Užsienio terminologijos mokyklų apžvalga

FROM FOREIGN TERMINOLOGY OVERVIEW OF FOREIGN TERMINOLOGY SCHOOLS Attempts to lay the foundations of terminology as a science were made in the fourth decade of the 20th century. Interest in terminology arose simultaneously in several countries—Austria, Germany, Russia, and Czechoslovakia. The works of scholars from these countries make it possible to distinguish two schools of terminology: the Vienna School and the Russian School. Representatives of these schools adhere to similar principles; the only difference is which part of the theory receives the greatest attention. Three approaches can be observed, which are essentially not mutually contradictory: ▪ Terminology is an interdisciplinary yet independent science. General terminology theory is based on the view that the most important aspects are the nature of concepts, their relationships, and the relations between terms and concepts. This move from concept to term distinguishes the methods of terminology from those of lexicography. ▪ The greatest emphasis is placed on philosophy, that is, the logical classification of systems of concepts. ▪ The main emphasis is placed on linguistics, which regards terminology as part of the language’s lexicon and special languages as subsystems of the general language. Linguistic and lexicographic methods are applied to terminology (Felber 1984: 31; Cabré 1999: 7). The Vienna School is based on the works of the Austrian scholar and engineer E. Wüster. In 1931, he was awarded a doctoral degree for his dissertation, “Internationale Sprachennormung in der Technik” (“International Standardization of Technical Language”), defended at the University of Stuttgart. In the same year, the work, which set out the foundations of terminology theory, was expanded and published. In 1935, the book was translated and published in the USSR. This work, which remains relevant to this day, views terminology as a means of communication and examines the nature of concepts, their interrelationships and properties, definitions, term formation, and the standardization and internationalization of concepts and terms. The result of E. Wüster’s terminological research was general terminology theory. An important aspect of this theory is the standardization of concepts and terms. 119 After World War II, E. Wüster devoted most of his time to developing terminology principles for ISO (the International Organization for Standardization). He himself prepared drafts of almost all the documents. The result of E. Wüster’s many years of work was some 500 publications on terminology, terminology standardization, documentation, transliteration, the theory of symbols, classification, thesaurus theory, UDC (Universal Decimal Classification), and other subjects. E. Wüster’s colleague and follower H. Felber considers the following among his most important works: „Internationale Vereinheitlichung von technischen Fachausdrücken“ („International standardization of technical terms“) (1957), „Das Worten der Welt“ („Naming the world“) (1959), „Die Struktur der sprachlichen Begriffswelt und ihre Darstellung in Wörterbüchern“ („The structure of the linguistic world of concepts and its presentation in dictionaries“) (1959), „Begriffs- und Themaklassifikationen. Unterschiede in ihrem Wesen und ihrer Anwendung“ („Concept and subject classifications. Differences in their nature and application“) (1971), „Die Umkehrung einer Begriffsbeziehung und ihre Kennzeichnung in Wörterbüchern“ („The inversion of a conceptual relation and its designation in dictionaries“) (1974) (Felber 1984: 34). E. Wüster’s ideas are presented concisely in his own introduction to general terminology theory and terminography, prepared for students attending a terminology course at the University of Vienna. „Einführung in die Allgemeine Terminologielehre und terminologische Lexikographie“ („Introduction to general terminology theory and terminography“) was published after E. Wüster’s death in 1979 as volume 8 of „Schriftenreihe der Technischen Universität Wien“. For more on E. Wüster, see Terminologija 5, 126–129. The ideas of the Vienna School were further developed by H. Felber, G. Budin, C. Galinski, and W. Nedobity. Worth mentioning is the teaching aid prepared by H. Felber, „Terminology manual“ („Terminology manual“) (UNESCO, Paris, 1984). The most distinctive feature of the Vienna School is its focus on concepts and its orientation of terminology work toward the standardization of terms and concepts. Terminology is primarily the concern of specialists in individual fields. Most Central and Northern European countries—Austria, Germany, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark—work in this direction. Theoretical foundations of the Russian terminology school began to be developed in the early 1930s. Their development was interrupted— 120 —at the beginning of the 1930s. The methodology of terminology work was presented quite professionally by Dmitry Lotte, the founder of the Russian terminology school. Although trained as an engineer rather than a linguist, he examined with considerable expertise such linguistic phenomena of special vocabulary as synonymy, polysemy and homonymy, word formation and word combinations, the abbreviation of various types of lexical forms, the borrowing and assimilation of lexemes and morphemes; he established general principles for terminology management and set out the key requirements for an “ideal” term. The works of D. Lotte, E. Drezen, G. Vinokur, and A. Reformatsky laid the foundations of Russian terminology. In 1933, the Commission on Technical Terminology (Комиссия технической терминологии) was established at the USSR Academy of Sciences; it was later succeeded by the Committee for Scientific and Technical Terminology, and today by the Committee for Scientific Terminology (Комитет научной терминологии), whose principal task was to develop a theory of terminology and a methodology for terminology management. The second stage in the development of terminology in the Soviet Union began in the late 1940s and continued until the late 1960s. During this period, the status of the term was examined, giving rise to heated debate (in the works of A. Reformatsky, L. Kapanadze, and others), along with the relationship between terms and nomenclatural names, the logical aspects of terminology, and issues of term translation. The next stage in the development of Russian terminology, during the 1970s and 1980s, was marked by a sharp increase in terminology publications, an expansion in the geographical scope of research, and the emergence of regional centers and terminology groups. The principal research direction became the almost standardized structural-semantic description of specific terminological systems. Moscow remained the center of terminology, with terminology work being carried out in several organizations in the city. The Committee for Scientific and Technical Terminology continued the research initiated by D. Lotte. At the Moscow Institute of Printing, T. Kandelaki began teaching the first specialized course in terminology theory. Intensive and wide-ranging terminology research was conducted at the Faculty of Philology of Moscow State University, where P. Denisov, V. Danilenko, V. Leichik, V. Prokhorova, P. Veselov, and R. Cagolova worked. In addition, Prof. O. Akhmanova’s terminology group was established there, with G. Agapova, N. Gvi 121 shiani, M. Glushko, S. Grinyov, and V. Nalepin among its members, and one of the first Russian-school textbooks on terminology, „Terminology: Theory and Method“ („Terminology: Theory and Methods“), was published. At that time, the Leningrad terminology center emerged, focusing primarily on historical terminology research (L. Kutina, F. Sorokoletov, E. Konovalova, E. Chiupilina, A. Gerd), terminography (A. Gerd, A. Moiseev, M. Antonova), and the study of nomenclature (L. Komolova). B. Golovin founded the Gorky terminology group. Its members included R. Kobrin, V. Nemchenko, K. Averbukh, L. Pekarskaya, O. Makarichina, and others. The group stood out for its broader application of methods of linguistic statistics, its search for the most common models of term formation, and its study of problems in automating terminology research, among other things. During the 1970s and 1980s, the collection „Термин и слово“ („Term and Word“) was published at Gorky State University; it carried articles on the specific nature of terms and terminological systems, the functioning of terms in scholarly texts, and comparative studies of terms in different languages. At around the same time as the Gorky group, the Voronezh group emerged under the leadership of S. Ivanov and E. Anyushkin. It devoted considerable attention to problems of terminography, studied technical terminology, and made extensive use of statistical methods. In the 1980s, Voronezh terminologists published the collection of scholarly works „Отраслевая терминология“ („Branch Terminology“). The collections examined current terminology problems associated with the creation, functioning, and development of the terminology of economic sectors. Terminology research was also conducted in Omsk and Chelyabinsk. The Omsk terminology center, led by L. Tkacheva, studied extralinguistic processes in terminology, the sociolinguistic aspects of term creation, and the ideologization of scientific and technical terms. The Chelyabinsk terminology group, founded by L. Shkatova, addressed onomasiological problems in Russian terminology, held annual conferences, and published their proceedings. In the final decade of the 20th century, a qualitative leap in terminology became apparent, to which the terminology groups and centers discussed above, as well as their collections of scholarly works, made a major contribution, along with 122 several more organizations and fundamental works published after 1990. The large-scale work of terminology standardization is carried out by the Russian Research Institute for Classification of Terminology and Information on Standardization and Quality (Всероссийский научно-исследовательский институт классификации терминологии и информации по стандартизации и качеству), which has published the scientific and technical information digest “Научно-техническая терминология” (“Scientific and Technical Terminology”) since 1968. At the beginning of the last decade of the 20th century, the digest’s subject matter expanded considerably to include theoretical questions concerning terminology management and development, as well as the creation of new branches of science and the compilation of new terminological systems. The Terminology Group, based at the Academy of Sciences’ Institute of Linguistics and headed by A. Superanskaya, prepared the fundamental monographs “Общая терминология: Вопросы теории” (“General Terminology: Questions of Theory”) (1989) and “Общая терминология: Терминологическая деятельность” (“General Terminology: Terminological Activity”) (1993). These works marked a shift from quantity to quality and to a new theoretical level in terminology. The Kharkiv Lexicographers’ Association, headed by V. Dubichinsky, was founded in 1992. Its members are scholars from various countries who study problems in terminology management and lexicography. It organizes scholarly conferences and seminars, the proceedings of which are published in the lexicology and lexicography research digest “Vocabulum et vocabularium” (1994–1998), and publishes the information bulletin “Lex”. A significant event confirming the beginning of a new stage in terminology management in Russia was the establishment, on V. Tatarinov’s initiative in 1993, of the Russian Terminologists’ Association (РоссТерм). The association’s main objectives are to coordinate scholarly research in terminology and terminography, organize scholarly conferences and seminars, publish works in the association’s digest “Терминоведение” (“Terminology,” editor-in-chief V. Tatarinov), maintain relations with foreign terminologists, and so on. Each year, the association organizes international scholarly conferences, “Терминологические чтения РоссТерма” (“RossTerm Terminology Readings”), whose proceedings are published in the digest “Терминоведение” (“Terminology”) (1994–1998) and “Термино- 123 vedenie и преподавание иностранных языков” (“Terminology and Foreign Language Teaching”) (1999). The greatest achievements in terminology during the final decade of the 20th century are considered to be the monographs by V. Leichik and L. Besekirska, “Терминоведение: предмет, методы, структура” (“Terminology: Subject, Methods, Structure”) (1998), and by V. Tatarinov, “Теория терминоведения. Т. 1. Теория термина: история и современное состояние” (“Theory of Terminology. Vol. 1. Theory of the Term: History and Current State”) (1996). These substantial theoretical works summarize the results of the previous 30 years of terminology research and present the principal postulates concerning the term, the main directions and methods of terminological research, current problems, and the tasks involved in developing terminology. S. Grinyov’s ideas, set out in his books “Введение в терминоведение” (“Introduction to Terminology”) (1993) and “Исторический систематизированный словарь терминов терминоведения” (“Historical Systematic Dictionary of Terminology Terms”) (1998), are important for terminology. This dictionary was compiled for the first time and contains 3,245 terms. According to the author, the dictionary demonstrates that terminology, as a complex applied scholarly discipline, has reached sufficient maturity. S. Shelov’s monograph “Определение терминов и понятийная структура терминологии” (“Defining Terms and the Conceptual Structure of Terminology”) (1998) offers research into term definitions that appears both timely and promising. The work addresses questions such as the linguistic nature of terms, types of term definitions, the conceptual structure of terminology, and others in a new way. The main directions and methods of terminological research in the Russian school up to 1972 are identified and presented in two volumes of V. Tatarinov’s reader, “История отечественного терминоведения. Т. 2. Направления и методы терминологических исследований” (“History of Terminology in Russia. Vol. 2. Directions and Methods of Terminological Research”) (1995, 1999). Other Schools and Centers of Terminology. The Prague Terminology Centre grew out of the Prague School of Functional Linguistics. In the 1930s, the theory of the standard language developed in Czechoslovakia, that is, the natio- 124 …functional language and its stylistic differentiation, as well as a theory of language culture that laid the foundations for modern terminological activity in Czechia and Slovakia (Vančura, Kopecký, Čoda). The Prague Terminology Centre also drew on E. Wüster’s ideas. It was held that the language of science, i.e. special language, is a functional language. The smallest unit of a functional language is the term. A terminology system is a system of designations that name a system of concepts. Prague linguists distinguished four styles: professional, aesthetic, journalistic, and colloquial. Professional style is considered the core of the standard language. A term is a professional lexical unit and part of the professional functional style of the national standard language. Linguistic norms can be codified. This helps ensure the stability of a language. The codification of terminology consists in presenting terms and definitions designating concepts in terminology dictionaries and standards. Greater attention was devoted to standardization, since standards are prepared by a particular institution and are therefore more reliable and objective than dictionaries, which are compiled by an individual. Four aspects of practical work are distinguished: 1) analysis of scientific and technical texts, 2) application of the methodology of language culture (conscious awareness), 3) application of the principles of the theory of nomination, including word-formation theory, 4) application of logical principles to classify terms and concepts (Felber 1984: 35–36). The main focus is on the structural and functional description of special languages, with considerable attention given to standardization. Terminological work in Czechoslovakia was carried out mainly by the Czechoslovak Terminology Standards Committee, headed by the Institute of the Czech Language and the Slovak Academy of Sciences. L. Drozd is considered the most prominent representative of the Prague School. Notable works by Czech and Slovak terminologists include L. Drozd’s “Deutsche Fach- und Wissenschaftssprache” (“German Professional and Scientific Language”) (with W. Seibicke, Wiesbaden, 1973), J. Horecký’s “Základné problémy terminológie” (“Fundamental Problems of Terminology”) in “Aktuálne problémy lingvistickej terminológie” (Bratislava, 1976), B. Havránek’s “Terminologie” (“Terminology”) in “Ottov slovník naučný nové doby. Dodatky VI. S. 1074” (Praha, 1943), and B. Poštolková, M. Roudný, and A. Tejnor’s “O české terminologii” (“On Czech Terminology”) (Praha, 1983). 125 M. T. Cabré skiria keturis terminologijos raidos etapus: ištakų (1930–1960), kūrimosi (1960–1975), būmo (1975–1985) ir plėtros (1985 – iki šių dienų) (Cabré 1999: 5). Pirmuoju etapu didžiausią įtaką terminologijos raidai turėjo minėtos mokyklos, 20 a. VIII ir IX dešimtmečiais terminologinė veikla išplito Kanadoje, Prancūzijoje, Belgijoje, Skandinavijos šalyse, pastaruoju metu – ispaniškai ir portugališkai kalbančiose šalyse ir Japonijoje bei Kinijoje. In Canada, the main focus is on comparing terms in different languages, questions of translation and term formation, usage and standardization, and terminology banks. Term formation was also studied, and the term neonimijos was proposed by G. Rondeau, one of Canada’s most prominent terminologists. His work “Introduction à la terminologie” (“Introduction to Terminology”) (Montreal, 1984) is worth mentioning. A. Rey and R. Kocourek also wrote extensively on terminology. In Canada and other French-speaking countries, the main focus is on the traditional linguistic approach to terminology; terminological activity is often oriented toward translation and language planning. In 1979, the research centre “Groupe Interdisciplinaire de Recherche Scientifique et Appliquée en Terminologie” (GIRTERM) was established at Laval University in Quebec, headed by Prof. G. Rondeau. Terminological work is developing very rapidly in Scandinavia. At the end of the 1970s and beginning of the 1980s, terminology centres and national terminology banks were established there. In the Nordic countries, the main focus is on empirical research, applying E. Wüster’s methods to fields where they had not previously been used, such as law and economics, and on terminology teaching. A pragmatic approach to standardization prevails: only what is necessary and appropriate should be standardized. Worth mentioning is the terminology textbook “Terminology: an introduction” (“Terminology: Introduction”), prepared at the Copenhagen Business School by H. Picht and J. Draskau (Guildford, Surrey, 1986). Terminological work is also carried out in other European countries. In Germany, the greatest attention was devoted not so much to terminology as a separate subject as to special language. Terminology theory is developed alongside classification theory and knowledge engineering. The works of L. Hoffmann, I. Dahlberg, and K.-D. Schmitz are worth mentioning. In Great Britain 126 …J. C. Sager worked in a similar vein at the University of Manchester. His best-known works are “English special languages. Principles and practice in science and technology” (“English Special Languages: Principles and Practice in Science and Technology”) (with D. Dungworth and P. McDonald, Wiesbaden, 1980) and “A practical course in terminology processing” (“A Practical Course in Terminology Processing”) (Amsterdam / Philadelphia, 1990). Our neighbours’ works may also be of interest to terminologists: S. Gajda’s “Wprowadzenie do teorii terminu” (“Introduction to the Theory of the Term”) (Opole, 1990) and V. Skujiņa’s “Latviešu terminoloģijas izstrādes principi” (“Principles of Latvian Terminology Development”) (Rīga, 1993). Terminological activity in European countries is extensive and varied. National terminology centres and terminology banks have been established in many countries. In 1996, EAFT – European Association for Terminology (European Association for Terminology) was established in Denmark. Of the organizations developing terminological activity on a global scale, five are particularly noteworthy: Infoterm, TermNet, IITF, ISO TC/37, and GTW. Infoterm – International Information Centre for Terminology (International Information Centre for Terminology) was established in 1971 at E. Wüster’s initiative. Its purpose is to support cooperation in the field of terminology, the development of reliable and multifunctional terminology, provide information about terminological activity in various countries, and create a network of terminology organizations. At the end of the 1970s, UNESCO commissioned Infoterm to prepare a plan for an international terminology network. TermNet was established in 1988. Its tasks include developing and disseminating software for terminological work, preparing and publishing printed materials, and organizing training. TermNet currently has about 50 members from 20 countries. Together with Infoterm, GTW, and IITF, the organization prepares and publishes quarterly the journal “TermNet News” (“TermNet News”), which focuses mainly on terminology banks, terminology teaching, language planning, and terminology standardization. The organization also publishes monographs, bibliographies, and collections of conference papers. IITF – Internationales Institut für Terminologieforschung (International Institute for Terminology Research) was established in 1989 as Aust- 127 an international association based on the laws of the countries concerned. Since 1990, IITF has published the journal “Terminology Science and Research” twice a year, devoted to various theoretical aspects of terminology; it also prepares and publishes collections of conference papers and terminology dictionaries, and since 1991 has published the monograph series “IITF Series”. The following books have appeared in this series: H. Felber “Allgemeine Terminologielehre und Wissenstechnik. Theoretische Grundlagen” (“General Theory of Terminology and Knowledge Engineering”), U. Reinke “Der Austausch terminographischer Daten” (“Exchange of Terminographic Data”), “Selected Readings in Russian Terminology”, “International Conference on Terminology Science and Terminology Planning. IITF Workshop Theoretical Issues of Terminology Science” (“International Conference on Terminology Science and Terminology Planning. IITF Workshop on Theoretical Issues in Terminology Science”), B. Moschitz-Hagspiel “Die Sowjetische Schule der Terminologie (1931–1991)” (“The Soviet School of Terminology”), P. Weissenhofer “Conceptology in Terminology Theory, Semantics and Word Formation”, “Beiträge zur Terminologie und Wissenstechnik” (“Contributions to Terminology and Knowledge Engineering”), P. Sandrini “Terminologiearbeit im Recht. Deskriptiver begriffsorientierter Ansatz vom Standpunkt des Übersetzers” (“Terminology Work in Law”), C. Laurén, J. Myking, H. Picht “Terminologie unter der Lupe” (“Terminology Under the Microscope”). Technical Committee 37 “Terminology” was established in 1936 on the initiative of E. Wüster. After World War II, its work was continued by a committee of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which retained the same name. Three subcommittees are currently active, preparing standards governing the principles and methods of terminology, the compilation of terminology dictionaries, and the computerization of terminology. GTW – Gesellschaft für Terminologie und Wissenstransfer (Association for Terminology and Knowledge Transfer) was founded in 1986 as an international association established under German law. Its aim was to organize the first congress on terminology and knowledge engineering (TKE) in 1987. This event takes place every three years and is devoted to the computerization of terminography. 128 There are few periodicals devoted to terminology, so it is necessary to mention the journal “Terminology”, published twice a year by “John Benjamins Publishing Company” since 1994. It is devoted to theoretical and practical problems in terminology work, with particular attention given to new areas such as data presentation and transfer, information technologies, and terminology databases. A considerable number of articles are devoted to the terminology of individual fields. LITERATŪRA Cabré M. T. Terminology: Theory, methods and applications, Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1999. Felber H. Terminology manual, Paris: UNESCO, INFOTERM, 1984. Гринев С. В. Введение в терминоведение, Москва, 1993. Новодранова В. Ф. Терминологический взрыв в 90-ые годы XX в. – Научно-техническая терминология: научно-технический реферативный сборник. Вып. 1, Москва, 2000, 4–9. Суперанская А. В. Терминология XX века. – Ten pat, 37–38. Jolanta GAIVENYTĖ-BUTLER Albina AUKSORIŪTĖ Jolanta GAIVENYTĖ-BUTLER Lietuvių kalbos institutas Antakalnio g. 6, 2055 Vilnius E. paštas [email protected] Gauta 2001 09 25 Albina AUKSORIŪTĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas Antakalnio g. 6, 2055 Vilnius E. paštas [email protected] 129