Atnaujinti „Terminų žodynų rengimo bendrieji reikalavimai“

Updated General Requirements for the Compilation of Terminological Dictionaries ALVYDAS UMBRASAS Institute of the Lithuanian Language The expiry of the Programme for the Use and Development of the State Language of the Republic of Lithuania for 1996–2005, together with changes to the legal provisions governing the financing of dictionary compilation, prompted the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language to update the General Requirements for the Compilation of Terminological Dictionaries, approved by a resolution recorded in the minutes of the meeting of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language (then still under the Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania) on 9 December 1999. On 20 December 2007, the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language adopted Recommendation No. R-4 On the General Requirements for the Compilation of Terminological Dictionaries (Inf. pran., 2007, No. 100), recommending compliance with the General Requirements for the Compilation of Terminological Dictionaries approved by a resolution recorded in the minutes of the meeting held on the same day (in addition to the Seimas legal acts database, they can also be found on the website of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language http://www.vlkk.lt/programos/žodynu-reikalavimai.html). Compared with the previous version, the new Requirements are more comprehensive and more highly structured: they consist of 35 articles grouped into 8 chapters. Since the restoration of independence, many translated terminological dictionaries in various fields have been published, but there is a marked shortage of explanatory dictionaries. The State Commission of the Lithuanian Language is therefore now encouraging the compilation of explanatory bilingual terminological dictionaries whose first language is Lithuanian. The Requirements were drawn up with this in mind. This article surveys provisions carried over from the earlier Requirements as well as newly formulated provisions, comments on them, and gives examples of deficiencies in dictionaries. G e n e r a l p r o v i s i o n s (I). The General Requirements for the Compilation of Terminological Dictionaries are recommended for all compilers of terminological dictionaries, but the Requirements are nevertheless oriented more toward dictionaries commissioned by the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language, compiled in accordance with the Programme for the Standardisation, Use, Development and Dissemination of the State Language for 2006–2015, approved by Resolution No. 1177 of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania of 15 September 2004 (Žin., 2004, 140–5125), and assessed according to the Rules for the Evaluation of Terminological Dictionaries 216 Alvydas Umbrasas | Atnaujinti Terminų žodynų rengimo... rules, approved by Resolution No. N-8 (97) of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language dated 3 June 2004, On the Approval of the Rules for Evaluating Terminology Dictionaries (Žin., 2004, 92–3395). Dictionary compilation group (II). It is encouraged that, in addition to subject-area specialists, the dictionary compilation group should include a linguistic terminologist or another Lithuanian-language specialist familiar with the principles of terminology. A dictionary may also be compiled by a single person with appropriate preparation not only in the subject area but also in language. The provisions governing the composition of the dictionary compilation group remain essentially unchanged; where necessary, it is also proposed to include foreign-language specialists. Experience in terminology work is desirable for compilers. If they lack such experience, more experienced people should be invited to collaborate. Practice shows that the quality of terminological dictionaries often suffers from insufficient knowledge of the principles of terminology and terminography. Creation and standardisation of terms (III). Compared with the previous Requirements, this section is considerably more detailed. Most importantly, terms are created and standardised in accordance with general principles of terminology and standardisation criteria: correctness, precision, systematicity, stability, ease of formation, purity, brevity, stylistic neutrality, and so on. It is particularly important for compilers of terminological dictionaries to understand that they do not merely inventory terms, but also contribute to their standardisation and systematisation. This requires at least a minimum of theoretical preparation (for example, K. Gaivenis’s monograph Lithuanian Terminology: Outlines of Theory and Organisation (Vilnius, 2002) would be useful). When compiling a dictionary, it is also very important to use reliable sources, particularly to take account of terminological dictionaries evaluated by the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language (many recent dictionaries are published in the Terminology Bank of the Republic of Lithuania http://terminai.vlkk.lt). Of course, this does not mean that terms in dictionaries published earlier cannot be changed, but it is important to avoid unjustified changes in terminology. While compiling explanatory dictionaries and formulating definitions of terms, it may become apparent that some terms appearing in translated dictionaries do not accurately name the concepts. When refining terms, however, one must not forget that terminological stability is also important. According to the Requirements, it is also important to observe the resolutions and recommendations of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language (e.g. regarding the use of personal names, punctuation, etc.). When selecting equivalents in foreign languages, the most reliable sources should be those published abroad in the respective languages. Practice unfortunately shows that dictionaries published in Lithuania sometimes contain equivalents artificially coined by analogy with Lithuanian or other-language terms. This should not happen. In other languages Terminologija | 2008 | 15 217 The creation of equivalents can be justified only when it is necessary to name concepts specific to Lithuania (e.g., those in legislation). In general, equivalents are not translated literally or in a similar manner. Sometimes it is better not to provide any equivalent in other languages than to coin nonexistent terms. Experts of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language usually assess only Lithuanian terms in dictionaries, so responsibility for the reliability of equivalents in other languages is left to compilers and editors. An example of an irresponsible approach to equivalents in other languages would be the Explanatory Dictionary of Thermal and Nuclear Engineering Terms (Kaunas: Technologija, 2004), published at Kaunas University of Technology by a team of authors (headed and scientifically edited by P. Švenčianas), which contains numerous errors in equivalents, especially in German. The Requirements also briefly describe the characteristics of definitions. A definition should state the essence of a concept as concisely as possible but precisely, in fluent, correct language, and indicate its distinguishing features. Non-essential details should be avoided in dictionaries that are not encyclopedic in nature. Definitions of concepts distinguished on the same basis should follow the same model. When defining terms, one should not rely too heavily on general dictionaries (e.g., Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian), since these explain lexical meanings and do not necessarily indicate all features important for terminology. Dictionary planning (IV). A dictionary should be compiled not haphazardly, but according to a plan drawn up in advance, with the stages of compilation specified. It is important to define the scope of the dictionary in advance and establish criteria for selecting terms (not only what to collect, but also what to exclude), while keeping the standardization strategy in view (after all, collecting terms will inevitably uncover incorrect or imprecise terms and synonyms). All this will also depend on the purpose of the dictionary; its intended users must be borne in mind from the outset. To avoid confusion and ensure that all members of the working group work consistently, the structure of a term entry must be specified in advance (the arrangement of parts is less important here than their selection, especially if a database is being created); this will depend on the type of dictionary. It would be useful to prepare a preliminary description of the dictionary’s structure in advance. Collecting material and writing the dictionary text (V). This and the previous subsection (IV) (which were not included in the earlier Requirements) propose a working model, i.e., recommend certain preparatory tasks for writing a dictionary and subsequent stages (which, of course, can be adapted to needs depending on the circumstances). At the beginning of the work, it is advisable to compile a list of Lithuanian- and foreign-language sources for the terms in the dictionary’s field. It is very important to collect terms not only from previous dictionaries or terminology databases available online (this is sometimes abused, resulting in dictionaries that contribute almost nothing new to terminography), but also to devote particular attention to the latest and most relevant theoretical and practical publications, textbooks, and similar materials in the field, since they will undoubtedly contain terms not recorded in terminography. The field’s terminology standards should also be kept in mind. To collect terms from sources as comprehensively and systematically as possible (within the planned scope), it is recommended that the field be divided into subfields and terms collected in thematic groups (members of the working group should divide up subfields, not letters of the alphabet). Once the material has been collected in this way, potential inconsistencies in the expression of related terms are easier to identify, and definitions of terms belonging to the same conceptual system are easier to write. 218 Alvydas Umbrasas | Atnaujinti Terminų žodynų rengimo... from previously published dictionaries or terminology databases available online (this is sometimes abused, resulting in dictionaries that contribute almost nothing new to terminography), particular attention should also be devoted to the latest and most relevant theoretical and practical publications, textbooks, and similar materials in the field, since they will undoubtedly contain terms not recorded in terminography. The field’s terminology standards should not be overlooked. To collect terms from sources as comprehensively and systematically as possible (within the planned scope), it is recommended that the field be divided into subfields and terms collected in thematic groups (members of the working group should divide up subfields, not letters of the alphabet). Collecting material in this way makes it easier to identify potential inconsistencies in the expression of related terms and to write definitions for terms belonging to the same conceptual system. The following possible work stages are proposed: a) initial lists of Lithuanian terms are compiled for each subfield (taking the system and microsystems into account); b) term definitions are formulated; c) equivalents of terms in other languages are collected; d) term entries are supplemented with other planned elements, and cross-references are added. If necessary, work on some stages may be carried out simultaneously. The final stage, which determines terminographic quality, consists of bringing together the prepared term entries for individual subfields, arranging, checking, and standardizing them, editing them, checking the cross-references, preparing indexes, and completing other tasks in preparation for printing. D i c t i o n a r y c o m p o s i t i o n (VI). A dictionary is not merely a list of terms arranged alphabetically or in some other order (the dictionary text). In addition, it should first include a preface and/or an introduction (often only a preface is written, in which the authors briefly present the dictionary, its purpose, the history of its creation, difficulties encountered during its preparation, goals achieved and not achieved, the editors and other contributors, the main sources used, acknowledgements, etc.; where necessary, especially in comprehensive dictionaries, a more extensive introduction may also be included, analyzing the history of the field’s terminology and terminography and discussing various terminology-related issues, and so on). A particularly important part is the description of the dictionary’s structure (see Section VII). If abbreviations and/or shortened forms, signs and symbols are used in the text, explanations of them must be provided, along with the sources used. Indexes are desirable in translation dictionaries (most often they are alphabetical or alphabetically nested, though systematic indexes may also be included). Although they increase the dictionary’s length (which is inconvenient), they make it much easier to use and render it more versatile. It should be noted that dictionaries sometimes use the term “indexes” simply for reverse glossaries (true indexes take up less space, since they give only page or entry numbers). Terminologija | 2008 | 15 2 1 9 Including the alphabets of the languages used also makes dictionaries easier to use. Some dictionaries have been published that not only lack one or another section (e.g., a list of sources), but have no sections at all apart from the dictionary text (e.g., R. Rakucevičius’s Lietuvių–vokiečių kalbų verslo ir teisės terminų žodynas (Vilnius, 2001)). This is a serious violation of the principles of terminography, and such cases should not occur. If a dictionary has been prepared under the 2006–2015 Programme for the Standardization, Use, Education and Dissemination of the State Language and/or has been evaluated by the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language, Reikalavimuose certain standard entries are prescribed. It should be noted that the linguist-terminologist and the reviewers must be identified separately. Dictionary structure (VII). This is the largest and perhaps most important subsection of the Reikalavimų, covering matters related to compiling the dictionary text (these must be explained in the description of the dictionary’s structure). Terms in a dictionary are presented in entries, which may be grouped into nests. Entries or nests are usually arranged alphabetically (within a nest, hyponyms and subordinate terms may also be ordered according to hierarchy; when sorting by computer, it is important to set the appropriate language parameters). A tradition has developed in terminography of forming a nest not according to a system of subordinate concepts (although it does not depart far from one), but according to formal criteria: the headword of a nest is the grammatically principal word in the expressions included in it1 (a noun). Words belonging to other parts of speech (e.g., adjectives) are generally made headwords of nests in general translation dictionaries, but this is not characteristic of terminology dictionaries and is discouraged (it may be partly justified only in educational terminology dictionaries). Nevertheless, such cases do occur (e.g., this approach is used in V. Bitinaitė’s Mokomajame anglų–lietuvių kalbų teisės terminų žodyne (Vilnius, 19972), evaluated by the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language). Terms that are not related by generic and specific relations should likewise not be grouped in a single nest: the headword noun should not be a dependent element of an expression in the nest (as in the Teisinių terminų žodyne compiled by A. Žiurlys (Vilnius, 1954)). In the less commonly prepared systematic dictionaries, the order of terms is determined by the systematics of the field, or the order is established 1 The system of concepts is revealed in systematic dictionaries (and sometimes in encyclopedic dictionaries). If we followed it in nested dictionaries too, a nest would sometimes have to include terms denoting subordinate concepts but expressed by different nouns. This would make terms difficult to find. 2 The revised and substantially supplemented dictionary was reissued in 2002 and 2008, but these editions were not submitted to the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language for consideration, although an approval statement, entered without agreement with the Commission, appears in all of them. 220 Alvydas Umbrasas | Atnaujinti Terminų žodynų rengimo... by the compilers themselves. A single system for presenting term entries and their parts must be followed throughout the dictionary (any exceptions to this rule must be clearly justified in the description of the dictionary’s structure). The principal parts that may make up a term entry are the term itself, its definition, and equivalents in other languages. Reikalavimuose lists the parts of term entries most commonly found in dictionaries; compilers may select them according to their needs, the type of dictionary, and so on. It is important that term entries and their parts be presented clearly in the dictionary text, so that they cannot be confused (for example, abbreviations should be distinguished from symbols; the boundaries between the parts of a term entry must be clear—it is unsatisfactory when it is impossible to tell where the term ends and its explanatory words begin, especially since the latter are sometimes needlessly marked for stress in dictionaries, as in the Medicinos terminų žodyne (Vilnius, 1980), compiled by V. Astrauskas et al., where it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the term from its synonym and explanation). The arrangement of entry parts and the distinguishing features of the typeface must be explained in the description of the dictionary’s structure. The presentation and selection of synonyms sometimes raise questions for compilers of terminology dictionaries. Dictionaries submitted to the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language for review show that compilers sometimes go too far, listing a large number of synonyms without a clear system; they even include morphonological or spelling variants, and sometimes provide different definitions for synonyms. A dictionary must have one definition for each concept. If a concept is designated in usage by several synonymous terms, it is the compiler’s duty, guided by the principles of terminology, to select (and sometimes create) the most appropriate term and give it preference in the dictionary. All information about the concept and the principal term designating it (the definition, equivalents, etc.) is presented in a single entry. Synonyms are presented in separate cross-reference entries, that is, references are made to the main entry or to one of the meanings of the term given in the main entry (when a preferable synonym applies to a particular meaning of a term, the reference may be part of the entry). Synonyms are differentiated: if a synonym is not considered an error, the reference žr. (“see”) is used; if a synonym is to be strictly corrected, it is marked as non-recommended, and the term to be used is given after an equals sign (ntk. =). It should be noted that the reference žr. (“see”) should be used only normatively, that is, to refer to a preferable synonym. In dictionaries, especially encyclopedic ones, žr. (“see”) is sometimes used in more than one sense: it refers not only to the dominant synonym but also to an entry or nest where further information can be found, where a term is explained, and so on (this is often done when terms are presented in a mixture of nested entries and … Terminologija | 2008 | 15 221 abėcėlės tvarka, pavyzdžiui, taip yra A. Smetonos Karybos žodyne (Vilnius, 1995)). Tokia praktika šalintina – nuorodos turi būti vienareikšmės, esant reikalui, kaip nuoroda tokiais atvejais gali būti vartojama rodyklėlė (↗) ar kt. Apskritai geriau nedaryti daug skirtingos reikšmės nuorodų (nebent tai būtų būtina). Visos nuorodos ir jų vartojimo sistema turi būti paaiškinta žodyno sandaros apraše. In the main entry, it is recommended that synonyms be placed next to the headword (separated by a comma) or, if a term meaning has a synonym, after the explanation of the meaning (with the label sin.). Non-recommended synonyms are not included in the main entry. There is also a tendency not to list all the other synonyms in the main entry, but only the best-established and most common ones (the rest are given in cross-reference entries). The meanings of terms must not be confused with homonymous terms. In terminography, meanings are conventionally numbered and presented in a single entry, while homonyms are given separate entries. It is not recommended to present subordinate meanings separated by a semicolon or in some other way. Each meaning of a term must be defined as an independent unit—its definition must be clear when taken separately from the other meanings. It is unsatisfactory, for example, when the second meaning is formulated using anaphoric pronouns, that is, written as though it continued what was stated in the first meaning (such explanations can be found, for instance, in the Tekstilės terminų žodyne3 (Kaunas, 2001), compiled by R. Čiukas et al.). The computerization of dictionaries and their incorporation into terminology databases encourage each meaning to be defined as independently as possible. To make it easier to indicate relationships between concepts and the elements of entries for the terms designating them, meanings tend to be presented as separate entries in databases (as, for example, in the oldest terminology database of the Institute of Mathematics and Informatics http://www.terminynas.lt and in the Terminology Bank of the Republic of Lithuania); therefore, definitions in terminology dictionaries must be suitable for separating one meaning from another, structuring, and uploading to a database. When the equivalents of a term’s meanings in foreign languages differ, they must also be distinguished and given separately for each meaning. If the equivalents of the meanings coincide, they may be given in one place (for the entry as a whole). Current dictionary-writing practice shows that too little attention is paid to separating equivalents by meaning: equivalents of terms with multiple meanings are sometimes given together in dictionaries, which can mislead readers. 3 For example: pneumatinis transportas — 1. transport of materials through pipelines by an air current. 2. equipment for such transport; tuščiaviduris pluoštas — 1. a tube-shaped filament or hair. 2. a set of such hairs. 222 Alvydas Umbrasas | Atnaujinti Terminų žodynų rengimo... If the singular and plural forms of a word are separate terms, Reikalavimuose recommends presenting them in separate entries, and, in a nested dictionary, in separate nests as well. In other cases, when specific terms have both singular and plural forms, they are presented in a single nest4. Note that synonymous equivalents in a given language are ranked by importance—the preferred one is listed first (it is not recommended to give too many). Usage labels may be added to equivalents to indicate differences in usage. As in the previous Reikalavimuose, equivalents in languages with grammatical gender and number are recommended to be given with grammatical gender labels (m, f, n), and, where necessary, plural labels (pl). Reikalavimais also aim to standardize the language labels for dictionary equivalents. It is recommended that two-letter codes be used in accordance with the international standard adopted in Lithuania, LST ISO 639-1: 2003 Kalbų pavadinimų kodai. 1 dalis. Dviraidžiai kodai: de (German), en (English), fr (French), ru (Russian), etc. Sometimes dictionaries overuse parentheses, putting various kinds of information in them; at times, terms designating different concepts are listed in a single entry, or synonymous or optional components of terms are placed in parentheses (not only in Lithuanian terms but also in their equivalents). Such confusion must be avoided. It is preferable that the use of parentheses, if needed, be unambiguous and explained in the description of the dictionary’s structure. Items for which Reikalavimuose recommends a different presentation (e.g., synonyms) must not be placed in parentheses. Square brackets [] may be used where necessary to provide a brief indication of a source (e.g., of a definition). Unlike translation dictionaries, explanatory dictionaries should not place explanatory words in parentheses beside a term—after all, that is the purpose of a definition (examples of this can be found, for instance, in the Aiškinamajame geležinkelių transporto terminų žodyne (Vilnius, 2006), by N. Juškaitė, St. Keinys, and K. Sakalauskas). As is customary, Lithuanian terms in dictionaries must be marked for stress. Stress marks are not needed only for terms in non-recommended and indicating cross-reference entries, or for function words used as components of terms. Cross-reference arrows should be stress-marked 4 For example, cukrus, as the usual name for sucrose, and cukrūs, as a general name for saccharides, are distinguished, so they are presented separately in the Chemijos terminų aiškinamajame žodyne (V., 2003), by K. Daukšas, J. Barkauskas, V. Daukšas et al.; by contrast, specific terms differing in number and containing the components banga ir bangos are presented in one nest in the Fizikos terminų žodyne: lietuvių, anglų, prancūzų, vokiečių ir rusų kalbomis (V., 2007), by V. Palenskis, V. Valiukėnas, V. Žalkauskas, and P. J. Žilinskas. The presentation was revised, since the first edition of the Fizikos terminų žodyno (ed. in chief P. Brazdžiūnas, V., 1979) used separate nests. Terminologija | 2008 | 15 223 is not necessary. In addition to other sources, stress placement should follow the recommendations of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language (which take precedence) and the Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian (the latest edition!). If several stress variants are possible, the first is used. Unclear or debatable cases may be referred to the Subcommission on Pronunciation and Stress of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language for consideration. As in scholarly language, the Requirements recommend giving precedence to the original forms of proper names used as components of terms (except in traditional cases). Terms with adapted forms are presented in cross-reference entries, following the general order for arranging terms. Thus, the description of the dictionary’s structure must explain: the arrangement and/or grouping of terms; the structure of a term entry, the labels for its elements, graphic separators, and distinguishing typeface features; the presentation of meanings and homonyms; the presentation of synonyms; the system of cross-references; the presentation of terms containing proper names; and so on. Computer processing (VIII). Since the possibilities for processing terminology dictionary data in text files are limited, the use of computer databases or at least electronic spreadsheets is recommended. Data stored in this way are easier to arrange, group, or filter in various ways, and inconsistencies are easier to find and eliminate. As in the previous Requirements, attention is drawn to the need for every character used in the dictionary to have a valid electronic code (this is particularly important when data from different dictionaries are imported into a single electronic database). To facilitate data exchange, use of the Palemonas font is recommended. The prescribed fonts must be used. Characters in different fonts must not be used arbitrarily within a single word; visually identical Latin and Cyrillic letters must also not be confused, since they have different codes. It is recalled that correct spelling and punctuation marks must be used in the text (unfortunately, some people still have difficulty using quotation marks, the dash, and the hyphen correctly). It is not advisable to prepare a publication-ready layout before submitting the dictionary to experts of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language for evaluation and to the Subcommission on Terminology for consideration, because after the dictionary has been revised in accordance with the comments received, the layout may have to be prepared again. 224 Alvydas Umbrasas | Atnaujinti Terminų žodynų rengimo... At the end of the Requirements, a substantial list of recommended literature and sources is provided, including the most necessary publications on terminology and language practice, standards, databases, etc. This is useful not only to dictionary compilers but also to their editors. The earlier distinction between required and recommended literature has been abandoned. Gauta 2008-12-09 Alvydas Umbrasas Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius Email: [email protected] Terminologija | 2008 | 15 225