Ką Jablonskis padarė geografijai ir kas su tuo daroma

TERMINOLOGY AND THE PRESENT Jonas KLIMAVIČIUS Institute of the Lithuanian Language WHAT JABLONSKIS DID FOR GEOGRAPHY AND WHAT IS BEING DONE ABOUT IT Anniversary commemorations of Jonas Jablonskis are welcome to terminology (Piročkinas 2000; Gedrimas 2000). What Jablonskis did for terminology is nothing new. First to be mentioned are the testimonies that are still alive (Žemaitis 1956; Žemaitis 1966; Šikšnys 1962). The data from these testimonies and specialized research, although unfinished, are highly significant. But that is not all—we must also examine the post-Jablonskian part of this terminological process, support it and strengthen it, because otherwise a promising beginning may end badly. The generations after Jablonskis can and must bear witness to the life of the terminology he created. And this, in turn, is inseparable from the fate of the nation and the state—as are Jablonskis’s works. In the eleventh year after Jablonskis’s death, Lithuania was once again struck by occupation, national annihilation (genocide), the loss of statehood, and linguistic coercion. Thus, testimony must be evaluated in light of this. An opportunity to express thoughts long in the making arose almost by chance: at that anniversary time, I was struggling with a newly prepared school dictionary of geographical terms. Of Jablonskis’s terminological foundations, I found almost nothing but ruins there. So postponement is no longer possible. Of course, it was not that dictionary that set the process in motion—geographical science, school geography, and all kinds of translated literature about geographical journeys had, through their terminology, sometimes unconsciously and sometimes consciously, been sliding down a Russian slope. The lexicography of geographical terminology was quite extensive and, from both disciplinary and linguistic perspectives, not without significance for science and education. In 1956 V. Gudelis’s Dictionary of Geological and Physical-Geographical Terms was published (ed. Ch. Lemchenas; Russian–Lithuanian, with a Lithuanian index; 220 pp.), having been reviewed by the Terminology Commission of the Institute of the Lithuanian Language and Literature [GirFGŽ]. Three volumes were published by the Šviesa publishing house (for pedagogical literature)—two translations and one original work: in 1972, S. Agapov’s, 7 S. Sokolov and D. Tikhomirov’s encyclopedic Geography Dictionary (trans. V. Kvietkauskas, ed. E. Subačienė), supplemented with Lithuanian terms by the translation editor V. Gudelis, is designated for pupils in the publisher’s annotation, and for students and lecturers as well in the preface to the Lithuanian edition (272 pp.) [GeogrŽ]; in 1987, A. Solovyov and G. Karpov’s Physical Geography Dictionary-Reference Book (trans. F. Ylevičienė and J. Žukauskienė, translation reviewed by A. Laigonaitė, ed. L. Junevičienė), edited by A. Basalykas (216 pp.) [FizGŽŽ]; in 1994, S. Vaitekūnas’s Encyclopedic Dictionary of Geography (ed. S. Drabavičius), recommended by the Ministry of Culture and Education (256 pp.) (EncGŽ]. None of these three dictionaries was officially approved, and none received extensive reviews in specialist or linguistic publications. Yet there are problems of standardization, as well as contradictions among these dictionaries. Lithuanian linguistics is rightly proud that the principal geographical terms were substantially Lithuanianized by Jablonskis. But those who continued the work, several decades later, lacked Jablonskis’s compass and were guided by other bearings. Even ten years after the restoration of independence, it was not easy even for scholars to realize that, during the Soviet decades, the use of international words had brought Lithuanian closer to Russian. Jablonskis’s main innovations in geographical terminology are concentrated in Rygiškiai Jonas’s 1918 “Our Little Dictionary”: meridian, equator, pole, tropics, continent, glacier, volcano, horizon. Only volcano and ocean were already present in Jablonskis’s 1906 translation of S. Mečius’s “A Brief Description of the Earth” (Piročkinas 2000 11: 16). This is also evident from the data in LKŽ. The fate of Jablonskis’s terms and attitudes toward them are shown fairly well by Lithuanian dictionaries and glossaries of international words. A good beginning is already found in Jurgis Šlapelis’s 1907 SNŽŽ. volcano – ugnikalnis is given without synonyms or any explanation. This means that Jablonskis’s Lithuanian term was firmly accepted. It is only regrettable that in the same year, 1907, J. Ambraziejus’s Polish–Lithuanian–Russian Dictionary offers the variant ugniakalnis (with an unsuitable connecting vowel), which was subsequently repeated in several other dictionaries (LKŽ XVII). Next: okeanas, oceanas – ocean, didžiūris, large sea. “Large sea” should be regarded as an explanation, not an equivalent. Didžiūris is not recorded in LKŽ II, but didžiūris is found—as early as in J. A. Pabrėža’s works, and later in A. Lelio’s as well, 8 didmaris – L. Ivinskis; didžmaris – in the 1884 “Aušra”; didmarė – in other writings. Synonyms are generally unnecessary, and these, owing to their inadequate distinctiveness, cannot rival Jablonskis’s ocean. Ocean 2. “a large body of water, a great expanse of water, waters” is listed in LKŽ XVIII, although with the cautious label nj.(?), from dialects (Grįškabūdis, Pagėgiai, Marijampolė, Alytus, Tverėčius). Incidentally, from places near Grįškabūdis, Jablonskis’s birthplace—Slavikai and Lekėčiai—the word sniegynas 1, “a large mass of snow; a snow-covered field,” is also recorded (LKŽ XIII). It might seem a straightforward path to žemynas, but not quite: kontinentas means ‘solid land, a large area of solid land.’ Kietžemis also appears in A. Lelio’s “Lithuanian-English Dictionary” (3rd supplementary ed., Chicago, 1915): kietžemis – continent (but also kontinentas – continent, continent – kontinentas, sausžemis; likewise terra firma – sausžemis, kietžemis. Sausžemis was first used (LKŽ XII) in M. Miežinis’s “Lithuanian-Latvian-Russian Dictionary” (Tilsit, 1894): sausžemis – sausžeme – ląd – мамерик. SNŽŽ: tropikai – grįžračiai; tropikų šalis, tropikališkas kraštas – tropikų arba grįžračių kraštas – šiltasai kraštas; grįžračiai arba tropikai – “belts around the Earth, on either side of the equator, reaching as far as the Sun at the winter and summer solstices. Between the two tropics the weather is hot all year round.” Grįžratis was also used in A. Lelio’s Lithuanian-English dictionary: grįžratis, -čio – tropic (and tropikas – tropic), tropic – geogr. grįžratis, tropikas, associated with the meaning ‘Ursa Major,’ appears in A. Tatarė and V. Kudirka (grįžratis in Plókščiai), while the most widespread form meaning ‘Ursa Major’ is grįžoratas in Sintautai, Rasėiniai, Kvedarna, Kaltnėnai, and Priekulė (grįžoratas in Gargždai), as well as grįžo ratas in Tilsit, grįžo vežimas in Šilutė, grįžulo (grįžulo in Dusėtos and Salamiestis) ratai in Šeduva, grįžulo ratai in Kudirkos Naumiestis, grįžalo ratai in Grūžiai, and grįžinio ratai in Geistarai (respectively grįžulas / grįžulas in F. Kurschat’s dictionary, grįžalas / grįžalas in Betýgala, grįžas 1. / grýžas in F. Kurschat’s dictionary—“a rod in a wagon’s turning mechanism, to which a horse is hitched”) LKŽ III. Šlapelis should also be credited with the active Lithuanization of international terms for saulėgrįža – grįžračių, hidden in the article and not separately entered in the glossary (there is no entry for solsticija either). J. A. Pabrėža explained tropiką by solsticija – saulgrįžvieta (LKŽ XII). SNŽŽ: gletčeras – ledynas, “large expanses of ice on high mountains, which slowly slide downhill.” For Ekvatoriui, meridianui ir horizontui, Šlapelis provides no equivalents, only explanations: 9 ekvatorius — “an imaginary belt around the Earth, dividing the Earth’s surface into northern and southern hemispheres”; meridianas — “an imaginary line running across the Earth’s surface from one pole to the other”; horizontas — “the whole area of the Earth, up to the sky, as far as one can see.” Polius, although, as we have just seen, it is used, has neither an equivalent nor an explanation in the glossary. Although some matters still call for particular examination and clarification (that is not the subject of this article), it should already be noted that Šlapelis’s glossary (about half international words, about half barbarisms, equivalents for various borrowings, and Lithuanian words from general usage that may not yet have been understood) clearly pursues a Lithuanizing direction—not only by offering Lithuanian neologisms from Jablonskis and other predecessors or colleagues, but sometimes through Šlapelis’s own efforts as well. Later glossaries and dictionaries added little; in some respects they merely marked time, failing to advance as far as was possible and necessary. The 1923 pseudonymous STŽŽ (international words only) gives meridianas – dienovidinis, but also provides an explanation: “the Earth’s globe is divided into 180 circles intersecting both poles and <...>” (the entry for polius is omitted). Most often, only equivalents are given: horizontas – akyratis, paralelė – lygiagretė, vulkanas – ugnikalnis; okeanas (oceanos) also has two meanings—‘seas’; vandenynas (a step backward); likewise kontinentas – sausuma, žemė, but žemynas is still absent here. Ekvatorius is only explained as “the middle belt of the globe, the hottest place”; pusiaujas is still absent. In J. Norkus’s 1924 SNŽŽ (Lithuanian words make up about 6 percent), kontinentas – žemynas, sausuma; horizontas – akiratis: “that area of the Earth reaching to the sky that one can see with one’s eyes; only the distant visible edges, where the Earth seems to meet the sky; the limits of knowledge or learning.” The words ekvatorius, meridianas, okeanas, paralelė, polius, tropikai, vulkanas are absent. Does this mean they were no longer relevant—that their replacements had already been accepted and established? The absence from the glossary of mathematical terms replaced with Lithuanian ones through Jablonskis’s efforts makes this assumption at least somewhat plausible. In the extensive 1936 TŽŽ, they are presented inconsistently: some have equivalents only: ekvatorius – pusiauja(s); okeanas – 1. vandenynas; vulkanas – 1. ugnikalnis; paralelė – lygiagretė; sugreitinimas; sulyginimas; others also have explanations: horizontas – akiratis, “an imaginary line joining the Earth to the celestial sphere”; kontinentas – žemynas, “a large landmass surrounded on all sides by seas and oceans”; meridianas 10 – dienovidinis; “an imaginary long curved line passing through both poles of the globe and intersecting the equator at a right angle; <…>”; polius – 1. žemės ašigalis; “the apparent endpoint of the Earth’s axis”; tropikai – 1. atogrąžos, “lines of geographical latitude running parallel at 23° 28′ south and north of the equator”; 2. “the areas of the Earth between those lines,” atogrąžų kraštai; glėčeris abbrev. glėtčeris – ledynas, “which slowly slides down from mountain summits into the valleys.” The presentation in the first postwar TŽŽ, published in 1951, is similar, except that the Lithuanian equivalent is sometimes distinguished typographically: ekvatorius – pusiaujas – 1) “a circle imagined on the Earth’s surface, equidistant from both of the Earth’s poles; <…>”; 2) <…>; meridianas – dienovidinis, <…>; okeanas – 1) vandenynas, <…>; glėčeris – ledynas, <…>; but without typographic distinction: kontinentas – žemynas, <…>; polius – 1) ašigalis, <…>; solsticija – astr. saulėgrįža, <…>; vulkanas – ugnikalnis, <…>. The equivalent for Tropikų is strangely relegated to the very end: tropikai – 1) “two imaginary circles parallel to the celestial equator and 23° 27′ away from it (...), on which the Sun stands on the days of the solstices”; 2) “countries lying between the tropics and having a hot climate,” atogrąžos; although tropinis – 1) atogrąžinis, situated between the tropics; <…>. Paralelė is given only as 1) geom. lygiagretė, <…>, while 3) geogr. is “each of the circles imagined on the globe, <…>.” Horizontas – 1) akiratis, <…> (visible horizon), but 2) <…> (true horizon), and only 6) akiratis; horizontai – (future) prospects. The inconsistency is noteworthy: although polius – 1) ašigalis, in the explanation of ekvatorius the word is polius, not ašigalis; although solsticija is astronomical Lithuanian for saulėgrįža, the explanation of tropikų uses solsticijos (saulės stovėjimai). Ekinokcija has no equivalent. No substantial progress is apparent in the 1969 TŽŽ. Only paralelė – 2) geogr. lygiagretė – <…>. There was even a step backward: unnecessary explanations were added: vulkanas – “geological formations,” ugnikalniai, arising <…>; solsticija was left without an equivalent. In no case was the label psn. used, first introduced in the history of Lithuanian dictionaries of international words in this edition (it was not even added to basketbolo, which is generally undesirable in such a dictionary). The 1985 TŽŽ likewise shows no substantial improvement. Only kontinentas – žemynas, okeanas – vandenynas, polius is given without explanations – 1. geogr. 11 ašigalis, bet 2. astr. – be ašigalio; paralelės geografinės reikšmės net nėra (tik 2. geom. lygiagretė). Šiame žodyne, be pažymos psn., įsivesta ir ntk. (t. y. neteiktina), bet tos pažymos nei pavartotos šiais atvejais (kaip kad aisbergas ntk. – ledkalnis – <…>), nei iš viso paaiškinta jų paskirtis ir vartosena. Į priekį pasistūmėjo tik horizontas – 1. akiratis (bet 6. „žinių, idėjų, galimybių ir veikimo platumas, perspektyvos“ – be akiračio). In 1999–2000, the TŽŽ made some progress: ocean, icebreaker are absent—apparently as unnecessary; without definitions, the following are given as synonyms: tropics, torrid zones; solstice, solstice; continent, mainland (but continental: 1. relating to a mainland, connected with a mainland or continent, e.g., -al deposits – <…>; -al climate – <…>; -al slope – <…>); likewise poles: 2. astronomy, geography pole; the following are given as equivalent terms, but with definitions: meridian, meridian line – <…>; equator, equator – <…>; volcano, volcanic mountain: 1. <…> (although 2. plural, astronomy: “active and extinct volcanoes on planets and their satellites; <…>”); equinox, equinox – <…>; horizon: 1. horizon – <…> (although 7. figurative: a) “range of knowledge, ideas,” horizon, <…>); parallel likewise has no geographical meaning in this dictionary (only 1. geometry parallel line). The usage label not recommended is never used for the words under discussion. And in this dictionary—as in all earlier dictionaries of international words—neither any lexicographic device nor any general instruction to the reader gives even the slightest indication that a Lithuanian equivalent might be equal in status to the international term, or even preferable to it. And since in dictionaries of international words the international word comes first, while the equivalent follows it, the reader is automatically led to believe that in the language too the equivalent is merely secondary, auxiliary, and inferior. The school dictionary of international words is no different, although pedagogical aims would seem to be essential for it. In the 1995 and 1998 MTŽŽ, the following pairs are given without definitions: equator – equator, continent – mainland, ocean – ocean, parallel – 2. parallel line, volcano – volcanic mountain; with definitions: equinox – equinox (…), solstice – solstice (…), in the reverse order: horizon – 1. <…>, horizon, meridian – <…>, meridian line; the equivalent appears only in the definition text: tropics – “the belts of latitude situated along the tropic paral- 12 lels” (essentially – idem per idem); without a Lithuanian equivalent: pole – 2. “the place where something is most strongly manifested”: cold pole; glacier – “a glacier moving down from the mountains.” Schools (even gymnasiums) still have no explanatory dictionary for the standard language (although there are school dictionaries of phraseology, synonyms, and antonyms), yet they already have a dictionary of international words! The general situation is repeated in schools: the public received a large TŽŽ as early as 1936, but a dictionary of the standard language only in 1954 (DŽ1). Not only the MTŽŽ itself but also its “Preface” directs pupils and teachers one-sidedly toward internationalism rather than Lithuanian usage, and not even toward a balance. The “Preface” emphasizes the opportunity, through international words, to “enter the world of phenomena that unite the world” (MTŽŽ 1998: 3), and that “science, being common to the whole world, very often uses the same words as terms” (MTŽŽ 1998: 3). Lithuanian, by contrast, is presented as if it were an inadequate language—“the language of peasants since ancient times” (MTŽŽ 1998: 3). We will see here that the peasant word equator is perfectly suitable as a substitute for equator, and there are countless examples of this kind. But the MTŽŽ says nothing about it. The dictionary’s purpose is defined narrowly and one-sidedly: “to help clarify the meanings of the most popular words” (MTŽŽ 1998: 3). It is particularly ill-considered and imprudent to say that the native language, when and if it creates its own terms, does so only “alongside borrowed international words” (MTŽŽ 1998: 3), and that their value is “peasant-like”: “In scientific language the international term is most often used, while in speech the Lithuanian word is spoken” (MTŽŽ 1998: 4)—this may once have been so, but no longer is: international terms are now spoken even more often than they are written. Only “sometimes an international word is completely displaced” (MTŽŽ 1998: 4) by a Lithuanian one, for example, aviator now, rather than aviator. But the author of the “Preface” does not know how aviator is now being displaced by pilot. Advice on style is also inaccurate and unfavorable to Lithuanian words: “nonsense is a rather coarse-style word, so it is avoided in polite speech”—then what about nonsense! (MTŽŽ 1998: 4). However, DŽ3 and DŽ4 mark nonsense with no stylistic label and define it using the Lithuanian word “meaninglessness,” unlike DŽ1—“absurdity, meaninglessness”—and DŽ2—“meaninglessness, absurdity.” For K. Būga and J. Balčikonis, nonsense was neither coarse nor impolite: It is no longer decent nowadays to publish oneself with such nonsense K. Būga. He treated me 13 kindly and remarked that my eyes had grown quite calm and that there was no nonsense at all in my speech J. Balčikonis (LKŽ VIII). In Stasys Šalkauskis’s dictionary “General Terminology of Philosophy” (1937, 1938), discussed by the Terminology Section of the Lithuanian Language Society, nonsense—French absurdité, non-sens, German Unsinn, Russian бессмыслица—is a term (S. Šalk R II 164). In his book “Lithuanian Word Formation” (1943), P. Skardžius considers nonsense a neologism (Skardžius 1996: 590), though this is not entirely accurate. Perhaps only conditionally can nonsense be regarded as a derivative with the prefix non- (LKG I 1965: 428). The exact formal correspondence with sense may be secondary—nonsense is probably a written variant that arose on the model of dialectal forms: nesąmonis A. Juška’s dictionary (cf. also the adjective nesąmonus—not only 1. “unreasonable, thoughtless,” but also 2. “unresourceful,” F. Kuršaitis’s dictionary), nesąmanis A. Juška’s dictionary, A. Juška’s song collection, nesuomonė Naumiestis, nesuomonis Seredžius, nesuomanis A. Juška’s dictionary (LKŽ VIII). That nonsense is not a mirror-image reflection of consciousness with negation is clearly shown by the semantic difference: alongside nonsense, the adjective nonsensical does not at all fit in the sense “meaningless” (it had begun to gain currency, but J. Šukys rightly criticized it in a radio talk). And promoting nonsense in the MTŽŽ clearly contradicts the recommendation in DŽ₃ and DŽ₄: nonsensas—see nonsense (DŽ₁ and DŽ₂ give nonsensas as “meaninglessness, nonsense”). The recently published “Explanatory Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language,” covering 7,000 most frequently used words (cover title: “Explanatory Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language,” compiled by Aldona Mackevičienė. – V., UAB „Gimtinė“, 2001, 512 pp.)—“the first Lithuanian thesaurus with synonyms and antonyms” (ŠA 2001 36 11)—might perhaps partly fill the gap left by the school explanatory dictionary. Yet its “Preface” says nothing about its purpose, the selection of synonyms, or the normative presentation of synonymous terms. The terms we are discussing are presented inconsistently: meridian line + meridian (this is the technique used to present synonyms), parallel line (only “a parallel straight line”) + parallel (where did that come from?! – J. K.); pole + pole, but equator + equator; tropics + tropics; volcano + volcanic mountain; horizon + horizon, whereas horizon + → horizon; ocean + ocean, great sea literary, whereas ocean + → ocean; mainland + continent – ocean (this is the technique used to present antonyms); glacier (and 14 glacier) is absent; sunflower 1. + 1. solstice, while equinox (and equinoxes) are absent [nonsense + absurdity, senselessness, meaninglessness, but absurdity + → nonsense; meaningless + senseless, empty, absurd – meaningful; empty 4. + → meaningless; absurd + → meaningless]. Completely deprived equators; over-elevated ocean. The speediest normative annotations ntk. =are absent from the dictionary. A brief look at how other international words are presented shows an unjustified preference for them over Lithuanian ones, although equivalents are otherwise provided generously. A special place in the process of creating Lithuanian equivalents for international words, both in terms of subject matter and of specific purpose, is occupied by Pranas Skardžius’s LTŽA (1973). Admittedly, the book was published in Chicago and reprinted in Lithuania only in 1998 (Skardžius 1998: 425–507). It is not an international-words dictionary, but a specialized work devoted to introducing and fostering Lithuanian vocabulary. Yet in its “Preface,” its purpose is described both narrowly and somewhat unclearly—as a desire to help those Lithuanians abroad who “want to remember Lithuanian words, in place of which international words are increasingly used” (Skardžius 1998: 433). No distinction is apparent here between equivalents and neologisms. The “Preface” and “Introduction” use only the terms substitutes and used in place of. Yet the examples make it clear to a specialist that in some cases these are equivalents—synonyms—for international words, and in others complete substitutes. But is this clear to an ordinary user? Incidentally, cases where “words taken from people’s (folk) speech and their meanings have been specialized” (Skardžius 1998: 435) are also classified as neologisms, but the examples include not only bracelet (according to LKŽ I, already “specialized” in the dictionaries of P. Ruigys and F. Kuršaitis), level (according to LKŽ VII, used from J. Bretkūnas to F. Kuršaitis), printing house (according to LKŽ XIII, from living speech only in the phrase cheese press in Marijampolė; in various meanings it appears from the oldest written sources, and in the sense under discussion, “printing establishment,” already in K. Sirvydas’s dictionary), but also … spelling (Skardžius 1998: 435–436). Skardžius distinguishes only between “widely established” and “less frequently used” (Skardžius 1998: 436). A fairly good counterbalance is provided only by the second part of LTŽA—the index of Lithuanian equivalents, in which international words now appear second, as it were, in the place of equivalents. For some reason, the words of interest here—volcano, equinox, solstice—are absent from Skardžius’s work; ocean is included only with an equivalent 15 – ocean; all the others are given with explanations as well (the explanation first, the equivalent afterward); equator – <…>; equator; glacier – <…>; horizon, range of vision; continent – <…>; continent; meridian – <…>; meridian; pole – <…>; pole; tropic – <…>; tropic; and parallel – <…>; parallel is used only in geometry. Giving Lithuanian equivalents after the explanations, rather than before them, certainly does not help the author’s aim of making the vocabulary more Lithuanian. Interestingly, most of the 85 words described as “already widely established before the war” are among the words under discussion here: horizon, pole, tropic, glacier, equator, volcano, ocean (Skardžius 1998: 436). It is now possible to summarize that no Lithuanian Dictionary of Foreign Words, not even LTŽA, contains the slightest indication of what these equivalents of international words are or what their purpose is; still less is there any distinction between equivalents and substitutes. Lithuanian dictionaries of foreign words have never set themselves any goal of lexical standardization or language cultivation—only an explanatory one. Through their explanations, international words spread even further and faster. Of course, those necessary for the language had to spread, but all of them spread indiscriminately, because no effort was made to distinguish among them. Neither linguists nor non-linguist terminologists apparently yet understood (and often perhaps never even considered) that, until 1954—the year of the first normative dictionary of the standard language, which was, moreover, very imperfect—the lexical needs of users of the standard language had been met very one-sidedly, primarily by dictionaries and glossaries of international words (excluding bilingual dictionaries). Such were the results of the way things were done. International words were further fostered by the Sovietist doctrine that proletarian culture required internationalisms (this word had already begun to displace the customary term international words). During the decade of independence, the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language, by Resolution No. 42, “On the List of New Unrecommended Foreignisms,” later incorporated into the general List of Major Language Errors (LKKN 1998: 130–132), put up a modest barrier to new international words—genuine ones, more often merely alleged. One special work deserves mention—VKNS 1998—as do extensive terminography and numerous articles. There have been results, but they are insufficient; no decisive breakthrough has occurred. Let us now look at what happened over almost half a century in normative lexicography and in the terminography of geography (and related fields). It is difficult to say which side relied more on the other. DŽ1 1954 16 ir GirFGŽ 1956, pirma, yra beveik bendralaikiai, antra, mūsų kalbamu atveju – beveik viena: GirFGŽ autorius V. Gudelis yra DŽ₁ konsultantas: „Žodyną ruošiant ir korektūrą skaitant konsultavo keliolika atskirų sričių specialistų: <…> moksl. bendr. J. [=V. – J. K.] Gudelis <…>“ (DŽ₁ 1954: IV), o GirFGŽ „peržiūrėjo Mokslų akademijos Lietuvių kalbos ir literatūros instituto Terminologijos komisija“ (GirFGŽ 1956: 2). DŽ₃ 1993 ir EncGŽ 1994 irgi beveik vienalaikiai, tačiau be ryšio. Žinotina, kad DŽ₁ bent kalbininkų nebuvo labai vertinamas, nebuvo jo aklai laikomasi, o tada nesilaikymo gali būti (ir būdavo) ir pagrįsto, ir nepagrįsto, savavališko. Lietuviškos leksikos ugdymo požiūriu DŽ iš esmės nesiskiria nuo TŽŽ – kalba tik apie tarptautinių žodžių dėjimą į žodyną (DŽ₁ 1954: VI; DŽ₂ 1972:V; DŽ₃ 1993: VII), o apie jų atitikmenų ir pakaitų pateikimo tvarką nieko nesako. Jablonskis gave geography the Lithuanian term dienovidinis. Soviet ideology favored meridian—since the Russians had no one to give them a Russian word, and proletarian culture favored internationalisms. The greatest anti-Jablonskis action, unfortunately, was carried out by normative lexicography: DŽ₁ 1954 and DŽ₂ 1972 present the two as entirely equivalent: dienovidinis—“an imaginary line running through the poles of the globe [! – J. K.] and crossing the equator at right angles”; meridian in DŽ₁ (very similar in DŽ₂); and meridian—“an imaginary line that runs through the poles of the globe, crossing the equator at a right angle” in DŽ₁ (very similar in DŽ₂); dienovidinis. Geographic terminography is even more Lithuanian in character—GeogrŽ 1972 and EncGŽ 1994 give preference to the native word (but set the international one in bold: dienovidinis, meridian; while meridian—see dienovidinis). It may be added that M. Mikalaijūnas’s “Russian–Lithuanian Dictionary of Meteorological Terms” and the “Astronomy Dictionary,” compiled by Antanas Juška, take opposite approaches: меридиан – meridian, dienovidinis MeteorŽ 1975; dienovidinis, meridian and celestial meridian, celestial meridian AstrŽ 1984. DŽ₃ 1993 gives preference to the Lithuanian term: meridian—see dienovidinis, although it does not entirely reject the international word. Parallel quite naturally entered geography from geometry. In Jono Rygškio’s “Our Little Dictionary” there is only the adjective lygiagretis, ending and its abstrac- 17 that parallelism (everything accompanied by a geometry illustration). Unfortunately, it is not even recorded as a geographical term in LKŽ VII. The same is true of DŽ1 – parallel 1. “a straight line that lies in the same plane as another straight line and does not intersect it”; parallel; whereas for geography it gives parallel 3. “an imaginary line on the globe parallel to the equator” (1. geom. “a straight line or plane parallel to another straight line or plane”; parallel). DŽ2 parallel likewise has 1. “a straight line, <…>”, but without the synonym parallel in the definition (although the dictionary also has parallel 1. geom. “<…>”; parallel); and geogr. – parallel 2. GeogrŽ – parallels, parallels, parallels – see parallels; EncGŽ – only parallels, parallels. MeteopŽ parallel – parallel, parallel; AstrŽ – parallel, parallel, as well as celestial, or diurnal, parallel; terrestrial, or geographical, parallel. DŽ3 gives preference to the Lithuanian term: parallel 3. geogr. see parallel 2 (while parallel 2. non-standard = parallel 1). MatŽ 1994 gives the Lithuanian term parallel (while parallel – see parallel), and also parallelogram (while parallelogram non-standard – see parallelogram), although this microsystem also contains unavoidable international terms – parallelism, parallelizability, parallelohedron, parallelogon, parallelotope. The coexistence within a microsystem of terms that differ in origin – Lithuanian and international – is a perfectly ordinary, normal phenomenon. When terminology is muddled in this way, the Lithuanian terms always suffer, and then quite bad things happen. For example, a doctor of science writes meridian for a newspaper; the newspaper attempts to render it in Lithuanian, but uses not the required adapted form meridional line but its antonym, parallel: <…> it was agreed to divide the Earth’s surface into 24 zones every 150 along parallels (meridians). The zero zone lies between the 7.5° parallel east and the 7.5° parallel west of Greenwich LA 1998 212 5 (correction – 213 5). Jablonskis gave geography a word adapted from living speech (dialects): pusiaujas (cf. pusiaujas 1. “waist,” also pusiauji, pusiaujus and the indeclinable noun ³pusiau LKŽ X). Russian has no native Russian term, so so-called bilingualism, i.e. the restriction of the rights of the mother tongue, pushed usage toward ekvatorius. DŽ1 and DŽ2 both present the terms as equivalent: pusiaujas 2. geogr. – <…>; ekvatorius, while ekvatorius means pusiaujas. GeogrŽ prefers pusiauju, but also adds an equatorial zone under pusiaujo (where there is an international word, the Lithuanian genitive ekvatoriaus juosta is more readily omitted), while EncGŽ has both forms ending in -inis: pu- 18 equatorial zone, equatorial zone. FizGŽŽ also gives ekvatorius – see pusiau-jas, but already equatorial zone, equatorial zone; equatorial climate, semi-maritime climate, but only equatorial forests, equatorial air. MeteorŽ экватор – equator, hemisphere; AstrŽ – hemisphere, equator; celestial equator, celestial equator; Galactic equator, Galactic equator. DŽ₃ did not finally resolve the unsettled standardization either: pusiaujas 2. geogr. <...>, but also ekvatorius – geogr. pusiaujas. Perhaps Jablonskis did not come across subequatorial. The word pãpusiaujė (pãpusiaujės sritis) was coined by A. Vireliūnas (LKŽ IX). Since the noun subekvatorius does not in fact exist, the word priepusiauinis, which is also easier, would be preferable. But if we, humble admirers of Jablonskis, yet often not very faithful or creative pupils of his, do not take this little step, then pusiaujui too is in danger. Jablonskis adapted the living-language word ašigalis (ašigalis 1. “end of an axis,” Dūsetos, Daugailiai – LKŽ I₂) for geography. Russian has no native Russian term, so ašigalis, which, in Skardžius’s view, had already become widely established before the war, was pushed out of usage after the war. DŽ₁ ašigalis – 2. Earth’s pole, while polius – 1. Earth’s axis pole; DŽ₂ ašigalis – 2. Earth’s pole, while polius – 1. ašigalis – thus no standardization at all, despite the term’s having been displaced from Jablonskis’s usage. GeogrŽ prefers the Lithuanian term: ašigalis, geographic pole, and EncGŽ likewise – ašigaliai, poles, while AstrŽ has ašigalis, pole; celestial poles, celestial poles; Galactic poles, Galactic poles. Even MeteorŽ gives полюс – ašigalis, pole: Earth’s poles, but already world pole, ecliptic pole; a different matter are magnetic pole, ice pole, pole of cold – ašigaliai cannot occur where their opposite, the equator, does not exist. DŽ₃ distinguishes the terms: ašigalis 2. geogr., astr. “the end of a celestial body’s axis,” whereas polius 2. “the point or place where something is most strongly manifested”: pole of cold, heat, ice, winds. There is also the adjective ašigalinis: polar journey DŽ₁, polar night DŽ₂, DŽ₃, although there is also poliarinis DŽ₃ (AstrŽ polar aurora, polar distance – a misunderstanding), as well as polar explorer, polar bear DŽ₃ – a coexistence. Jablonskis created and gave geography the term atogrąža. But Russian has no native Russian term, and so tropikai flooded Lithuanian usage through bilingualism. The opening of DŽ is non-Jablonskian: atogrąžos – “the warm zone of the Earth, extending halfway around the equator on both sides”; dausos; but also tropikai – 1. <...>, 2. usually plural <...>; atogrąžos DŽ₁ (very similar in DŽ₂). GeogrŽ is likewise ambivalent – atogrą- 19 žas, tropikai; tropical zones, tropical zones; but only tropical climate, tropical air. FizGŽŽ gives atogrąžos, tropikai, but already tropical desert, tropical desert; tropical zones, tropical zones; tropical forests, tropical forests; only tropical sparse forests; tropical air mass, tropical air; tropical climate; desert zones of the tropical belts; semideserts of the tropical belts. EncGŽ is similar. MeteorŽ mponuk – tropics, atogrąža, while AstrŽ – atogrąžos, tropikai; tropical year, tropical year; tropical month, tropical month. Only DŽ₃ defines tropikas as see atogrąža, and atogrąža as geogr. <…>, plural -os <…>. Interestingly, even when defending the term tropics and the adjective tropical, the appeal is no longer to the foundation laid by Jablonskis, but only to the principle of systematicity: “<…> if we call <…> tropical, then we also want to find this beautiful Lithuanian term in derived terms, rather than tropics (humid tropical forests, tropical air mass, tropical belts, tropical forests)” Jėrinaitė 1995: 94. Although this is not the strongest argument—as noted earlier, the coexistence of international and Lithuanian words in a microsystem is quite common, if not unavoidable. Almost everywhere the terms subtropikai, subtropinis were used—for Jablonskis left nothing here; A. Vireliūnas’s paatogrąžė (LKŽ IX) was forgotten, while paatogrąžys appeared in LRKŽ II 1951 in a more distant foreign publication. Yet a living example was close at hand – субтропики, субтропический. Only in 1972 did DŽ₂ finally take notice and include the term paatogrąžys, even adding the label geogr. – “an area close to the tropics”; subtropikai; but also subtropikai – geogr. “regions close to the tropics” (paatogrąžys or paatogrąžiai is not added here). DŽ₃ gives no preference to the Lithuanian term either: paatogrąžys “an area near the tropics,” subtropikai; while subtropikai – geogr. “belts on either side of the tropics,” paatogrąžys: subtropical regions; and also subtropical: subtropical climate. Jablonskis gave geography the term vandenynas (perhaps from his native dialect). DŽ₁ and DŽ₂ define vandenynas as <…>; okeanas (DŽ₃ – without the synonym okeanas), while okeanas means vandenynas (also in DŽ₃). GirFGŽ океан – океан, vandenynas. GeogrŽ alone has only vandenynas. FizGŽŽ has vandenynas and vandenyno guolis, vandenynų srovės, vandenynų vidurio kalnagūbriai, and okeanas – see vandenynas, but only okeaninė Žemės pluta, okeaninės įdubos, okeaninės salos, okeaniniai giliavandeniai loviai, okeaninis lovys, okeaninis pusrutulis. MeteorŽ океан – vandenynas, okeanas, but океаничность – океанишкумас, maritimity: okea- 20 ничность климата – climate oceanicity [maritimity], океанический климат – oceanic climate. Jablonskis gave Lithuanian geography the term continent (according to the incomplete data in LKŽ XX, continent 2. “farmstead, land” Strūnaitis, Kintai, 3. “dug-up earth, mound of earth” A. Juška’s dictionary, Rūmiškės). Even the Russians have their own word—материк—but proletarian culture demanded inter- from both Lithuanians and Russians! Normative lexicography did nothing for the continent: DŽ₁ and DŽ₂ continent – <…>; continent; while DŽ₁ defines continent as continent, <…>, and DŽ₂ as <…>, continent. DŽ₁ and DŽ₂ still “explain” continental climate in parentheses as continental; and DŽ₁ defines continental as continental, <…>, and DŽ₂ as <…>, continental. GirFGŽ: континент – continent, материк – mainland, continent. GeogrŽ: continents – see continents; also continental islands, continental ice; but continental climate, continental climate. FizGŽŽ: continent – see continent, but only continental foothill, continental island, continental deposits, continental crust, continental shelf, continental ice, continental hemisphere, continental slope; only continental climate and continental climate are given as synonyms. EncGŽ – continent, continent, but only continental deposits, continental climate, continental slope. MeteorŽ has no term материк; континентальность – continentality: континентальность климата – climate continentality, but континентальный климат– continental [continental] climate. DŽ₃ at least gives preference to continent and continental, but it does not give Lithuanian equivalents for international synonyms either: continent – continent, continental – continental. Nowadays, many Lithuanians also lean toward inter- (“5 continents” is thriving!). Jablonskis supplied the term volcano; no one supplied the Russians with a Russian equivalent. DŽ₁ and DŽ₂ give preference to the Lithuanian word: volcano – <…>; vulkanas; but vulkanas is not rejected either—it is explained as a synonym for “volcano”; only DŽ₃ has vulkanas – see volcano. But GirFGŽ has вулкан – вулканаѕ, volcano (all Russian terms use the international word vulkanas). GeogrŽ takes the opposite approach: volcano, vulkanas, though only volcanic islands; FizGŽŽ: volcano, vulkanas, but only volcanic bomb; volcanic gases; volcanic island; volcanic rocks, volcanites; volcanic ash; volcanic glass; volcanic tuff. One can 21 to recall that the “Lithuanian Encyclopedia” knew how to form the adjective ugnikalninis: ugnikalninė sala (1939 VII 1433); P. Slavėnas used ugnikalninė Žemės pluta. And vulkanizmas has an equivalent too—ugnikalnių veikla. Of course, following the coexistence principle, there are also vulkanologija, vulkanizacija. Jablonskis supplied the term glacier (cf. snowfield, ocean, continent). Even Russian has ледник. But the DŽ₁ term glacier is defined geographically as “a glacier moving down from a mountain,” although its very definition uses the Lithuanian glacier; the dictionary also has glacier, but without the geographical label: “a huge mass of ice characterized by independent movement”: Northern glaciers. But geographers have outpaced lexicographers: GirFGŽ глетчер – ледник – ledynas; GeogrŽ – glacier; FizGŽŽ – glacier – see glacier; EncGŽ – glacier. Unfortunately, both DŽ₂ and DŽ₃ remain frozen in place, with only the definition of glacier “refined” to “a huge mass of ice, usually moving.” Alongside the Lithuanian terms glaciation, ice cover, ice age, glacier formation, glaciology, ice sea, iceberg (already in F. Kuršaitis’s dictionary), ice field, ice cutter, icebreaker, the German glacier (German Gletscher < lot. glacies – “ice”; also English glacier) is entirely unnecessary. Unfortunately, consistency is still lacking here. For instance, LTE VI gives the term glacier – “a mass of ice moving across the Earth’s surface” (LTE IV does not even have gl(e)tcher), but alongside it, ice age, glacial; LTE XI – interglacial period, interglacial. The name of the science glaciology is acceptable (and a scientist – glaciologist), although ice research is also emerging. Alongside glacial, glacial is entirely unnecessary. Jablonskis provided the Lithuanian term akiratis, much better than the also newly coined regratis, used by Vaižgantas and J. Janonis, and figuratively by V. Kudirka and Vydūnas (LKŽ XI), and more precise than akiplotis, used by M. Šalčius and A. Vienuolis (LKŽ I₂) (following the variant akiplotas, known in standard language only from the adverb akiplotu; although DŽ₃ has only akipločiu—“by eye”), which is now less a “visible area” (DŽ₂, DŽ₃) than a physiology term—campus visionis—“the area of peripheral vision” (MedŽ). DŽ₁ lists akiratis and horizontas as synonyms, but they are not quite equivalent terms: akiratis 1. “the area encompassed by the eyes, horizon” (2. “scope and breadth of knowledge, interests”), horizontas—1. “the boundary line where the visible sky meets the earth and sea”; akiratis (2. “all the space visible around an observer”; 22 3. figuratively, “a circle of knowledge, ideas”; 4. figuratively, “a range of possibilities and activities”; 5. “the water level of a river or basin”). Essentially, DŽ₂ and DŽ₃ say the same. But akiratis is absent from geographical terminology: GirFGŽ горизонт – horizontas; GeogrŽ, FizGŽŽ, EncGŽ – horizontas. Only MeteorŽ has горизонт – 1. horizontas, akiratis (but regimasis ir tikrasis – tik horizontas); кругозор likewise has both: akiratis, horizontas. AstrŽ has no akiratis, only horizontas, matematinis horizontas—“the line of intersection of the celestial sphere and a plane perpendicular to the direction of gravity (the horizon plane). It separates the visible celestial hemisphere from the invisible one,” horizontinė sistema ir horizonto kryptys, otherwise ↑ pasaulio šalys. In concluding the analysis, one can acknowledge what is already clear: here the boundaries of geographical terminology have been exceeded somewhat (volcano, glacier; only the aforementioned iceberg)—certain aspects of Jablonskis’s coinages required this. For practical reasons, one could also mention two coinages not made by Jablonskis—the astronomical terms solstice and equinox. The equivalent of solstice, saulėgrįža (Russian also has солнцестояние, солнцеворот), is a standard-language adaptation of the Samogitian word saulėgrąža, found in Saūga, Kvėdarna, Laukuva, Pāvandene, and Vieksniai (variants saulėgrąžas in Plungė, saulėgrąžai in Priekulė, saulėgrąžis in DūnŽ, saulagrižtis in Subačius, among others), to distinguish it from the standard-language name of the plant Helianthus, sunflower, also known from Samogitian—Kvėdarna, L. Ivinskis, M. Miežinis—and having numerous variants in various dialects and texts: saulėgrąžas in Akmenė, saulėgražė in Leipalingis and Druskininkai, saulėgražis in Tauragė and Šiauliai, saulegrežis in NdŽ, saulegrežė in Vydūnas; saulegriža in J. Ryter’s dictionary; saulegrižė in Kelmė, saulegrižis in LBŽ, saulegraiza in Slavikai; saulagrazė in the western dialect, Klaipėda, saulagrazis in Linkmenys, saulagrazte in Rūdiškės, saulagrąžtis in Valkininkai, saulagrižčia in Lazūnai, saulagrįžė in Jiežnas and Kriukai, saulagrižis in Obėliai; sauliagrižis in Dūsetos; sauliadryžis in Pilviškiai; saulograža in Palomėnė, saulogražas in Tirkšliai, Várduva, Žemalė, and J. A. Pabrėža, saulogražė in J. A. Pabrėža, saulogražis in Simnas, saulogrižis in Keturvalakiai and Bartninkai; also sáulýžolė, saulàžolė, sáulàžolis, sáulàžolynis; saulėžolė, saulėžolis, saulėžolynis; sáuliažolis, sáuliažolynis; saužolė; sáuline žolė in K. Sirvydas’s dictionary, and even sáulìne in F. Kuršaitis’s dictionary (LKŽ XII). The equivalent of equinox, lygiadienis, is not even included in LKŽ VII; but it does contain lygdienis: Lygdie- 23 nis eina lygiai žemės viduriu A 1884, 255 (žodyne aiškinama „pusiaujas, ekvatorius“ – veikiausiai aiškinant nesuprastą sakinį: Žemės viduriu – pusiauju eina amžinas lygiadienis). Conclusions The creator of the standard language, Jonas Jablonskis, was also a highly productive and successful creator of terms, irreversibly Lithuanizing quite a number of so-called international terms. One group consists of geographical (and related) terms: meridian – instead of meridian, parallel – instead of parallel, equator – instead of equator, pole – instead of pole, tropic – instead of tropic, ocean – instead of ocean, continent – instead of continent, glacier – instead of glacier, horizon – instead of horizon (other equivalents not coined by Jablonskis could also be added here: iceberg – instead of iceberg, solstice – instead of solstice, equinox – instead of equinox). Here Jablonskis went further than the Russian language (only материк – земныс, ледник – ледунас, кругозор – akiratis; солнцестояние, солнцеворот – saulėgrįža, равноденствие – lygiadienis). His approach here was more like that of Polish (południk – dienovidinis, równoleżnik – lygiagretė, równik – pusiauja, biegun – ašigalis, zwrotnik – atogrąža, ląd (staty) – žemynas, lodowiec – ledynas; wiadnokrąg – akiratis; równonoc – lygiadienis) and German (Längenkreis, astr. Mittagskreis – dienovidinis, Breitenkreis – lygiagretė, Gleicher – pusiauja, Wendekreis – atogrąža, Festland ir Erdteil – žemynas; Sonnenwende – saulėgrįža, Tagundnachtgleichung – lygiadienis). Lithuanian geographical terminology developed by Jablonskis (and others) lacked adequate support. Most importantly, a dictionary of geographical terms was not published in time (as dictionaries of mathematical terms were). For a long time, the lexical needs of standard-language users were met only by dictionaries of international words, which, by no lexicographical means or general indication, stated that any Lithuanian equivalent was preferable or even a substitute; in general, equivalents and substitutes were not strictly distinguished for a long time. Thus, these dictionaries only accelerated the spread of international words, not Lithuanian vocabulary—the filter that Jablonskis had initially applied was gone. Normative lexicography, which appeared late, moved away from Jablonskis and then back again, at times lagging even behind geographical terminology... 24 ...graphy (only DŽ₃ is closer to Jablonskis). Even a double standard prevailed: Jablonskis’s work was known and recognized, and people took pride in it, yet in practice they carelessly drifted away from it. Even linguists failed to realize that, under the conditions of Russian-Lithuanian bilingualism in the Soviet era, the use of international words was bringing Lithuanian closer to Russian. Now special efforts are needed to right the listing ship and set it sailing once more on a Lithuanian course. It is important to note the marked difference between the fate of Lithuanian geographical terminology and that of mathematics: leg – instead of cathetus, perpendicular – instead of perpendicular, hypotenuse – instead of hypotenuse, angle bisector – instead of bisector, half-side – instead of median, parallel – instead of parallel, radius – instead of radius, diameter – instead of diameter) – these are replacements, not synonyms. Incidentally, Lithuanian terminology here also differs from Polish (różniczka – diferencialas, różnicowanie – diferenciavimas; całka – integralas, całkowanie – integravimas, although in economics – integration). This group has remained almost entirely and steadfastly Lithuanian. This cannot be explained solely by the order and logic of mathematical reasoning. The main factors were sociolinguistic—the restricted use of this group of terms. Whatever from this group entered common usage tended toward Russian: diameter, radius. ABBREVIATIONS OF SOURCES AstrŽ – Astronomijos terminų žodynas. Sudarė A. Juška. Vilnius, 1984. DŽ – Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian. DŽ₁ – 1st ed., Vilnius, 1954; DŽ₂ – 2nd supplemented ed., Vilnius, 1972; DŽ₃ – 3rd revised and supplemented ed., Vilnius, 1993; DŽ₄ – 4th ed., Vilnius, 2000. EncGŽ – V a i t e k ū n a s S. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Geography, Kaunas, 1994. FizGŽŽ – S o l o v j o v a s A., K a r p o v a s G. Dictionary and Handbook of Physical Geography, Kaunas, 1987. GeogrŽ – A g a p o v a s S., S o k o l o v a s S., T i c h o m i r o v a s D. Dictionary of Geography, Kaunas, 1972. GirFGŽ – G u d e l i s V. Dictionary of Geological and Physical-Geographical Terms, Vilnius, 1956. LA – Lietuvos aidas (daily newspaper). LKKN – Lietuvių kalbos komisijos nutarimai, 1977–1998. Vilnius, 1998. LKŽ – Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language: 1 (2nd ed.) – 1968; 2 (2nd ed.) – 1969; 3 – 25 1956; 7 – 1966; 8 – 1970; 9 – 1973; 10 – 1976; 11 – 1978; 12 – 1981; 13 – 1984; 17 – 1996; 18 – 1997; 20 (the abbreviations of this dictionary, which is still in preparation, are also used in the article), Vilnius. LRKŽ – Dictionary of the Lithuanian Written Language. Compiled by M. Niedermann, A. Senn, A. Salys. Heidelberg, 1951. LTE – Lithuanian Soviet Encyclopedia: 4 – 1978; 6 – 1980; 11 – 1983, Vilnius. LTŽA – S k a r d ž i u s P. Lietuviški tarptautinių žodžių atitikmenys, Čikaga, 1973. MatŽ – Matematikos terminų žodynas. Mokslinis red. J. Kubilius. Vilnius, 1994. MedŽ – A s t r a u s k a s V., B i z i u l e v i č i u s S., P a v i l o n i s S., V a i t i l a v i č i u s A., V i l e i š i s A. Dictionary of Medical Terms, Vilnius, 1980. MeteorŽ – M i k a l a j ū n a s M. Russian–Lithuanian Dictionary of Meteorological Terms, Vilnius, 1975. MTŽŽ – School Dictionary of International Words. Prepared by I. Ermantytė, O. Kažukauskaitė, J. Paulauskas, J. Pribušauskaitė, J. Žiemytė. Kaunas, 1995. 2nd revised and enlarged edition, Kaunas, 1998. SNŽŽ – Dictionary of Foreign and Unfamiliar Words: A Help for Readers. Compiled by J. Šlapelis. Tilžė, 1907. – N o r k u s J. Dictionary of Foreign and Unfamiliar Words, Kaunas, 1924. STŽŽ – M. ir S. Svetimų ir tarptautiškų žodžių žodynėlis, Šiauliai, 1923. ŠA – Northern Athens (weekly newspaper). S. ŠalkR – Š a l k a u s k i s S. Writings 2, Vilnius, 1991. TTŽ – Dictionary of International Words. Compiled by K. Boruta, Pr. Čepėnas, A. Sirutytė-Čepienė. Kaunas, 1936. – Dictionary of International Words. Edited by I. V. Liochinas and F. N. Petrov, Lithuanian edition by Ch. Lemchenas. Vilnius, 1951. – Dictionary of International Words. Edited by I. Liochinas, S. Lokšina, F. Petrov and L. Šaunianas, Lithuanian edition by Ch. Lemchenas. Vilnius, 1969. – Dictionary of International Words. Edited by V. Kvietkauskas. Vilnius, 1985. – V a i t k e v i č i ū t ė V. Dictionary of International Words 1, 2. Vilnius, 1999, 2000. VKNS – R u d a i t i e n ė V., V i t k a u s k a s V. New Borrowings from Western Languages, Vilnius, 1998. LITERATŪRA G e d r i m a s R. 2000: Jonas Jablonskis ir lietuviškoji gamtotyros terminologija. – Gimtoji kalba 12, 4–8. 26 Jėrnaitė J. 1995: Enciklopedinis geografijos žodynas [rec.]. – Terminologija 2, 92–96. LKG I 1965: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1, Vilnius. Piročkinas A. 2000: Jonas Jablonskis – naujų žodžių kūrėjas. – Gimtasis žodis 10, 2–6; 11, 14–16; 12, 7–12. Skardžius P. 1996: Rinktiniai raštai 1, Vilnius. Skardžius P. 1998: Rinktiniai raštai 3, Vilnius. Šikšnys M. 1962: Mano lietuvių kalbos pamokos ir atsiminimai apie J. Jablonskį. – Kalbotyra 5, 81–87. Žemaitis Z. 1956: Iš atsiminimų apie J. Jablonskį. – Literatūra ir kalba 1, 32–39. Žemaitis Z. 1966: Lietuviškosios matematikos terminologijos istorija. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 8, 195–201. WHAT JONAS JABLONSKIS DID FOR GEOGRAPHY AND WHAT IS BEING DONE WITH IT Summary In 1918 the father of standard Lithuanian (and terminology) Jonas Jablonskis met the first independence of the Republic of Lithuania by coining Lithuanian terms of geography dienovidinis (meridian), pusiauja (equator), ašgalis (pole), atogrąža (tropic), vandenynas (ocean), žemynas (continent), ledynas (glacier), ugnikalnis (volcano), akiratis (horizon). However, at that time there was no dictionary of terms of geography and no dictionary of standard Lithuanian, therefore these terms did not have the time to take root. In soviet times, when in its usage of international words the Lithuanian language was getting closer to the Russian language, so called international terms meridianas, ekvatorius, polius, tropikas, okeanas, kontinentas, glečeris, vulkanas, horizontas started choking out those terms. Jablonskis had made them in a way which was closer to Polish and German languages where purification of the language is noticeable. The Russian language has fewer Russian equivalents – only материк – континент, ледник – глетчер, кругозор – горизонт. During the second independence inertia can be observed – good changes require much effort. Terms of mathematics lithuanised by Jablonskis remain almost untouched. It was predestined not so much by the strictness of mathematical thinking, but more by sociolinguistic reasons – the isolation of the usage of terms of this group. Jonas KLIMAVIČIUS Lietuvių kalbos institutas Antakalnio g. 6, 2055 Vilnius E. paštas [email protected] Gauta 2001 09 26 27