Indicators used to measure service innovation and manufacturing innovat

Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 6 (2021) 11–26 Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge h ps://www.jou nals.else ie .com/jou nal-o -inno a ion-and-knowledge Regula a icle Indica o s used o measu e se ice inno a ion and manu ac u ing inno a ion Fe nando Hen ique Taquesa,∗, Manuel G Lópezb, Leona do F Bassoc, Nelson A eald aMackenzie P esby e ian Uni e si y PhD S uden o Finance a he School o Business Managemen , Consolac¸ ão S ee , 896 – 7 h floo – oom 76, São Paulo 01302-000, B azil bUni e si y o San iago de Compos ela Full Time PhD Lec u e and Resea che , Applied Economics in Facul ad de Ciencias Económicas y Emp esa iales, Facul ad de Ciencias Económicas y Emp esa iales, A enue do Bu go, Campus No e, San iago de Compos ela, 15782, Spain cMackenzie P esby e ian Uni e si y, Full Time P o esso o Finance a he School o Business Managemen , Consolac¸ ão S ee , 896 – 7 h floo – oom 76, São Paulo, 01302-000, B azil dUni e si y o Minho, Associa e P o esso o Finance a he School o Economics and Managemen , Depa amen o Managemen , Uni e sidade do Minho – Escola de Economia e Ges ão, Campus de Gual a – O fice 3.29, B aga, 4710-057, Po ugal a i c l e i n o A icle his o y: Recei ed 14 Decembe 2019 Accep ed 19 Decembe 2019 A ailable online 10 Janua y 2020 JEL classifica ion: O3 O32 O33 Keywo ds: Inno a ion Mul idimensional Indica o s Se ices a b s a c Inno a ion can be a sou ce o compe i i e ad an age o companies, ei he h ough he imp o emen o me hods and echniques capable o gene a ing new p oduc s o se ices, o pe ec ing exis ing ones. Along hese lines, i is pa icula ly impo an o measu e inno a ion and discuss he esul s associa ed he ewi h. The aim o his esea ch is o add ess each o he main indica o s o o ganiza ional inno a- ion, sepa a ely discussing he ad an ages and disad an ages inhe en o hei deploymen . The esul s en ail a subs an ial heo e ical ad ancemen by imp o ing measu emen sys ems om a ious pe spec- i es: p oduc s and p ocesses, manu ac u ing and se ices, as well as inpu indica o s, in e media ies and ou pu s. Howe e , di ficul ies and limi a ions a e s ill appa en , including he so o dis o ing biases po en ially a ec ing esea che es ima es. Fu he mo e, mul idimensional indica o s p o ide a b oade and mo e p ecise iew o he inno a ion phenomenon a companies, because hey a e mo e comp ehen- si e in he unde s anding o such phenomenon pe se, unlike he one-dimensional choice, which ca ies cons ain s o discussing he eal e ec s in he o ganiza ional con ex , especially in he case o se ices. © 2019 Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge. Published by Else ie Espa˜ na, S.L.U. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC-ND license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). In oduc ion The s udy on inno a ion is di ec ly linked o wo a eas close o science: managemen and economics. The fi s one seeks o unde - s and he in e nal dimensions o inno a ion, (i.e., i s gene a ion wi hin o ganiza ional s uc u es) while he second one seeks o unde s and he e ec s o i s e olu ion wi hin companies (Kemp, Folke inga, De Jong, & Wubben, 2003). The ime ac o is impo an , because an adap i e lea ning cul u e nu u es long- e m com- pany inno a ion, especially in dynamic compe i i e en i onmen s (Ko e & Heske , 1992). The key a gumen he e is ha inno a ion can b ing business- ela ed ad an ages, bo h in e nal and ex e nal, especially h ough mo e dynamic and e ficien p oduc ion p ocesses, he gene a ion o new p oduc s and se ices, o imp o emen s in he exis ing ones. The absence o app op ia e moni o ing sys ems o inno a ion ∗Co esponding au ho . E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (F.H. Taques), [email p o ec ed] (M.G. López), [email p o ec ed] (L.F. Basso), [email p o ec ed] (N. A eal). esou ces may es ic a sui able p ojec analysis, which may imply non-op imal alloca ion (Du s , Men ion, & Pou anen, 2015). The e- o e, moni o ing inno a i e pe o mance is ele an on se e al on s: o manage s o de elop medium- and long- e m company s a egies a companies; o in es o s o make decisions e ec i ely inc easing he esou ces in es ed; o public policymake s in e ms o ax incen i a ion; o esea ch-p omo ion agencies o es ablish unding- a ge ed c i e ia; as well as o public and p i a e edu- ca ional ins i u ions o join ly conduc echnology-de elopmen p ojec s (Bo ins, 1998, Damanpou , Walke , & A ellaneda, 2009). The e is also a need o dis inguish he app op ia e measu es o manu ac u ing and se ice companies espec i ely, since he e y design o inno a ion may esul in dis o ed es ima es. Se ice companies may p esen a so o hidden o in isible inno a ion, hampe ing he adi ional me hod o manu ac u ing indica o s (Djellal & Gallouj, 2010; Gallouj & Sa ona, 2009; Mo a , 2014; Snyde , Wi ell, & Gus a sson, 2016). Acco ding o Smi h (2004), his is whe e a concep ual p oblem lies: by defini ion, inno a ion means no el y, some hing quali a i ely new, c ea ed h ough lea ning p ocesses and knowledge. Pe se, commensu abili y equi es qual- i a i e simila i ies o allow o quan i a i e compa ison, a ac ha h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jik.2019.12.001 2444-569X/© 2019 Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge. Published by Else ie Espa˜ na, S.L.U. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC-ND license (h p:// c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). F.H. Taques, M. G. López, L.F. Basso e al. Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 6 (2021) 11–26 may appea less ob ious in he se ices segmen . The e o e, he inno a ion p ocess i sel is no i ial, and may display high com- plexi y (Gunday, Ulusoy, Kilic, & Alpkan, 2011; Kim, 2013; P ajogo, 2006). Ne e heless, Du s e al. (2015) epo ha assessing he deg ee o homogenei y among inno a ion ypologies in e ms o sub- sec o s and company size may no be he bes way o measu e inno a ion in se ices. Company-size based nno a ional di e - ences a e also epo ed by Kemp e al. (2003), and Kleinknech and Mohnen (2002), since he abili y o inno a e inc eases acco ding o he o ganiza ion’s size. Consequen ly, smalle fi ms a e less likely o inno a e, bu by ca ying ou inno a ion, he sales- ela ed e ec ends o be mo e significan in la ge o ganiza ions. In he ligh o he a o emen ioned, he challenge p oposed by he exis ing li - e a u e is he e o e o adjus he indica o s o di e en inno a ion ypologies, i.e., o adequa ely measu e he inno a ion phenomenon while allowing o compa abili y, ei he in e ms o ime, indus y, o e en egion. The goal o ou esea ch is buil upon h ee co ne s ones: iden- i ying he mos ele an elemen s o he heo e ical app oach o inno a ion; lis ing and classi ying he indica o s mos equen ly used o measu e o ganiza ional inno a ion; as well as discussing he posi i e and nega i e aspec s associa ed he ewi h; and las ly, assessing he ideal con ex o adequa e measu e implemen a ion, and a po en ial adhe ence o add ess di e en company p ofiles, ei he by indus y, by company size, o o e he cou se o ime. In o de o ulfill such s eps, ou p oposed me hodology consis s o e iewing s udies ha discuss inno a ion om an o ganiza ional and measu emen -c i e ia pe spec i e, a ge ing bo h heo e ical and applied esea ch. The a ionale o such esea ch ac ually lies in he ques ion whe he he hus- a discussed indica o s may su fice o accoun o he inno a ion phenomenon a companies, and sa is ac o ily measu e he ype o inno a ion in ended. Secondly, i also aims a discussing whe he indica o choice can gene a e some kind o bias in he es ima es, o lead o he ex ac ion o sec o - ele an e i- dence. In o he wo ds, whe he choice can ca y some de e mining cha ac e is ic, po en ially dis o ing es ima es. Thi dly, i aims a e alua ing whe he one-dimensional indica o s may be su ficien in o de o measu e he inno a ion phenomenon a companies. So a , he conclusions he eo indica e ha he one-dimensional use o an inno a ion indica o is es ic i e o unde s and he inno a i e p ocess. Fo example, Boone, Lokshin, Guen e , and Belde bos (2019) a gue ha pa en s o e consis ency and objec- i eness because examine s may alida e new in en ions on hei u ili y, an impo an poin o measu e inno a ion. In con as , Jin, Ga cía, and Salomon (2019) discuss ha , while pa en s may be ideal o some indus ies, he new-p oduc indica o migh be mo e app op ia e o o he s. The use o inpu , in e media e and ou pu indica o s ends o b ing be e analy ical capaci y, ega dless o he a ge indus y. In his line, a single-dimension analysis may gene a e measu e- men bias in o ganiza ional inno a ion when empi ical wo k is conce ned, especially upon indus y o sec o compa ison, since each has a specific dynamics, hus he inno a i e e ec is nei he adequa ely obse ed no cap u ed. The same dis o ion can be obse ed in e ms o company size. The defini ion o an indica o ha is essen ially cap u ed in la ge companies can gene a e an inaccu a e unde s anding o o ganiza- ional inno a ion in mul iple-sized samples. This pe cep ion should be e alua ed by he esea che in o de o bes wo k on he use o a ailable indica o s. Ou esea ch findings a e consis en wi h some elemen s o a wo k by Dziallas and Blind (2019). He e, he au ho s seek o iden- i y 82 indica o s ele an o accoun o o ganiza ional inno a ion h ough a sys ema ic e iew p ocess, and subsequen ly epo ha he exis ence o a limi ed numbe o indica o s a he ea ly s ages o his p ocess, as well as di e ences be ween ypes o inno a ion. This esea ch is subs an ially conclusi e in discussing he ad an- ages and disad an ages o a se o 26 inno a ion indica o s, as well as conside ing hei applica ion in e ms o indus y ype, company size and ime ame. Such ea u es highligh he con ibu ion made bo h by such s udy and ou own wo k o he applica ion o indi- ca o s by inno a i e manage s and policymake s in he means o cap u ing his e ec mo e specifically in he company con ex . This a icle is di ided in o h ee sec ions, plus an in oduc- ion and he final conside a ions. The fi s sec ion discusses company-inno a ion ela ed concep s and defini ions. The second one iden ifies he main inno a ion indica o s o o ganiza ions, assessing hei ad an ages and disad an ages. The hi d one dis- cusses he mos app op ia e pe spec i es o indica o deploymen . Concep ualiza ion Al hough inno a ion is a widely deba ed no ion, i is impo an o poin ou ha he a gumen s lis ed he e a e o ien ed owa ds he o ganiza ional en i onmen . Addi ionally, only a ew o he heo- e ical aspec s a e b iefly iden ified o suppo he unde s anding o inno a ion indica o s, ye he p esence o o he s udies is consid- e ed o b oaden he deba e and con ibu e o di e en pe spec i es. Fo Damanpou e al. (2009), company inno a ion may be he esul o new ideas being applied o p oduc s, se ices, p ocesses (ope a ional o adminis a i e), o e en o he ma ke . The scope o inno a ion, he e o e, may a y o accommoda e ei he indi- iduals, he o ganiza ion as a whole, i s sec o , o he indus y in i s en i e y. In a ela ed wo k, Schumpe e (1961) p esen s widely employed concep s such as in en ion and inno a ion. On i s pa , in en ion is unde s ood as an idea abou some hing new, o ei he an o ganiza ional imp o emen , while inno a ion is seen as a esul o in en ion, i.e., he ealiza ion o he ini ially p oposed idea and i s comme cial implemen a ion. Since inno a ion is sub- sequen o in en ion, bo h can be connec ed o p oduc s, se ices, o p ocesses. Howe e , no all in en ions ansla e in o inno a ion, he e o e eaching he ma ke (E ns , 2001; F eeman & Soe e, 1997; Giu i, Ma iani, & B usoni, 2007; Hagedoo n & Clood , 2003). Hence, inno a ion can cons i u e some hing new o modified (imp o ed), and s em om a p oduc o se ice; p ocesses; o gani- za ional and ma ke ing p ac ices; o ex e nal-s akeholde ela ions (OECD, 2015). The main goal he e is o achie e e ficiency and c ea e business alue (ei he in financial o compe i i e e ms) o cus- ome s, employees, owne s, pa ne s, and consume s, s emming om a combina ion o he many ypes o inno a ion ope a ing on se e al on s o he o ganiza ional s uc u e; and influencing adap i e-change capaci y in he ma ke o ope a ion (Damanpou e al., 2009; Os om, Bi ne , & B own, 2010). The ac o inno a ion should be conduc ed con inuously and consis en ly by companies in hei decision-making (P ajogo, 2006; Sub amanian & Nilakan a, 1996). Knowledge p oduc ion and sha - ing may b ing he o ganiza ion a wide ange o ope a ional benefi s h ough lea ning p ocesses (Ba es & Khasawneh, 2005). Kemp e al. (2003) insis in ha he e olu ion o inno a ion may di e ge be ween small and medium en e p ises, since esou ce cons ain s and g ea e ulne abili y –whe he in e nal o ex e nal– in a busi- ness en i onmen may influence decision-making. Addi ionally, A undel and Hollande s (2008) sugges ha indica o s should be able o sus ain alue o e ime, as well as o con ibu e o medium- and long- e m policies. Concep ually, i should be specified ha di e en app oaches exis wi hin he inno a ion heo e ical amewo k. Classifica ions a e di e se, which o some ex en hampe s indica o compa ison. One o he mo e adi ional app oaches e e s o adical inno a ion 12 F.H. Taques, M. G. López, L.F. Basso e al. Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 6 (2021) 11–26 Table 1 Types o inno a ion by indus y. Type Manu ac u ing Se ices P oduc /Se ice - New p oduc c ea ion - Exis ing-p oduc Imp o emen h ough al e a ion o componen s o ma e ials, echnical condi ions, o unc ional imp o emen s - Adding benefi s o exis ing se ices, ei he o new o exis ing cus ome s P ocess - P oduc ion me hod al e a ion ( echniques, equipmen , o machine y) o deli e y me hod inno a ion - Exis ing-me hod imp o emen s (quali y, lead ime, o cos -p oduc ion educ ion) - Implemen a ion o new o imp o ed p ocedu es ega ding se ice dis ibu ion (applied o human esou ces, wo king me hods, equipmen , o combina ions he eo ) Ma ke ing - Remodeling in p oduc design o packaging - P omo ions and p icing s a egies o ma ke placing o p oduc s - In oduc ion o new me hods implying changes in se ices (aimed a imp o ing cus ome needs, en e ing new business ma ke s, o gaining e enue) O ganiza ional - Business p ac ices wi hin he o ganiza ion o in ex e nal ela ionships - Physical composi ion o he company - T aining p ac ices and knowledge gene a ion - Imp o emen s in employee sa is ac ion - Measu es aimed a educing adminis a i e cos s, supplies and ansac ions - Changes in a company’s ac i i ies - Mo e e ficien uses o wo k asse s and esou ces - Technical inno a ions o coope a ion wi h o he companies o enable inno a ion Sou ce: elabo a ed by he au ho s. Table compiled based on s udies by: OECD (2005); Gunday e al. (2011), and Klosiewicz-Gó ecka (2015). as some hing ac ually new, while he changes usually associa ed wi h inc emen al inno a ion a e defined as an imp o emen o e p e iously-exis ing elemen s, i.e., a con inuous p ocess o e he cou se o ime (F eeman, 1987; Kleinknech , Mon o , & B ouwe , 2002). Kingsland (2007) adds ha inc emen al inno a ion is usually associa ed wi h a lowe isk and, o his eason, ela i ely easie o implemen han adical inno a ion. Ano he widely di used classifica ion is segmen ed in o ou pe spec i es: (a) p oduc /se ice inno a ion; (b) p ocess inno a- ion; (c) ma ke ing inno a ion; and (d) o ganiza ional inno a ion (Table 1). These seek o cla i y possible ways o gene a ing inno a- ion bo h in e nally and ex e nally. The e o e, no only is he unde s anding o inno a ion as such di e se, bu also i s po en ial classifica ions – al hough simila ac oss indus ies –, illus a ing each indus y’s di e gen concep ions he eo . Kemp e al. (2003) discuss he di e ence be ween inno a ion in p oduc s/se ices and p ocesses, since hey unde s and p oduc inno a ion o be s imula ed by echnologi- cal compe i ion in e ms o he indus y’s po en ial inno a o s; he pu sui o knowledge; he e ec o he R&D o e flow on he indus y; inno a ion- ela ed expe iences as such; he di e sifica- ion po en ial o inno a ion; he use o labo a o y esea ch; and he in ensi y o capi al. Such dimensions appea o be decisi e in e ms o p ocesses; knowledge sou ces; esea ch conso ium con- s i u ion; economic compe i ion; capi al owne ship (domes ic o o eign); economic s abili y; and o ganiza ional size. Any o he a o emen ioned classifica ions allow o he possi- bili y o bo h adical o inc emen al ca ego iza ion, since hey may s em ei he om some hing new, o imp o emen s on he al eady- exis ing. In he case o p oduc s, modifica ions ela e specifically o p oduc ea u es o se ice execu ion. Fo p ocesses, adap a ions a e in place o he echniques, o e en he equipmen , in ol ed in he p oduc ion p ocess. Fo ma ke ing s a egy, planning is essen ial o he imp o emen o p ices, p oduc s, ma ke place condi ions, p omo ion o dis ibu ion logis ics channel. Finally, he o ganiza ional aspec includes any p ac ices conduc ed wi hin he o ganiza ion’s in e nal en i onmen , such as aining, o e en ex e nal ela ions wi h business pa ne s (Bloch, 2005). Once he basic concep s ha e been lis ed, pe inen a gumen s may classified acco dingly wi h he di e en ypes o indus y. The causes o inno a ion may di e be ween manu ac u ing and se ices indus ies, p esen hough i may be in bo h. While man- u ac u ing depends on he accumula ion o capabili ies, agili y in bes p ac ices is p eponde an in he se ices segmen (Kane a, Hollande s, & A undel, 2006). Ano he di e ence lies in be ween he pe spec i es o p oduc and p ocess inno a ion, such di e ence being clea e , and s ic e in se ices. The e is a much g ea e cus- ome p oximi y in se ice companies, which ansla es in o a mo e accu a e pe cep ion o he quali y se ed, while a conside able di - ficul y in he pe cep ion be ween hese wo ypes o inno a ion is also acknowledged (P ajogo, 2006; Zei haml, Pa asu aman, & Be y, 1990). Se ices ha e hei own cha ac e is ics, which means ha his pe cep ion hinde s concep ual unde s anding, consequen ly dis- cou aging he es ablishmen o alid indica o s. Th ee di e en app oaches a e o en examined in he exis ing heo e ical con- ibu ions o se ices inno a ion: assimila ion (subo dina ion), dema ca ion (au onomy), and in eg a ion (syn hesis), as desc ibed in Table 2. The pa icula i ies o se ices ep esen a cha ac e is ic o hei e y na u e – in angibili y. Human esou ces and knowledge a e undamen al elemen s in hese o ganiza ions, because inno a ion equi es c ea i i y, knowledge, skills and en ep eneu ship as a means o achie e he end. The high isk ac o h ough unce ain- ies is also a cha ac e is ic, which may be a a deg ee abo e he manu ac u ing sec o , and inno a ions may ake place in a mo e sub le way, wi h g adual a ia ions in some hing ha al eady exis s (Damanpou e al., 2009; Klosiewicz-Gó ecka, 2015; P ajogo, 2006). Wi h an inc easingly apid economic dynamics, whe e he ime equi ed ei he o p oduc de elopmen and in oduc ion o exis ing-p oduc imp o emen is inc easingly sho , con e gence occu s be ween manu ac u ing ac i i ies and se ice indus ies (P ajogo, 2006). In se e al companies he in eg a ion o se ices in hei main manu ac u ing ac i i ies is qui e appa en , as well as he ou sou cing o se ices ac i i ies in he indus ies hemsel es, which con eys he idea o some s ages o se ices p oduc ion p o- cess p og essi ely acqui ing an indus ial na u e (Kane a e al., 2006; Mo a , 2014). Du s e al. (2015) illus a e his case h ough manu ac u ing companies selling se ices supplemen a y o hei p oduc s, which amoun s o a ce ain deg ee o se ices inno a ion, while hei essen ial manu ac u ing dedica ion emains. The e o e, one may obse e whe he such con e gence is applicable o he measu emen o inno a i e aspec s wi hin o ganiza ions. Inno a ion indica o s One o he impo an poin s on inno a ion conce ns he use o app op ia e indica o s o i s measu emen . Some indica o s seek 13 F.H. Taques, M. G. López, L.F. Basso e al. Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 6 (2021) 11–26 Table 2 Classifica ions o specific inno a ions o se ices. Classifica ion Concep Cha ac e is ics Assimila ion Inno a ion in se ices is iewed as inno a ion by manu ac u ing companies - Inno a ion gene a ed by echnology adop ion o usage - Visible inno a ion, applied o p oduc s and p ocesses - Does no conside in isible o ms o inno a ion - May unde es ima e he ac ual e ec s o inno a ion in se ices Dema ca ion Inno a ion in se ices is pa icula and dis inc om inno a ion in manu ac u ing - Obse es non- echnological inno a ion - conside s isible inno a ion (new o ganiza ional s uc u es, new p oblem-sol ing al e na i es, inc easing se ices pe sonaliza ion) - Inno a ion is seen om an e olu ional o p og essi e pe spec i e In eg a ion Combines assimila ion and dema ca ion o build a b oad, c oss-indus y amewo k - Cap u es a b oade unde s anding o inno a ion - Mo e accu a e in iden i ying c oss-indus y inno a ion (se ices p esen a manu ac u ing companies, o se ices companies using manu ac u ing-applied echnologies) - Cap u es bo h angible and in angible inno a ion Sou ce: elabo a ed by he au ho s. Table compiled on he g ounds o he ollowing s udies: Mo a (2014); Pa i (1984); Gallouj and Sa ona (2009); Sundbo and Gallouj (2000); Djellal and Gallouj (2001); D eje (2004); Gallouj and Weins ein (1997); He og (2006). o e alua e how inpu s gene a e ou pu s, while o he s a e linked o he ou comes hemsel es. Inpu indica o s may unde go some so o manipula ion by he company, while ou pu indica o s end o be uncon ollable and unp edic able (Phan, 2013; Rose, Shipp, Lal, & S one, 2009). Inpu s illus a e he scope, con ex , and s uc u e o inno a ion (Phan, 2013). Howe e , hey may s ill unde go a p ocess o ans- o ma ion, called h oughpu s, whe e inpu s become in e media ies and may finally ans o m in o ou pu s (Jange , Schube , And ies, & Ramme , 2017), o e en ou comes. As an example, a company in es s ing in R&D may ob ain as a esul a egis e ed pa en . Sub- sequen ly, such pa en gene a es a new p oduc , leading o he egis a ion o inc emen al e enue figu es (Hagedoo n & Clood , 2003). A pa en , acco ding o Benei o (2006), consis s o he g an o exclusi e igh s by a compe en au ho i y o a pa icula in en ion, whe eby he applican eques s p o ec ion o a ce ain ime pe iod, ansla ing in o compe i o impossibili y o make comme cial use o i . The exis ing empi ical li e a u e lis s a wide ange o indica o s used o measu e inno a ion, ci ing pa en s, published pa en s, R&D in es men , and new p oduc launches, among o he s. Rega dless o he choice, he e a e significan limi a ions and di e ences in he aspec o be measu ed, hus i is impo an o p ope ly iden i y i s ea u es o an app op ia e use in empi ical esea ch. Rega ding inpu indica o s, Benei o (2006) defines knowledge p oduc ion as hei poin o depa u e. Such unc ion may be achie ed, o ins ance, h ough R&D in es men o expendi u e. He e, he e is a di e ence in he ac ha expendi u e amoun s o he esou ces alloca ed o c ea i e wo k in o de o inc ease he knowledge in en o y, which will consequen ly be subjec o new applica ions (OECD, 2012). F om an accoun ing pe spec i e, in es - men s a e may be s uc u ally o ien ed, a ge ing elemen s such as machine y, equipmen , and buildings, bu can also be associa ed wi h employee aining. F om an o ganiza ion’s financial pe spec- i e, majo di e ences a ec he equi y amewo k, since expenses a e conside ed P/L accoun s and he e o e dec ease ne e enue, while in es men de e mines he esou ces alloca ed in in angible asse s and comp ise asse s. Fo example, a success ul in es men , such as a new b anded p oduc , may be alloca ed no o he P/L accoun , bu o he o ganiza ion’s balance shee . Along hese lines, i is possible o place R&D expendi u es in accoun s ypically inap- p op ia e a p io i (e.g., ma ke ing ac i i ies), in o de o gene a e in o ma ion o in es o s o sha eholde s (Chen, Ga ious, & Le , 2015; Hun e , Webs e , & Wya , 2012; Lhuille y, Ra o, & Hamdan- Li amen o, 2016). Among inpu indica o s, he esou ces in es ed ei he wi h R&D, o wi h he company’s numbe o R&D-specialized employees a e p ominen . Thei ele ance o ou pu pose is subs an ial, since hey eflec he company’s inno a i e e o s. In some cases, his p ocess o R&D inpu s may no be planned, gi en some compa- nies’ lack o a specific R&D depa men . The e o e, he e is po en ial o he occasional o e en in o mal conduc ion o R&D ac i i ies (Lhuille y e al., 2016; OECD, 2015). Acco ding o his, i is also possible o con end ha hese inpu indica o s can be applied in bo h manu ac u ing and se ice fi ms. The olume o R&D expendi u e has g own o he se ices seg- men , bu s ill emains ela i ely below he manu ac u ing one. This does no necessa ily imply ha R&D in es men s a e lowe in he se ices ecosys em, bu a he ha hey end o be less o mal, and he e o e di ficul o ack down (Kane a e al., 2006; Miles, 2004). Along he same lines, Sal e and Te he (2006) a gue ha , compa ed o manu ac u ing, he lowe R&D o pa en olumes sco ed in he se ices sec o a e ma ginal. Kleinknech e al. (2002) a gue ha R&D expendi u es can come om holding companies, al hough simila ac i i ies may be con- duc ed in he g oup’s fi ms, so ha he low R&D-in ensi y ones may ake ad an age o in o ma ion om o he s belonging o he same conglome a e. They also inc ease he chances o a ’Singa- po e e ec ’, whe e mul ina ional a filia es make use o he R&D in o ma ion o ei he he g oup’s pa en o sis e companies, e en hose loca ed in o he coun ies. F om his a gumen by he au ho s, one can in e he possibili y ha a holding company ac ing in a spe- cific sec o may p ofi om inno a ion- ela ed in o ma ion wi hin i s company ne wo k e en i i has o igina ed om o he eco- nomic ac i i ies. This may en ail ano he di ficul y o wo ks o an empi ical na u e. Indeed, he au ho s a gue ha he e y defini- ion and in e p e a ion o he e m ’R&D’ may be p oblema ic o measu emen pu poses, since ques ionnai es o inqui ies may lead o complex o long ques ions, po en ially gene a ing esponden discou agemen o e en lack o unde s anding. In e media e indica o s a e especially in ended o p o ec p op- e y igh s. Benei o (2006) poin s ou ha pa en s a e aimed a p o ec ing new p oduc s o p ocesses, while indus ial designs, adema ks, and copy igh s also cons i u e p ope y igh s, ye o a di e en na u e. On he o he hand, Handke (2011) insis s on he lack o e idence p o ided by he exis ing s udies on ’copy igh s e sus pa en s’, mainly explained by he di ficul y in measu ing in ellec ual-p ope y p o ec ion and inno a ion, as well as he legal aspec s ela ed. Addi ionally, he ele ance o iden i ying comme - cial inno a ion is unde sco ed. In many coun ies, pa en s ollow he In e na ional Pa en Clas- sifica ion (IPT), de eloped since 1968 in o de o s anda dize pa en documen a ion h ough a se o uni o m s anda ds. In his way, da a sea ch has been inc easingly acili a ed, simpli ying he assessmen 14 F.H. Taques, M. G. López, L.F. Basso e al. Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 6 (2021) 11–26 o echnological ad ances in many a eas (WIPO, 2017). IPT p o ides a ele an se o pa en -o ien ed c i e ia, oge he wi h he USPTO (Uni ed S a es Pa en and T adema k O fice) in he USA, he EPO (Eu opean Pa en O fice) in Eu ope, and he INPI (Na ional Ins i u e o Indus ial P ope y) in B azil, among many o he s. The IPI classifica ion acili a es documen iden ifica ion h ough he conside a ion o la ge a eas (sec ions), app op ia ely cons i- u ing each field o knowledge. Nex , class, sub-class, g oup, and sub-g oup a e defined. The e o e, a hie a chy is imposed on he o ganiza ion o echnical knowledge, which may be subjec o mo e han one classifica ion. Th ough his sys em, i is possible o iden i y adequa ely and specifically he na u e delimi ed o he pa en (WIPO, 2017). Howe e , in o de o s anda dize sys ems and ha monize pa en classifica ions be ween he Uni ed S a es and Eu ope, in 2010 he USPTO and he EPO c ea ed he Coope - a i e Pa en Classifica ion (CPC), in o de o align pu poses and e e ence amewo ks be ween pa en agencies, while defining a s uc u e simila o he IPC model, bu wi h a conside ably mo e de ailed hie a chical sys em displaying highe complexi y, in e - na ional upda ing, and compa abili y (CPC, 2017). Pa en da abases can be pa icula ly use ul o esea ch p ojec s seeking o unde s and he c oss-coun y impac o inno a ion (62 membe s associa ed wi h he IPC) and o e ime (NBER has com- piled da a be ween 1963 and 1999; USPTO, since 1790, ull- ex display a ailable since 1976; and he EPO da a a e a ailable since 1875). Se e al au ho s classi y pa en indica o s as ou pu indica o s, especially when he concep o in e media e indica o is no con- side ed. Mo is (2008) poin s ou ha ou pu indica o s should gene a e economic esul s in e ms o inno a ion- ela ed ac i i y (inpu s). On such g ounds, i may be s a ed ha a pa en does no necessa ily gene a e economic p ofi , in he same way ha inno- a i e ac i i ies do no necessa ily esul om specific financial esou ce alloca ions, inno a ion-o ien ed hough hey may be. As Benei o s a es (2006), o ganiza ions o en ail o conside pa en s as indica o s o he inno a ion ou come, gi en hei impossibili y o co e o bo h imi a i e and inc emen al inno a ion, Taking his in o accoun , he classifica ion ollowed by his esea ch is suppo ed by Jange e al. (2017), and Kleinknech (1996), in hei suppo o in e media e inno a ion. Ano he cha ac e is ic o pa en s conce ns in en ions and inno a ions. Since in en ions ep esen ideas, hey some imes emain non-pa en ed, ei he because o hei ailu e o mee he pa en abili y c i e ia se ou by compe en agencies, o because o he p ocedu al cos s. Howe e , pa en s may occasionally no be exploi ed o economic p ofi , in which case, he o ganiza ion will deploy a s a egical use he eo (Cohen, Nelson, & Walsh, 1996; Giu i e al., 2007; Lhuille y e al., 2016). Many op ions exis in o de o measu e an o ganiza ion’s inno- a ion. In his sense, Table 3 shows some indica o s o inpu -, h oughou -, and ou pu - indica o s men ioned in he ela ed li - e a u e. A o al o wen y-six, belonging o he h ee ca ego ies ha e been discussed wi h he aim o conside ing bo h posi i e and nega i e aspec s. I should be emphasized ha a wide ange o al e na i es may ound ou side schola ly wo k. Indeed, a ia- ions o p opo ions o hese indica o s a e also p esen in se e al non-academic su eys. Inno a ional esul s may be ei he isible (new-p oduc de elopmen , o exis ing-p oduc imp o emen ), o in isible (p o- cessual imp o emen s o inc easing e ficiency). Howe e , ou pu indica o s end o poin ou o p oduc a he han p ocess inno- a ion (Kemp e al., 2003). In he se ices segmen , p ocess inno a ions a e unde s andably di ficul o dissocia e om he se - ice gene a ed, which makes measu emen mo e complex (De Jong, B uins, Dol sma, & Meijaa d, 2003). Ou pu indica o s may hus supplemen inpu ones, o e ing a eplicable measu emen sys em o inno a ion ou comes, o consequen ly eliable sou ces (i does no depend on company disclosu e), and e u ning easily quan- ifiable, diach onically compa able alues (Link, 1995). Howe e , his las obse a ion p io i izes applicabili y o manu ac u es, since some se ice indica o s do no sha e his cha ac e iza ion. The ou pu s o se ice companies he e o e show pa icula - i ies s emming om a wide ange o o he cha ac e is ics, such as: imma e iali y/in angibili y; simul anei y; pe ishabili y; he e o- genei y; in e ac i i y; and co-p oduc ion. The poin s add essed in he able can be summa ized in some aspec s: (a) Inpu indica o s ep esen he company’s inno a- ion e o s, ha is, hey comp ise he a ailable in o ma ion on expenses, human capi al alloca ion, o inno a i e ini ia i es; (b) On hei pa , in e media e indica o s sha e ea u es such as public a ailabili y o in o ma ion, and he highes le el o de ail ega d- ing inno a ion ypes; (c) ou pu indica o s can measu e di e en aspec s o he inno a i e ou come, ha is, hey de e mine he deg ee o inno a ion gene a ed, and o en he depa men linked o he ou come. A combina ion o he h ee ypes o inno a ion is app op ia e inso a as one se o indica o s cap u es di e en ac o s om he o he s, and hei combina ion in ol es a b oade pe spec i e o o ganiza ional inno a ion. Howe e , combining he h ee indica o pe spec i es o e a ela i ely long ime pe iod amoun s o a challenge. Indica o s depending on ques ionnai es end o be empo ally mo e es ic- i e, al hough b oade in hei o ganiza ional inno a ion bias. In ac , he choice o only one ype, whe he an indica o o inpu , in e media e o ou pu , appea s as insu ficien and may en ail unde es ima ion o inno a ion in he o ganiza ion. Imma e iali y/in angibili y e e s o i ems ha canno be app e- hended by he physical senses. Simul anei y conce ns he ac o concu en ly p oducing and consuming he se ice, i.e., no seg- men a ion exis s be ween means o p oduc ion and consump ion. Pe ishabili y ensu es ha se ices a e used as o e ed, i.e., he e is no possibili y o s o age, e u n, sale o e en subsequen use. He - e ogenei y e e s o a po en ial a iabili y in he quali y pa ame e s o he se ices, since hey a e ansmi ed om people o peo- ple (Au ich, Mannweile , & Schwei ze , 2010). In e ac i i y is he ela ionship be ween consume s and supplie s, which can ans- la e in o di e en modali ies, especially he in o ma ion exchanges ega ding he issue in ques ion, as well as he compila ion o consume -app o ed guidelines and ecommenda ions (Djellal & Gallouj, 2016; Miles, 2010). Co-p oduc ion is ela ed o in e ac i - i y, as illus a ed by he scena io in which supplie s and cus ome s in e ac and coope a e o gene a e he bes ou come (Miles, 2010). The lis o indica o s comp ises: ad-hoc inno a ion (new solu ions o exis ing p oblems, such as echnological pla - o ms); ma ke ing inno a ion (cons i u ion o alliances, b and s eng hening, pa ne ela ions); and o ganiza ional inno a ion (o ganiza ional me hods co-p oduce cus ome s, new se ices combina ions, o manage ial con ol s anda diza ion) (Gallouj, 2002; Miles, 2004; Mo a , 2014). Rega dless o he so o indica o , ano he impo an consid- e a ion conce ns in o ma ion confiden iali y (Kleinknech e al., 2002). Because o i s s a egic, i is a ely conduc ed in de ail, which hinde s a be e unde s anding o he phenomenon. Rega ding ques ionnai es, examples o ypical di ficul ies a e e o s du ing he comple ing p ocess; he p o ision o inco ec in o ma ion ( e - i ying he da a is impossible); o he esponden ’s subjec i i y, especially in closed-end ques ions wi h scale le els. Rega ding he choice o a single indica o o measu e inno a ion, Hagedoo n and Clood (2003) a gue ha se e al s udies op o a specific one, e en conside ing he limi a ions his may en ail. Along he same lines, A undel and Hollande s (2005), and Kim (2013), speci y ha indica o choices may no adequa ely ep esen com- pany inno a ion, e en i es ic ed o a specific sec o o coun y, as 15 F.H. Taques, M. G. López, L.F. Basso e al. Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 6 (2021) 11–26 Table 3 Inno a ion indica o s. Type Indica o Ad an ages Disad an ages Inpu a) R&D Expenses b) Numbe o employees conduc ing R&Db - Rep esen s a company’s inno a i e e o s - Success ul R&D expendi u es a ime gene ally en ail new expendi u e a + 1 - Allows he amoun s o be subdi ided by ype (p oduc o p ocess) - Allows segmen a ion o he ype o esea ch ca ied ou by he o ganiza ion (basic, applied, and de elopmen wo k) - Does no ac as an indica o o he ac ual in oduc ion o new p oduc s, se ices, o p ocesses - Does no measu e o he inpu s, such as: p oduc design, ma ke analysis, aining, fixed-asse in es men s o inno a ion, o e en p oduc ion on an expe imen al basis - P opensi y o unde es ima e R&D a small companies in s anda dized su eys (mo e igo ous concep in o ficial su eys) Inpu Non-R&D expendi u e on ex e nal inno a ion - Allows addi ional in es men s in inno a ion measu emen , such as: equipmen and machine y, pa en and license acquisi ion, non-pa en ed in en ion pu chase, know-how, adema ks, so wa e, sp eading o new echnologies and p oduc ion ideas. - Iden ifies expenses po en ially p eponde an a he se ices sec o - Tendency o concen a e in o ma ion in he financial in e media ion sec o - Inclina ion o unde es ima e he amoun in small businesses - Does no pinpoin he ype o inno a ion associa ed - Does no indica e whe he he e was inc emen al inno a ion, o in oduc ion o a new p oduc o se ice Inpu a) Employees wi h highe educa ion, mas e ’s deg ee and PhDb b) T aining o de elop skillsb c) Lack o qualified pe sonnelb - A es s he le el o employee qualifica ion, indica i e o inno a i e po en ial - Iden ifies whe he he non-a ailabili y o skilled labo is a limi ing ac o o inno a ion a he o ganiza ion - The composi ion o high qualifica ion and aining ends o gene a e knowledge o o he employees and a lea ning cu e o he company - Allows o compa abili y be ween indus ies and companies o he same sec o - Can be moni o ed o e ime in bo h absolu e and ela i e e ms - Qualifica ion le el does no necessa ily imply e ec i e inno a ion Small businesses end o show his indica o in lowe quan i y o lowe p opo ion Indica o composi ion a ime ends o esul in inno a ions only in la e pe iods - Suscep ible o a ia ions in he collec ion cycle (lack o pe sonnel may be a a low le el in he collec ion, and in subsequen mon hs inc ease conside ably, e u ning o he ini ial le el a e he end o he cycle) - Quan i y o aining cou ses o aining hou s does no an amoun o he ac ual de elopmen o he a ge ed skills Inpu Quan i y o non- echnological changesb - Indica es inc emen al and adical inno a ion o bo h p oduc s and p ocesses - Add esses c ea ions and changes connec ed o ma ke ing, s a egy, managemen , and o ganiza ional s uc u e - Se ices companies end o ela e a subs an ial pa o hei inno a ion wi h non- echnological changes - Subjec i i y o iden i y a significan , non- echnological change - Iden ifies only whe he he e was inno a ion, bu does no quan i y i s ac ual ele ance - Po en ial di ficul ies o esponden s o dis inguish and define s a egic inno a ion, managemen inno a ion, and o ganiza ional inno a ion Inpu Quan i y o knowledge sou cesb - Focuses on ela ionship be ween cus ome and se ice p o ide o gene a e inno a ion - Coope a ion and knowledge di usion be ween se ices companies and manu ac u ing ones ends o di e - Measu es a ious sou ces ega ding he p o enance o inno a ion- ela ed in o ma ion: coope a ion ag eemen s be ween companies, ins i u es, uni e si ies, supplie s, cus ome s, compe i o s - Does no measu e he ele ance o each knowledge sou ce - Limi ed in he iden ifica ion o how much was con ibu ed by each knowledge sou ce - Coope a ion and di usion a e likely o ansla e in o inno a ion o e he cou se o ime - Does no iden i y cos s associa ed wi h inno a ion knowledge sou ces Inpu Expenses on ICT (in o ma ion and communica ion echnology) b - Co e s mode n echnologies, p esen a high- ech companies - Includes in o ma ion ega ding expenses on o fice machine y, equipmen (da a p ocessing, communica ion and elecommunica ions) and se ices and elecommunica ions so wa e - Cap u es inno a ion esul ing om he widesp ead use o new IT equipmen , se ices, and so wa e - E o s a ime only end o co ela e esul s a + 1, o e en la e pe iods - The e may be di ficul y in concep ual design (classi ying as ICT when i does no all unde such ca ego y) - Expense co ela ion in he pa en company may dis o he in o ma ion ecei ed by o he companies in he g oup Inpu a) Lack o cus ome esponsi enessb b) Lack o app op ia e sou ces o undingb - Iden ifies inno a i e demand ac o s - Indica es cus ome le el o commi men o new p oduc s o se ices ia esponsi eness - Repo s a common p oblem in he se ice s sec o , bu also p esen in manu ac u ing - E alua es whe he he absence o financing is a limi ing ac o o inno a ion p og ess wi hin he o ganiza ion - Subjec i i y in iden i ying commi men - Does no measu e he deg ee o commi men - Does no classi y in e media e esponse op ions (de o ing a po ion o financials o inno a ion) Tendency o p esen inc easingly p onounced alues upon company size dec ease Di ficul y in compa ing companies o di e en sizes In e -media y Pa en publica ion - Allows compa ison o company pe o mance - Rega dless o he ype o inno a ion, can lead o he pa en ing p ocess - Rele an in high- ech sec o s - Gene ally, da abases include a conside able ime se iesa - Dis u bances occu only h ough legal decisionsa - Public A ailabili ya - De ailing by ype o pa en a - No all pa en able inno a ions a e ac ually pa en ed, and no all inno a ions a e pa en ablea - Companies may p e e no o comme cialize hei pa en o p e en i s use by compe i o s - The e can be a significan di e ence be ween pa en ed inno a ions in e ms o quali y - Pa en beha io ac oss coun ies and sec o s may be di e en - Di e ences be ween la ge and small companies a e no acknowledged - Pa en s co e only pa o he inno a ion e olu ional pa e n 16 F.H. Taques, M. G. López, L.F. Basso e al. Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 6 (2021) 11–26 Table 3 (Con inued) Type Indica o Ad an ages Disad an ages In e -media y a) Pa en eques s b) Pa en applica ion - App op ia ely measu es ideas o new p oduc s o p ocesses - Indica es he ele ance o he pa en - Indica es he deg ee o which a pa en is ci ed in subsequen pa en s ( o pa en egis a ion, p e ious pa en s mus be men ioned) - Con ibu ions a e egis e ed in public o p i a e o ganiza ions, and he e o e aceable - Technical e alua ion o defining he pa en , his is no educ ion o subjec i i y - Ex ensi e coope a ion be ween coun ies o make da a a ailable - A p oxy o he knowledge indica o , pa icula ly linked o he I&D a iable, and no o he p oduc ion o inno a ion - May o e es ima e inno a ion, since pa en ed echnologies a e no always used - Requi es specific knowledge o in e p e ci a ions gene a ed by egis e ed pa en s - Iden ical weigh be ween pa en s, does no cap u e pa en impo ance - S a egic use by companies o mislead compe i o s - The same pa en may be filed in mo e han one ju isdic ion, which may dis o o al pa en numbe s In e -media y a) Numbe o adema ks b) Numbe o adema ks applied c) Numbe o designs applied - Regis a ion wi h public o p i a e o ganiza ions, bu wi h no acking - Public a ailabili y - Measu es design egis a ions: packaging, g aphic symbols and g aphic ypes - Iden ifies inno a ion associa ed wi h disassembled and eassembled p oduc s - Iden ifies ac o s o in oducing a new se ice on he ma ke , which can be p esen a small companies - Indica o simila o pa en s, bu widely used o se ice companies - A b and may be p o ec ed by se e al adema ks, he e o e linked o se e al ypes o adema ks - Plain coun ing as an indica o may o e es ima e a company’s adema k egis a ion - T adema ks classifica ion may be di e en om he sec o classifica ion model, which may esul in some dis o ion - Di ficul ies o compa abili y a an in e na ional le el Ou pu a) Sales o inno a i e o imi a ed p oduc sb b) Sales o inno a i e and imi a ed p oduc sb - Inco po a es p oduc s wi h new echnologies o applica ion o c ea i i y o a gi en exis ing echnology (a ac o ha con ibu ed owa d measu ing inno a ion in se ices) - Allows o iden ifica ion o new p oduc s o he company, bu ha exis a compe i o s (imi a ion), h ough a p ocess o inc emen al imp o emen - The e is a way o e i y he in oduc ion o new p oduc s o he company’s ma ke o ope a ions (inno a ion) - The combined indica o measu es bo h he c ea ion o echnologies (new p oduc s on he ma ke ) and he di usion he eo (new p oduc s o companies) - Dependen on app oxima e company es ima es - Sensi i i y o he economic cycle, which can dis o pe cep ions ega ding he indica o - Complex compa ison o echnology be ween sec o s (p oduc /se ice li e cycle di e en be ween sec o s in a mo e p onounced way) - By defini ion, i is impo an o specifically conside he concep o a new ma ke Ou pu New p oduc announcemen - Easy o collec - No need o fill ou ques ionnai es - Possibili y o segmen ing he ype o inno a ion (new p oduc s, imp o emen s in exis ing p oduc s o di e en ia ion o p oduc s) - The deg ee o inno a ion complexi y can be measu ed acco ding o a pa icula c i e ion - Allows one o inco po a e inno a ions o small companies wi h ela i ely low cos o in o ma ion - Allows ime-based acking o in o ma ion - A wide ange o sec o s can be inco po a ed - Da a can be disagg ega ed a a egional le el - New announcemen s a e gi en by companies, wi hou any kind o ballas - In o ma ion is gene a ed by he numbe o jou nals co e ing he in o ma ion - C oss-coun y compa ison is linked o he p opo ion gene a ed in a gi en scope in ela ion o he o al - Limi a ions o adop s a is ical p ocedu es o sampling and popula ion - C i e ia o da a collec ion and p ocessing by jou nals may influence ou come - Only published p oduc s and se ices inno a ions a e measu ed, i.e., no p ocess inno a ions a e epo ed - Companies may adop o he channels o dissemina ion/publica ion Ou pu People engaged in knowledge-in ensi e ac i i iesb - In o ma ion on human capi al alloca ion gene a ing knowledge in he business scope, ega dless o hei educa ional le el - Sou ces o in ensi e ac i i ies include: a) se ices p o ision o di ec ly o consume s, b) p o ision o he inno a i e ac i i ies by o he companies - Allows confi ma ion whe he whe he knowledge is dis ibu ed be ween he o ganiza ion’s a eas/depa men s - Does no measu e he deg ee o con ibu ion o he knowledge - Subjec i i y in he iden ifica ion o he knowledge gene a ed o he o ganiza ion - Di ficul y in indica ing which ype o inno a ion i e e s o - Complexi y o measu e ac i i ies exclusi ely o consume s and o o he companies, in he case o a single depa men in he o ganiza ion Ou pu P o ec ion o inno a ion du ing he esea ch pe iodb - Measu es company ini ia i es o p o ec inno a ion du ing i s de elopmen - Co e s bo h se ices and manu ac u ing companies when conside ing he applica ion o pa en s, adema ks, copy igh s, o o he measu es seeking o p o ec inno a i e ideas - Allows p o ec ion ini ia i es a small companies o be iden ified - Iden ifies only he ini ia i e, bu no he ou come o he applica ion o inno a ion p o ec ion - Mo e han one p o ec ion mechanism can be linked o he same inno a ion - Possibili y o cen alizing in o ma ion a he pa en company - Possible dis o ion in c oss-coun y compa ison by he inno a ion p o ec ing sys ems exis ing in each o hem 17 F.H. Taques, M. G. López, L.F. Basso e al. Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 6 (2021) 11–26 Table 3 (Con inued) Type Indica o Ad an ages Disad an ages Ou pu In oduc ion o inno a ionb- Iden ifies he o inno a ion achie emen s unde di e en o ms, o se ices as well as o manu ac u es, and ac oss sec o s - Confi ms inno a ion in ou dimensions: p oduc s, p ocesses, ma ke ing, o o ganiza ion - Cap u es bo h new and inc emen al inno a ions - Allows iden ifica ion o he ype o inno a ion associa ed wi h each o he o ganiza ion’s depa men s - Does no measu e inno a ion ele ance - Subjec i i y when defining inc emen al inno a ion - Depends on ques ionnai es - Res ic ed compa abili y be ween indica o s o inno a ion in oduc ion ( o example, whe he p ocessual inno a ion was mo e ele an han he o ganiza ional one) - The e is no in o ma ion ballas because he in o man is he company i sel Sou ce: elabo a ed by he au ho s. Table compiled wi h he aid o he ollowing wo ks: A chibugi (1992); A undel and Kabla (1998); Benei o (2006); Blind e al. (2003); B ouwe and Kleinknech (1996); Eu opean Commission (2017); G iliches (1998); G iliches and Pakes (1980); Hagedoo n and Clood (2003); Hipp and G upp (2005); Hollande s and Janz (2013); Jange e al. (2017); Kane a e al. (2006); Kemp e al. (2003); Kleinknech (1993); Kleinknech e al. (2002); Mansfield (1986); Mendonc¸ a, Pe ei a, and Godinho (2004)); Michel and Be els (2001); Na in and Oli as o (1988); Ra o and Lhuille y (2008); Nelson and Win e (1982); OECD (2015); Velling (2002). aAlso alid o pa en eques s and applica ions. bIncludes indica o s ob ained h ough ques ionnai es. well as c oss-coun y compa isons. Phan (2013) ponde s ano he ele an a gumen abou he use o inpu indica o s only, since he inc ease he eo does no necessa ily imply ou pu s, ha i.e., expendi u es will no necessa ily p oduce ou comes in e ms o ou pu . I he choice o a single indica o can be a limi ing ac o o assess he eal e ec o business inno a ion, i is also possible o dis inguish ad an ages and disad an ages in he case o mul- idimensional indica o s. Among he posi i e aspec s, one may highligh he mi iga ion o dis o ions esul ing om he use o a single indica o , which esul s in a b oade unde s anding o he concep o inno a ion. Mo eo e , i iden ifies he con ibu ion asso- cia ed o each o he indica o s comp ised by he mul idimensional a iable. Howe e , among he nega i e aspec s a e he s uc u al complexi y and po en ial limi a ions in e ms o da a compa abili y wi h o he da abases (Ama a, Land y, & Dolo eux, 2009; Hagedoo n & Clood , 2003). Unde his amewo k, he cons uc ion o specific measu e- men s wi h wo o mo e indica o s seems easible, h ough conside a ion o he sample ea u es, he pa icula i ies o each coun y and indus y, among o he ac o s. Ne e heless, his con- s uc ion may limi ou unde s anding o he phenomenon i sel . In o he wo ds, s udies may p esen cases so pa icula ha any gen- e aliza ions ega ding he me hod o inno a ion measu emen o diach onic da a collec ion seem di ficul . Discussion Phan (2013) assu es ha mos o he exis ing esea ch in ou field o in e es in ol es a combina ion o inpu and ou pu indi- ca o s, ocusing on specific a eas, i.e., segmen s, such as high echnology o se ices, among o he s. Mo a (2014) also a gues ha , un il ecen ly, he se ices indus y was seen as a segmen o non-inno a i e na u e, o inno a i e only ega ding echnol- ogy use, as a esul o i s concep ual app oach o assimila ion. Despi e he impo ance o he se ices sec o o wo ldwide econ- omy, he e is a ce ain limi a ion in he exis ing s udies seeking o unde s and inno a ion in se ices. Measu emen o indus ial inno a ion is he e o e mo e consolida ed in economic li e a u e han he one ega ding se ices inno a ion (De Jong & Ve meulen, 2003). F om a sec o al pe spec i e, schola ly wo k acknowledges di e ences be ween he ac i i ies pe o med by manu ac u ing and se ices companies, which also equi es pa icula i ies in he ea men o c oss-sec o inno a ion (Miles, 2001). Howe e , he essen ial app oach o inno a ion is he indus ial segmen , wi h a ocus on bo h p ocess and p oduc inno a ion, esul ing in a p i- ma y unde s anding o manu ac u ing wi hin se ices companies (Mo a , 2014). Rega ding manu ac u ing companie, he e is a na u al, e ol - ing endency in e ms o inno a ion, whe eas se ice companies do no necessa ily display such cha ac e is ic, so ha he logic o inno a ion can be conside ably di e en (Damanpou e al., 2009). Acco dingly, a compa ison exclusi ely in ol ing indica o s o he flow be ween he se ices and manu ac u ing indus ies may lead o dis o ions, since in en o y inno a ion a manu ac u ing compa- nies ends o be an impo an inno a i e componen . Discussions a a sec o al le el a e pa icula ly ele an o indica o choice, since, acco ding o some au ho s, a la ge pa o he ou comes gene a ed by inno a ion a e no pa en able – a scena io implying dis o ions, pa icula ly in he se ices indus y (A undel & Kabla, 1998; Jange e al., 2017). This s ems om he ac ha pa en s a e mo e sui able o indus ies, while egis e ed adema ks a e mo e equen among se ices companies, because o hei di e ing ea u es. Technical and scien ific knowledge, a long-pe iod p o- cess, is a p e equisi e o pa en de elopmen , whe eas adema k in oduc ion does no equi e as much knowledge o his na u e; i may be as e o ma ke inse ion and does no necessa ily in ol e pa en ing (Kane a e al., 2006). On he o he hand, pa en s may also exhibi significan ly di - e en p opensi ies ac oss di e en indus ies o sec o s, especially hose posi ioned in high- ech segmen s. Hence, hese sec o s end o include a conside able numbe o pa en s in ela ion o he o he s, and measu ing di ficul ies may hampe sec o al analysis, possibly gene a ing bias in empi ical e idence (Jange e al., 2017). Simila ly, in he case o R&D expendi u e, his being he only indica o in ol ed, he eal e ec o inno a ion may be dis o ed. Since his indica o comp ises a sca ce po ion o he o al inno a- ion expendi u e, fixed-asse in es men s by o ganiza ions end o sco e significan alues o his a iable, cha ac e ized by p oduc inno a ion. Such c i e ion a o s he indus ial segmen o e he se ices one, unde es ima ing i s e ec on he la e (B ouwe & Kleinknech , 1997; Kleinknech e al., 2002). Table 4 lis s he p esen cons ain s o some g oups o o ga- niza ional inno a ion indica o s, and ponde s a o able ac o s o hei compa a i e use. As can be obse ed in ou able, an ex emely small numbe o indica o s ely on he gene al public o ob ain hei da a, occasion- ally o o ficial na u e, collec ed by he means o special acking sys ems, and subjec o hi d-pa y e ifica ion (consul an s, accoun ing fi ms, o o he s). Indica o s wi h hese cha ac e is ics a e use ul because hey ha e an e ec i e in o ma ion e ifica ion ballas . Indeed, i collec ed h ough manage -dis ibu ed ques ion- nai es, he in o ma ional ou come may con ain some bias gi en 18 F.H. Taques, M. G. López, L.F. Basso e al. Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 6 (2021) 11–26 Table 4 Cons ain s o g oups o indica o s. Indica o Sou ce o da a collec ed / disclosed Can segmen by ype o inno a ion Collec ion A ailable by Indus y Type Company Size Applica ion Possible o build ime se ies Compa ison be ween scope companies a) R&D Expenses b) Numbe o people conduc ing R&D ( ) Public ( ) P i a e - Thi d Pa ies (X) Company - O ficial Publica ion (X) Company - Manage : Ques ionnai e ( ) P oduc ( ) Se ice ( ) P ocess ( ) Ma ke ing ( ) O ganiza ional (X) None (X) Manu ac u ing(X) Se ices(X) Mic o businesses (X) Small Business (X) Medium sized companies (X) La ge companies ( ) Sho e m ( ) Medium e m (X) Long e m (X) Coun ies (X) Sec o s ( ) Only in own coun y ( ) In own sec o only Expendi u e on ex e nal inno a ion no ela ed o R&D ( ) Public ( ) P i a e - Thi d Pa ies ( ) Company - O ficial Publica ion (X) Company - Manage : Ques ionnai e ( ) P oduc ( ) Se ice ( ) P ocess ( ) Ma ke ing ( ) O ganiza ional (X) None (X) Manu ac u ing (X) Se ices ( ) Mic o businesses ( ) Small Business (X) Medium sized companies (X) La ge companies (X) Sho e m ( ) Medium e m ( ) Long e m (X) Coun ies (X) Sec o s ( ) Only in own coun y ( ) In own sec o only a) Employees wi h highe educa ion, mas e ’s deg ee and PhD b) T aining o de elop skills c) Lack o qualified pe sonnel ( ) Public ( ) P i a e - Thi d Pa ies ( ) Company - O ficial Publica ion (X) Company - Manage : Ques ionnai e ( ) P oduc ( ) Se ice ( ) P ocess ( ) Ma ke ing ( ) O ganiza ional (X) None (X) Manu ac u ing (X) Se ices ( ) Mic o businesses (X) Small Business (X) Medium sized companies (X) La ge companies (X) Sho e m ( ) Medium e m ( ) Long e m (X) Coun ies (X) Sec o s ( ) Only in own coun y ( ) In own sec o only Quan i y o non- echnological changes ( ) Public ( ) P i a e - Thi d Pa ies ( ) Company - O ficial Publica ion (X) Company - Manage : Ques ionnai e ( ) P oduc ( ) Se ice ( ) P ocess ( ) Ma ke ing ( ) O ganiza ional (X) None (X) Manu ac u ing (X) Se ices ( ) Mic o businesses ( ) Small Business (X) Medium sized companies (X) La ge companies (X) Sho e m ( ) Medium e m ( ) Long e m (X) Coun ies (X) Sec o s ( ) Only in own coun y ( ) In own sec o only Quan i y o knowledge sou ces ( ) Public ( ) P i a e - Thi d Pa ies ( ) Company - O ficial Publica ion (X) Company - Manage : Ques ionnai e ( ) P oduc ( ) Se ice ( ) P ocess ( ) Ma ke ing ( ) O ganiza ional (X) None (X) Manu ac u ing (X) Se ices ( ) Mic o businesses ( ) Small Business (X) Medium sized companies (X) La ge companies (X) Sho e m ( ) Medium e m ( ) Long e m (X) Coun ies (X) Sec o s ( ) Only in own coun y ( ) In own sec o only Expenses on ICT (in o ma ion and communica ion echnology) ( ) Public ( ) P i a e - Thi d Pa ies ( ) Company - O ficial Publica ion (X) Company - Manage : Ques ionnai e ( ) P oduc ( ) Se ice ( ) P ocess ( ) Ma ke ing ( ) O ganiza ional (X) None (X) Manu ac u ing (X) Se ices ( ) Mic o businesses ( ) Small Business (X) Medium sized companies (X) La ge companies (X) Sho e m ( ) Medium e m ( ) Long e m (X) Coun ies (X) Sec o s ( ) Only in own coun y ( ) In own sec o only a) Lack o cus ome esponsi eness b) Lack o app op ia e sou ces o unding ( ) Public ( ) P i a e - Thi d Pa ies ( ) Company - O ficial Publica ion (X) Company - Manage : Ques ionnai e ( ) P oduc ( ) Se ice ( ) P ocess ( ) Ma ke ing ( ) O ganiza ional (X) None (X) Manu ac u ing (X) Se ices ( ) Mic o businesses ( ) Small Business (X) Medium sized companies (X) La ge companies (X) Sho e m ( ) Medium e m ( ) Long e m (X) Coun ies (X) Sec o s ( ) Only in own coun y ( ) In own sec o only 19 F.H. 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