the application finalised in the previous stage, the implementation of the application will be carried out in this area. o Support, updating and maintenance of the application is included. Table 5. Areas of waterfall methodology. Source: Own made following (Bhavsar, 2021; Infinity, 2021 Alshamrani & Bahattab, 2015; Andrei et al., 2019; Balaji & Murugaiyan, 2012; Haworth, 2021; Morton, 2011) ▪ ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES To summarize in the following images the advantages and disadvantages are shown: Figure 13. Advantages and disadvantages of waterfall methodology. Source: (Infinity, 2021) PROJECT MANAGEMENT 37 2.2.2.2 AGILE METHODOLOGIES Throughout the 21st century, the use of agile methodologies for the development of computer software has been spreading. The basis of all of them is the establishment of work cycles, at the end of each of which a more and more complete functional product will be obtained (incremental processes). Agile methodologies are those that allow the way of working to be adapted to the circumstances of the project, achieving rapid responses and flexibility to adapt the project and its development to the circumstances of the environment. The aim is to increase the client's confidence by involving them in the process, cooperating with the team and obtaining results on a regular basis. The benefits of this methodology for the companies that apply it are to manage their projects in a flexible, autonomous and efficient way, reducing costs and therefore increasing their performance. These methodologies are characterised by reducing the large amount of documentation that is generated in projects that follow traditional methodologies, continuously adapting to the circumstances and needs of the client and presenting an incremental development of a product. In February 2001, a meeting was held in Snowbird (Utah, USA) with seventeen critics to establish principles for improving software development. As a conclusion of this meeting, a document called the Agile Manifesto was produced (Beck et al., 2001). The Agile Manifesto is a set of rules, standards and guidelines that a methodology must comply with in order to be considered agile. Although the Agile Manifesto assesses that all parties involved in the development of a project are important, sometimes certain elements meet and need to be prioritised. In fact, there are different types of methodologies that have been nuanced according to the needs of the type of project, but all of them are guided by the Agile Manifesto, which includes these four premises: o Individuals and interactions over processes and tools. o Working software over comprehensive documentation. o Customer collaboration over contract negotiation. o Responding to change over following a plan. (Beck et al., 2001) PROJECT MANAGEMENT 38 This methodology is widely used in software development, but it is also interesting for development projects in which different iterations are needed to reach the result. In fact, one of the main advantages that we find in the use of agile methodologies is its adaptation to the needs of the project. (J. Highsmith & A. Cockburn, 2001, pp. 120–127). In addition, there are a number of advantages when applying this type of methodology, such as customer satisfaction, by involving them in the decision-making process of the project, being informed at all times of the progress of the project and its difficulties, in order to obtain a more accurate opinion of the approach to resources, the improvement of the involvement and motivation of the team is plausible because they are equal participants in the same, knowing at all times the status of the project, and by performing different iterations, we increase the efficiency and speed of the work done, eliminating any unnecessary features. The advantage we get from the implementation of agile methodologies in complex projects is that we do not have to wait until the end of the project to get the result of the project, but we will also work by functional, iterative and incremental deliveries, through which the client will be able to know how the product is growing and how it is being built. The following are the best-known agile methodologies currently in use: EXTREME PROGRAMMING, XP The XP methodology is an agile methodology dedicated to software development. It is one of the most successful today and is dedicated to the development of short-term projects with a small team size. The methodology consists of rapid (or extreme) programming, whose particularity is to have the end user as part of the team, which is considered one of the requirements for success in the project. PROJECT MANAGEMENT 39 ▪ EXTREME PROGRAMMING HAS THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS: o Iterative and incremental development: Small improvements that follow one after the other. o Continuous unit testing: Often repeated and automated, including regression testing (to discover bugs in functionality). It is advisable to write test code before coding. o Group programming: it is recommended that development tasks are performed by two or more people in the same position. In this way, the code is reviewed and discussed while it is being written, which ensures an increase in quality that is more important than possible loss due to unproductivity. o Bug fixing: Before adding new features, it is important that all bugs are fixed. This is solved by increasing the number of deliverables. o Integration of the programming team with the client/user: It is recommended that a representative of the client works together with the development team. o Code refactoring: This consists of rewriting certain parts of the code to improve its readability and maintainability, without modifying its behaviour. Tests must ensure that no bugs have been introduced in the refactoring. o Shared code ownership: Instead of dividing the responsibilities for the development of each module in different working groups, this methodology promotes that any member of the team can correct and extend any part of the project. Frequent regression testing ensures that potential bugs are caught. o Simplicity in the code: This is the best way to make things work. XP claims that it is better to start with 'simple' development and have to do extra work if improvements are needed, than to use complex software and code, where making changes is really complicated. o Simplicity and communication are extraordinarily complementary. With more communication it is easier to identify what should and should not be done. The simpler the working system, the simpler the communication in the working team, which leads to more complete communication, especially if the team of programmers can be reduced. PROJECT MANAGEMENT 40 ▪ XP ROLES Although the number of roles has evolved since its initial conception, and varies depending on the product or project being developed, the original proposal of the XP methodology included the following: o Customer / User: This is the person in charge of writing the User Stories, which includes all the desired functionalities. He/she must also participate in the functional testing of the product to validate its implementation. He/she categorises the tasks by difficulty and/or importance, deciding which ones should be developed in each work cycle. There is only one client or user per project within the team who, if necessary, must act on behalf of as many people as may be affected by the solution. o Coach: The Coach ("trainer") is responsible for ensuring that the XP methodology is being implemented correctly. He/she needs to know the XP procedures in depth to lead the team during the development of the project. o Big Boss: The Big Boss (Manager) has the main function of being the link between the customer and the development team. He/she mainly performs coordination tasks. o Programmer: Programmers are the main developers of the product. They write and implement the system code. They must be in constant communication with the other members of the team, as the performance of the rest of the activities depends on their work. o Tester: The Tester (test manager), performs the functional tests in conjunction with the client on a regular basis. It is usually a single person, who must be in constant communication with the programming team to solve possible code errors. o Tracker: The Tracker must continuously evaluate the status of the project, comparing it with the estimates made both at the beginning and during the course of the project. He/she reconsiders objectives, deadlines and resources in each work cycle to improve the estimates. All of these roles are present in virtually any project where this methodology is used, although it is common for the same person to assume several of them simultaneously. It is common for several of the functions of Tracker, Coach and Big Boss to fall on the same member of the team. PROJECT MANAGEMENT 41 SCRUM SCRUM is a working methodology for the development and maintenance of products of any complexity. It is one of the most representative agile methodologies currently used. Its initial focus was for use in software development projects, although its principles are easily adaptable to any context or area of knowledge. The Scrum methodology is a framework based on iterative and incremental product development, where the different versions validated by the team are periodically formalised, facilitating the development of optimal solutions adapted to the needs of the end customer. All of this is based on teamwork, with different specific profiles, and on constant meetings, normally scheduled, making this one of its fundamental pillars. The general structure of the work process according to Scrum starts with the registration of customer requests, which is carried out by the "Product Owner", who is the intermediary between the end customer and the development team. With all the needs registered, we proceed to plan how to proceed and the resources to be allocated, as well as defining the regular and partial deliveries to be made, called "sprints". After planning, everything agreed between the team and the Product Owner is recorded and the different iterations for product development begin, which are managed by a "Scrum Master", who would be a manager and facilitator of the team. During the development phase, short daily meetings (maximum 15 minutes) are held to redirect the work plan. At the end of each sprint, the entire team meets with the Product Owner to review the status of the officialised version, to warn of any difficulties, of the objectives achieved and to suggest actions to increase the final performance of the product. All versions are registered in order to have the necessary traceability. Once the whole process is finished, a retrospective meeting is held, which must be attended by the entire Scrum Team, with the objective of recording the lessons learned, possible improvement actions and hard points of the project. This philosophy can be applied to any type of project in which development is carried out, whether IT or mechanical, simply by varying the phases and in some cases the execution times. But with the sole objective of obtaining a product that satisfies the end customer by optimising resources and maximising the performance of the final product. PROJECT MANAGEMENT 48 continuous and agile, so it is necessary to be active and deliver the product as fast as possible to satisfy the customer/user, as well as to keep a distance from the competition (if any). 5. Empower the team A team should not be seen as a "set of resources" that are associated with a service. It should not be valued in number of hours or in economic cost. Ideally, the development team should assume its own management, have manageable and realistic tasks, and a direct contact with the client. 6. Build integrity in The project, both client-facing and user-facing, must offer a robust image. Integrity is achieved by combining flexibility with a product that is maintainable in the long term, carrying out continuous iterations in short cycles, in order to improve functionalities based on user feedback. 7. See the whole Most of today's projects are highly complex. To manage them correctly it is necessary to divide and decompose them into smaller tasks. It is necessary to reduce the size of the team in order to involve all parties. Projects can even be in the hands of several teams simultaneously. PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES COMPARISON 49 3 METHODOLOGIES COMPARISON As discussed in the previous topic one methodology described by the PMI (A Guide to the Fundamentals of Project Management (PMBOK Guide), Sixth Edition, 2017) is: “A methodology is a system of practices, techniques, procedures and rules used by those working in a discipline”. (Michael DePrisco, 2021) But according to (Aston, 2021) a methodology must be rooted in something more fundamental so it determines that this definition should include themes. (Aston, 2021) It therefore determines that methodologies should apply different principles, themes, frameworks, processes and standards to help structure the way we deliver projects. Following this description is the following classification: Figure 15. Project Management Methodologies. Source: (Aston, 2021) In the graph in blue, we find the more traditional methodologies and in pink the AGILE techniques. Within the traditional methodologies, PRINCE2 methodology defines a complete methodology with themes, principles, and processes and PMBOK describes standards with some process. In the AGILE methodologies, XP, like PMBOK describes standards and some process while Scrum, Kanban and Scrumban define processes, Agile defines principles and Lean defines themes. PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES COMPARISON 50 From this point on, the chapter will be organised as follows: first we will describe the situations in which the methodologies described in chapter 2 are and are not used; then we will focus on determining what the differences are between these practices and others; and finally the conclusion will be presented. WHEN THE METHODOLOGIES SHOULD, OR SHOULD NOT, BE USED In the previous chapter, methodologies have been presented, but when is it recommended to use them and for what kind of projects, and conversely, when is it not recommended to use them? This section describes first the traditional methodologies and then the agile methodologies. 3.1.1 Traditional Methodologies According to (Azanha et al., 2017) traditional project Management Methodologies do not do not fully meet the requirements of flexibility to absorb changes in the project. Furthermore, traditional project managements are not compatible with the complexity and dynamic change of software (Augustine et al., 2005). Following this idea, (Chin, 2004) declared that traditional methods have significant limitations in situations where innovation is high and teams are small (Chin, 2004). ▪ WATERFALL It can be a useful and predictable approach if the requirements are fixed, well documented and clear, the technology is understood and mature, and the project is short. (Aston, 2021). Following on from this idea, (Monday, 2019) established that this methodology is ideal as long as the planning, scope and requirements are extremely clear and the outcome with this method will be successful and predictable. Moreover, in order to the objective and requirements to remain the same, stakeholders must know exactly what it is or what they want. So that the project is consistent and predictable. On the other hand, this methodology is very useful if the industry in which PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES COMPARISON 51 the project is carried out is regulated and requires extensive project tracking and documentation. (Team Work, 2021) On the other hand, as it is such a rigid methodology, and not very adaptable to any change, it is not advisable to use it if the objectives and requirements are not well defined and the project may change. Following this line, it is also not recommended if continuous testing must be carried out, adapting to the client's requests, and making deliveries during the execution of the project. Recommended Not Recommended Fixed requirements and targets Undefined and variable requirements and objectives Predictable Project not predictable Interested parties with clear ideas Stakeholders with diffuse ideas Sector with regulated measures Sector with no documentation requirements No project deliveries to the customer required Proof of execution must be sent to the client Highly repetitive projects: construction and manufacturing of the same product Highly variable projects Table 6. Waterfall requirements. Source: Own made (Azanha et al., 2017; Aston, 2021; Monday, 2019; Team Work, 2021) ▪ PRINCE2: It is a cascading project management methodology that includes principles, themes and processes. (Aston, 2021). It is a very interesting structure for executing large and predictable projects that determines what will be delivered, ensures a feasible approach and defines in detail the project parts, roles and responsibilities. It is designed for largescale IT projects (Aston, 2021). Following this line of thought, (Monday, 2019) also advocates the use of this methodology in large, well-defined projects. On the other hand, like waterfall, it is not recommended if the project is small, as it can be a very time-consuming methodology to implement. Moreover, this methodology does PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES COMPARISON 52 not focus on teamwork (Monday, 2019). Finally, as it is a traditional methodology, its use is not recommended in very flexible projects with a high volume of changes. Recommended Not Recommended Fixed requirements and objectives Undefined and variable requirements and objectives Large, well-defined projects. Large scale IT projects Small and ill-defined projects Predictable, no changes Project not predictable No emphasis on teamwork Importance of teamwork Table 7. PRINCE2 requirements. Source: Own made ( Azanha et al., 2017; Aston, 2021; Monday, 2019; Team Work, 2021) ▪ PMBOK As mentioned above, it is not a methodology, but a set of standards that determine the 5 steps to carry out a project. Its use is recommended for managing large-scale departments, companies that want all the departments or companies in the group to work in a standardised way. It is also applicable to smaller projects with high standardisation (Team Work, 2021) On the other hand, this methodology is not recommended for small companies that work with projects with a high volume of changes at a high pace and it is not recommended if it is necessary to map, verify, the execution of the project in a way that changes the scope of the project. Recommended Not Recommended Fixed requirements and objectives Undefined and variable requirements and objectives Large-scale projects Small and ill-defined projects Predictable, unchanging High volume of changes No mapping required Need for mapping Table 8. PMBOK requirements. Source: Own made (Azanha et al., 2017; Aston, 2021; Monday, 2019; Team Work, 2021) PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES COMPARISON 53 3.1.2 Agile Methodologies However, Agile itself is not a methodology or process that can be used. Agile is the global term used for its implementations, such as Scrum, XP, Kanban, Scrumban, etc. It is characterised by emphasising adaptability in the face of changes in situations, promoting adequate communication and continuous improvement between the work team and between the team and the client. They are excellent methodologies for use in dynamic environments, with the possibility of changing the requirements during the execution of the project., dynamic environments that have a business environment influenced by constant changes. (Azanha et al., 2017). Following this idea, this methodologies are usually conducted under uncertainties in turbulent environments, characterized by complex projects, unpredictable activities and changes, scenarios where the traditional approaches have limitations. (Chin, 2004). Other authors corroborate that the agile approach is best suited for dynamic environments that have a business environment influenced by constant changes. (Boehm, 2004). On the other hand, it is important to mention that agile methodologies abandon planning, reporting and scheduling in favour of flexibility and communication. (Azanha et al., 2017). So that, agile methodologies are noy suggested as the best universal practices (Highsmith, 2004). Therefore, agile methodologies are interesting to use in dynamic, changing projects, where the solution at the beginning of the project is not known in its entirety since it can be adapted as the project is executed. Projects that need to work fast and where rapid progress and development is more important than a perfect result. For instance, software project. Nevertheless, However, it has been proven that these methodologies are not only applicable to software development projects.(Conforto et al., 2014) and that they can be used in projects such as the following image: PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES COMPARISON 54 Figure 16. Management practices related to the agile project management approach. Source: (Conforto et al., 2014) However, it is not advisable to use these methodologies if the project requires a high degree of documentation and reporting. If the deliverables have exacted and immovable deadlines and must be predictable and clear from the beginning. Finally, if the project to be developed does not need the client's opinion, the ideas are clear and fixed and cannot be varied during the execution, these are not the best methodologies to apply. (Team Work, 2021). Although as methodologies belonging to this large group they share many similarities, the Agile methodologies studied in the previous chapter are presented below to determine in more detail when it is advisable and when it is not advisable to use them. ▪ SCRUM This methodology was originally designed for software development and R&D, although it has also been applied to other types of projects. It is an ideal methodology for creative projects, where changing something does not imply putting the whole project at risk. (Aston, 2021). Therefore, its use is recommended in dynamic projects, where continuous improvement is desired. It is normally used in projects with small groups of up to 10 people, although it is true and although it is not recommended, there are companies that have used it for large projects and have been successful (Monday, 2019). PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES COMPARISON 55 As an agile methodology, it dispenses with a lot of the documentation phase, therefore, Scrum is recommended in projects where this is not a regulatory requirement of the client or the company. In addition, it focuses on fast deliveries and a lot of control over the project, involving the client at all times in decision making, therefore, it is essential to be able to count on the client's feedback. Finally, it is an ideal methodology to implement in changing environments, where the objectives do not have to be defined from the beginning and where changes can be made in the middle of the project. (Monday, 2019; Team Work, 2021; Azanha et al., 2017; Aston, 2021; Augustine et al., 2005; Beck et al., 2001; Chin, 2004; Highsmith, 2004; J. Highsmith & A. Cockburn, 2001; Matovic, 2020). Recommended Not Recommended Undefined and variable requirements and objectives Fixed requirements and targets Unpredictable, changing environments Predictable Dynamic and creative projects Interested parts with clear ideas Small groups of up to 10 people Big groups, more than 10 people Not regulatory required Highly repetitive projects: construction and manufacturing of the same product Client involved No project deliveries to the customer required Table 9. SCRUM requirements. Source: (Aston, 2021; Azanha et al., 2017; Monday, 2019; Team Work, 2021) ▪ KANBAN Ideal methodology for operational or maintenance environments where priorities tend to vary frequently and require consistent performance. This methodology was developed specifically for software development, although it is applicable to virtually any predictable process. (Monday, 2019). It is highly recommended to apply if you want to have a global vision of the execution of the project, its process and the updates that are being carried out. Therefore, it is ideal for working PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES COMPARISON 56 with continuous improvement. Although we will later study the differences between the methodologies, it is worth highlighting that one of the differences with SCRUM is that KANBAN does not require daily meetings. On the other hand, if the process to be carried out is very complex or consists of many stages, it is not advisable to use this methodology as it will lead to a great waste of time. Recommended Not Recommended Operational or maintenance environments Fixed requirements and targets Need of having a global vision of the execution project Complex projects Predictable process Non defined process Continuous improvement No need to improve Dynamic and creative projects Sector with regulated measures Table 10. KANBAN requirements. Source: (Aston, 2021; Azanha et al., 2017; Monday, 2019; Team Work, 2021) ▪ LEAN It is a methodology that is easy to implement in manufacturing or production environments of a physical product such as a car. In addition, this methodology is also widely used in project delivery processes as it reduces unnecessary data, increases the value of the project and optimises it. (Aston, 2021). Continuing with this idea, (Team Work, 2021) corroborates that this methodology is characterised by improving and adding value to the project for the client as well as reducing costs. (Monday, 2019) adds that this methodology increases work efficiency, eliminates waste of obsolete stock and improves the quality of customer relations and communication. However, it is not recommended for use in teams working digitally. PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES COMPARISON 57 ▪ XP As an Agile methodology, XP has very similar characteristics of use to those mentioned above. However, we can highlight that it differs from other methodologies such as Scrum in that XP establishes rules related to design, coding and testing specific to development projects. In addition, it has been found to be a very useful methodology for fostering teamwork and collaboration among project members, especially for small teams. ▪ OTHER METHODOLOGIES The methodologies described above are the most widely used by companies but it is true that there are many other methodologies including PRiSM, Critical Path, PERT, Crystal Method in which project processes are given low priority emphasising the skills, communication and interaction of the team or Adaptive Framework (APF or APM), where the objective of this methodology is to be adaptable to change, in fact, it was designed taking into account the inevitability of change. Therefore, teams must be prepared to anticipate risks and constantly re-evaluate results and decisions. The scope of the project is variable, but the time and cost are constant, making it possible to adjust the scope of the project during execution to get the maximum business value from the project. This methodology requires high communication between all stakeholders. Finally, this methodology is recommended if the final objectives are known but if you need predictability and do not have the necessary resources to deal with scope variations, rework or misuse of time, it is not advisable to use this methodology. ABSTRACT The following image shows the classification according to the different methodologies that have been explained, depending on whether they are stable projects or projects that need to be carried out quickly and whether they are fixed or dynamic projects: PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES COMPARISON 64 On the other hand, there are a number of similarities between the methodologies to consider: • Both methodologies need to be tested before a team can decide which approach to adopt • Both focus on rapid delivery of functionality • Both will discuss frequently with the customer to get their feedback as early as possible. (Andrei et al., 2019, pp. 129–130) As both methodologies have a number of very useful and beneficial behaviours, bringing them together as a hybrid methodology has resulted in SCRUMBAN. SCRUMBAN This is a hybrid methodology, meaning a mixture of 2 known methodologies in which the appropriate characteristics needed for the execution of the project are taken advantage of. Although this methodology has not been presented in the previous chapter, being one of the many applicable hybrid methodologies, it is interesting and applicable to many projects. This hybrid methodology helps to improve the effectiveness of Sprint engagement. However, it also introduces the WIP boundary as a mechanism to catalyse incremental change. The WIP boundary avoids the need to commit to driving change, reduces any dysfunctional reliance on effort and improves overall systems thinking when considering potential improvements. (Julio Roche, 2019) PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES COMPARISON 65 ▪ XP VS SCRUM These two agile methodologies are closely related to each other and therefore the differences between them are minimal: XP SCRUM ITERATION TIME 1 or 2 weeks. 2 weeks until one month. CHANGING ITERATIONS It accepts changes in its iterations as long as a particular requirement has not been started. Meeting items are defined in the backlog and no changes can be made until the end of the backlog. ITERATION ORDER Requirements are prioritised by the customer (product owner in SCRUM) and the team must follow it. The product owner prioritises the product backlog but the team determines the order. BEST PRACTICES Process adaptation depending on the projects type Generic and equal application across all projects SOFTWARE The software needs to be validated all time, to extend that test are written prior to the actual software. The validation of the software is completed at the end of each sprint, at Sprint Review. Table 14. Comparison between XP ans SCRUM. Source: (Kniberg, 2007) ▪ SIMILARITIES BETWEEN Figure 20. Similarities between Lean, XP and Scrum. Source: (Layton et al., 2020) PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES COMPARISON 66 HYBRID METHODOLOGIES So far we have described when the different methodologies should be used or not and have been compared between them, but in a moment we have written the hybrid methodologies since we have focused on deepening and knowing properly all the methodologies and their uses in order to choose the best methodology or combination of methodologies to apply in the next chapter to solve our project management problem. Many articles state that there is no single project management methodology that covers all needs, hence the existence of hybrid methodologies. Following this line of thought A case study of a Brazilian pharmaceutical company IT project (Azanha et al., 2017) He determined that in order to select the right methodology it is very important to take into account the decision strategy and added that in many cases a single methodology will not be sufficient but that the combination of traditional and agile methodologies will not be enough can be customized and adapted to the requirements of each project. (Azanha et al., 2017). In addition, the following image shows the other study in which the comparison and evaluation of very different agile methodologies determined that agile methodologies do not adapt well to large scale which could explain the existence of traditional waterfall approach (Shaydulin & Sybrandt, 2017). PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES COMPARISON 67 Figure 21. Result of the evaluation of different methodologies. Source: (Shaydulin & Sybrandt, 2017) Furthermore, the same study, the result of which has been presented in the picture above, demonstrated that of all the methodologies compared, none adequately addressed all the important aspects of the software design process. This same article offered a hybrid implementation idea consisting of the following: using waterfall for project planning; Scrum for short-term goals and XP for software remediation. Moreover, Vijayasarathy stated that more than 45% of software teams use a hybrid approach (Vijayasarathy & Butler, 2016). As can be seen in the following graphic: Figure 22. Methodologies used in projects. Source: (Vijayasarathy & Butler, 2016) PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES COMPARISON 68 In addition, the same study made a comparison of the number of teams involved in a project and the methodologies that were most commonly used efficiently and effectively. Figure 23. Number of teams and project management. Source: (Vijayasarathy & Butler, 2016) BEER PRODUCTION PROJECT 69 4 BEER PROJECT 4.0 This chapter presents the beer production project at the University of Albstadt Sigmaringen. PROJECT CONTEXT The project consists of automating the brewing process by implementing a Smart Factory simulation. The main objective is to improve the quality of beer production and to be a leader in innovation. The aim is to improve process stability and product quality in the fermentation area. The fermentation process is prone to quality fluctuations, the aim of the students is to optimise the process by eliminating deficits. Below is a table with the deficits and the objectives to be achieved by automating and optimising the process. As shown in the table, there would be a potential increase of 66.16% by eliminating 14.34% of the deficits and increasing capacity and quality by 51.82%. 4.1.1 PARTICIPANTS The project is carried out by students of the University of Albstadt Sigmaringen from three different computer science degrees, resulting in three groups, each consisting of only students of the same degree and focusing on a specific programme. Deficits Improvements Low process stability High process stability High quality fluctuations Consistently high product quality Uncontrollable quality Automated control and documentation of the fermentation process Lack of automation Reduction of benefits -14.34% (~115 thousand €) Increase in profit potential 66,16% (~ 530 in thousands of euros €) Table 15. Beer production project. Deficits and Improvements. Source: Albstadt-Sigmaringen University. BEER PRODUCTION PROJECT 70 Those in grade Business Informatic are focus on using SAP, those in grade Informatic Security are more focus on SPS and those in grade are focus on MQTT commmunication. The software they use is as follows: SAP is a kind of ERP system enterprise which solves planning system. There are a lot of providers of ERP but SAP is the most well-known and important one because a lot of companies operate it. PLC (SPS) is a programmable logic control or control device. MQTT is a protocol used for communication between the ERP system and the SPS system. This team was the intermediate layer where they translate the messages which come from SPS into a message that SAP could understand. 4.1.2 PROJECT MANAGEMENT In this section we will study what project management techniques have been used so far, then we will study the problems that have arisen in the past, and finally we will study the solutions and propose new forms of management focused on Industry 4.0 and virtual projects. 4.1.2.1 TOOLS USED SO FAR. ✓ CANVAS This methodology is commonly used for the development of business models and has nine sections, which are as follows: Figure 24. Canvas tool estructure. BEER PRODUCTION PROJECT 71 However, a kind of CANVAS model has been used in this project, which provides a summary and the main features of the model that the students must take into account in order to implement the project: Figure 25. Version of Canvas used in the Beer production project. Source: Albstadt-Sigmaringen university ✓ SEQUENCE DIAGRAM Sequence diagrams are intended to determine the interactions between the different objects and to describe the sequence and order of the objects. ✓ GANTT DIAGRAM As already discussed in section X of chapter 3, the Gantt chart is a graphical project management tool whose purpose is to determine the time spent on a task or activity within a total time. However, as some students have commented, the Gantt was not always adhered to as the project was not so much fixed, but evolving. BEER PRODUCTION PROJECT 72 4.1.2.2 PROJECT MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES Despite the tools used, there are several management problems in the project. In the previous year, the course consisted of around 12 students and three large groups. This year there are three students in total, divided into two groups. Please note that the content has been simplified due to the smaller number of students. Before we start describing the problems, let us differentiate between the two groups. Last year's large group will henceforth be called Sample A and this year's small group will be called Sample B. The variety in the group allows us to carry out a study of the situation in order to draw conclusions. In this section we present the situation studied in the previous year compared to this year. SITUATION A As mentioned above, a total of 12 students from three different branches of computer science participated in this project. Sample A is made up of three groups, each consisting only of students from the same branch. One of the problems that could be observed was a problem of interpretation, as they belong to different branches of computer science, the computer languages of each group of students are different but the data of the groups are interrelated and therefore need each other. This leads to difficulties in the interpretation of data, loss of time and computer errors. On the other hand, a communication problem was observed. Weekly meetings were held to share what each team was doing, what problems arose and what they were going to do until the next weekly meeting. These meetings were attended by the whole group of students, but only a few of them spoke, what was presented was not written down, each group presented their tasks and did not take into account other people's circumstances. The lack of communication resulted in lost time in implementation, tasks being duplicated or not carried out at all, and errors at the end of the project that were triggered by poor management at the beginning. All this resulted in a great loss of time, delays in the work and stress for the students on dates close to the delivery of the project. BEER PRODUCTION PROJECT 73 SITUATION A Number of participants Around 15 Number of groups 3 groups: SAP, SPS, MQTT Project management tools used -Gantt -Sequence diagrams -Kanban Participants in meetings All the students Number of meetings One weekly Problems Communication - Problems with the sequence of information flows. -Lack of communication between groups. -Lack of attention from learners. -Lack of consideration for the needs of others. Data interpretation -Difficulty in understanding foreign languages. -Computer errors Table 16. Situtation A project beer porduction. Source: selfmade. SITUATION B Sample B consists of only three students in total. Two of them belong to the SAP group and one of them to the SPS team. This year there is no MQTT team so the communication between SPS and SAP is done through online meetings. The communication is done directly between the SPS and SAP devices using the MQTT programme, this is done with a broker where all the information is stored and where you can select the information you want to use. The management tools used are the same as the previous year, two weekly meetings are held in which the students present their progress, the weekly objective they set themselves and if they have any problems in the programming. Occasionally there is an additional meeting. This year, the communication problems of the previous year have not been observed. BEER PRODUCTION PROJECT 80 PROJECT CHARACTERISTICS VARIABLES CHARACTERISTICS METHODOLOGY Number of teams Between 2 and 3 teams AGILE Size of teams Between 1 until 6 members - Possibility of changes during the execution Yes AGILE Development model* Evolutionary/Held almost early at the beginning AGILE TRADITIONAL Managerial approach Flexible adaptative variable/ rigid, focusing on the initial plan AGILE TRADITIONAL Work Unpredictable, not measurable, non-linear and complex AGILE Reviews after each iteration Yes AGILE Planning Not all is planned since de beginning AGILE Customer involment High AGILE Requirements* Dynamic but also welldefined before starting AGILE TRADITIONAL Documentation Not as important AGILE Table 22. Methodologies to be used according to the characteristics if the project. Source: selfmade following the litarature. Therefore, as can be seen from studying the characteristics of the project and following what has been studied, the most recommendable methodology to apply would be AGILE. BEER PRODUCTION PROJECT 81 ✓ A review of the characteristics of Industry 4.0 projects As observed in the Table 20, although the articles determine that there is no established methodology that can be applied in its entirety in Industry 4.0 oriented projects, AGILE methodologies are the most recommended. SUMARISE PROJECT 4.0 CHARACTERISTICS CARATERISTIC RESULT AGILE OR TRADITIONAL Pressure on project development times ▪ Time is a very important variable AGILE ▪ Need to finish the project quickly Business model orientation ▪ Physical outcome not known until the end of the project AGILE ▪ Unpredictable ▪ Trial and error management Project of the technological revolution are complex in nature ▪ Innovation AGILE Table 23. Sumarise project 4.0 characteristics. Source: Selfmade. BEER PRODUCTION PROJECT 82 4.3.2 CONCLUSION OF THE METHODOLOGY TO BE USED The methodologies to be implemented for the solution of communication and information flow problems are AGILE methodologies. The four cases studied focus more on the use of agile methodologies. On the other hand, and as has also been mentioned in previous topics, the following circumstances occur: ✓ There is no focused methodology for projects in a Smart factory, industry. ✓ There is no methodology that meets all the necessary requirements for this type of project. Therefore, in line with the previous point, hybrid methodologies are mainly recommended and used. From this point on, we focus the study on finding solutions to the problems with several agile methodologies, i.e. we will use a hybrid methodology based on the different agile methodologies. • POSSIBLE SOLUTION FOR THE COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION FLOW PROBLEMS: As mentioned in the section comparing situation A and situation B, when the meetings were made up of only a few members, the communication problems were practically nonexistent. As a result of this analysis, the first solution to be established is the following: INTER-GROUP MEETINGS WITH FEW PARTICIPANTS AND ROLE The presence of few participants in meetings will increase attention and communication. In addition, in order to determine who are the people in each group who should attend meetings, a role will have to be established within each team. These two measures will solve the above mentioned problem of Situation C in the implementation of AGILE methodologies. These meetings will be weekly and will be used to discuss with the other groups what has been developed during the week, the future objectives to be developed, the doubts and BEER PRODUCTION PROJECT 83 problems that have arisen and, finally, if there is a need for help between teams, given that the data are interrelated. Following the Lean methodology on effective meetings: • A time limit should be set for the meeting, which should not be exceeded. In the event that issues arise that need to be addressed, discuss them with those involved at another time. • Complete an action plan, in this case a software, or kanvan methodology, could be used to establish what tasks are to be carried out, the actions taken and to follow up on what has been discussed, so that it can then be passed on to the teams. In summary, the responsibility of the person in this role will be to: • Secondarily form part of the other teams. • Attend meetings with the other team representatives. • Report on the tasks carried out during the week. And future tasks. • To expose the tasks that need to be repeated and that cause problems. • Discussing doubts with other teams. • Be concerned about the activities of the other teams. • Determine to whom the other teams should turn to from their own team, to resolve any doubts. MEASURE MEETINGS BETWEEN TEAMS WITH FEW PARTICIPANTS OBJECTIVE ▪ Increased communication ▪ Increased attention. MEASURES TAKEN ▪ Meetings with few participants. Fulfilling the effectiveness of Lean meetings. (LEAN). ▪ One representative from each team, team leader. EXPECTED RESULT ▪ Reduction of information flow problems. ▪ Reduction of data interpretation problems. ▪ Reduction of wasted time and duplicated tasks. Table 24. Measure solution 1, meetings between teams. Source: selfmade following the literature. BEER PRODUCTION PROJECT 84 GLOBAL DIVISION OF LABOUR IN PACKAGES As was already done with the SCRUM methodology in Situation C, the global work will be divided into small packages. With this measure, we will be able to implement the following solution, a Kanban model to support the Gantt, which was often not fulfilled and did not provide the teams with a vision. Therefore, the objective of this measure is to provide the teams with a vision of the evolution of the work carried out, with which they can organise themselves, know what they have done and what remains to be done. In addition, the responsibility of the person who has to carry it out is added to each task, which will increase the participation of the members and control over compliance; tasks will not be duplicated or left undone, as was sometimes the case. MEASURE DIVISION OF LABOUR INTO PACKAGES OBJECTIVE ▪ Increasing the vision of the project. MEASURES TAKEN ▪ Overall division of work into packages. (SCRUM) ▪ Establishment of software with Kanban philosophy (KANBAN). ▪ Establishment of responsibilities. (XP) EXPECTED RESULT ▪ Reduction of duplicated tasks. ▪ Eliminate the problem of unfinished tasks. ▪ Better temporal organisation of the teams. ▪ Increased participation of the members in the project. Table 25. Measure solution 2, division of labour into packages. Source: selfmade following the literature. ROLES WITHIN THE GROUP Continuing in line with the last comment: "to each task is added the responsibility of the person who has to carry it out, which will increase the participation of the members and the control over compliance, tasks will not be duplicated or left undone, as happened on certain occasions". BEER PRODUCTION PROJECT 85 As a team is made up of between 2 and 6 people to encourage the participation of everyone in the work, it would be interesting to apply roles within the group, it would be interesting to apply some roles of the XP methodology, since as was studied in the previous topic it is a very useful methodology for teamwork and collaboration among project members, especially for small teams of as few as 9 people. • One of these roles would be the Big Boss, Manager, already mentioned for communication with other teams. This could be increased to two representatives per team and they are also in charge of supporting their team. It is very important that they know what is being done. • On the other hand, the programmers. • On the other hand, the testers could be established to make sure that what is being done works. • Support role, tracker or trainer, one of the people who is programming or testing, must also control that all tasks are being carried out and that deadlines are met. MEASURE ROLES OBJECTIVE ▪ Increased participation and internal organisation of each team. MEASURES TAKEN ▪ Establishment of responsibilities and roles (XP) EXPECTED RESULT ▪ Increased participation and internal organisation of each team. ▪ Increased communication between different teams. ▪ Improved collaboration and teamwork. Table 26. Measure solution 3, Roles. Source: selfmade following the literature. 86 5 CONCLUSION There is no established methodology for projects in the fourth industrial revolution; everything will depend on different variables such as the type of project, risk, size of groups, etc. However, it has been possible to establish guidelines and measures on when it is advisable and when it is not advisable to use the different methodologies studied. Moreover, it is very difficult for one methodology to be 100% applicable. According to what has been studied, hybrid methodologies are currently the most widely used for this type of project. In order to determine which types of methodologies would be used to make up the final hybrid methodology, we have based ourselves on several variables, including the fact that when determining the characteristics of 4.0 projects, they establish the necessary characteristics of agile methodologies. Therefore, in the project developed by the University of Albstadt-Sigmarigen, it was decided to apply a hybrid methodology made up of agile methodologies. Finally, it should be noted that the project management currently used is very much based on trial and error studies, given that any new variable can affect the measures taken and it is advisable to continue with a study process for the continuous improvement and optimisation of the management. REFERENCES 87 6 REFERENCES Alshamrani, A., & Bahattab, A. (2015). A comparison between three sdlc models waterfall model, spiral model, and incremental/iterative model. International Journal of Computer Science Issues (IJCSI), 12(1), 106. Andrei, B.‑A., Casu-Pop, A.‑C., Gheorghe, S.‑C., & Boiangiu, C.‑A. (2019). A study on using waterfall and agile methods in software project management. Journal of Information Systems & Operations Management, 125–135. Ashton, K. (2009). That ‘internet of things’ thing. RFID Journal, 22(7), 97–114. Aston, B. 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