Terminological Activities: Principles and Perspectives
Full text
2 4 Sergiusz Griniewicz | Terminological Activities: Principles and Perspectives Terminological Activities: Principles and Perspectives SERGIUSZ GRINIEWICZ TC 55 Terminology RF, University of Bialystok KEYWORDS: directions of terminology research, types of terminology work, means of termformation, terminology planning In terminological activities we may discern two aspects: theoretical activities, or terminology science and practical activities, or terminology work. In the ISO WD 1087:94 terminology science is defined as the scientific study of the concepts and the terms found in special languages. (The last part in our opinion is superficial and unnecessary, because concepts and terms belong to special languages and hardly may be expected elsewhere.) According to the same document terminology work is any activity concerned with the systematisation and representation of concepts, or with the presentation of terminologies on the basis of established principles and methods. Later official version of this document (ISO 1087-1:2000) offers a similar definition: “Work concerned with the systematic collection, description, processing and presentation of concepts and their designations”, though terminology science is defined differently as “science studying the structure, formation, development, usage and management of terminologies in various subject fields”, thus excluding concepts from its scope. Analysis of terminological publications shows historic variations in relation between theoretical and practical activities. At the beginning, in the first half of the 20th century theoretical investigations were subordinated to the practical tasks and problems — initially ordering terminologies. The first terminological groups, which appeared at the beginning of the twentieth century in Lithuania and Latvia as well as the pioneers of terminology science — Eugen Wüster, Dmitrij Lotte, Ernest Drezen, Grigorij Vinokur and Aleksandr Reformatskij had to deal with defining
2 5Terminologija | 2013 | 20 the main properties of special lexemes and finding the ways to deal with their drawbacks. According to prof. Heribert Picht, up till the end of the 1950s Wüster was mostly interested in practical aspects of terminology work (Picht 2011: 10–11). Later, starting in the fifties of the previous century, in linguistics appeared a considerable interest in terminological problems and this resulted in a multitude of purely linguistic investigations and descriptions of various terminologies which were not immediately connected with the practical terminological work and thus lead to divergence in theory and practice. Indirect result of the absence of theoretical support of practical decisions was a large number (more than 500) of terminological standards of poor quality prepared in the 1960s–1970s in the USSR. However, somewhat later, in the 1960s and the 1970s a number of directions of terminological research of applied nature started to form. This was characterised by regional specific interests, for example Saint Petersburg scientists investigating history of various terminologies (Ку ти на 1966, 1970; Сорокалетов 1970; Герд 1968, 1971), Gorky linguists concentrating their attention on functioning of terms and terminologies in speech (Головин 1981; Кобрин, Пекарская 1977), Voronezh termi nologists specialising in applying statistical methods to terminology research and problems of elaboration and assessment of translating dictionaries (Иванов 1967; Анюшкин 1978), Omsk terminologists attracted by problems of history of terms and also in sociolinguistic aspects of terminology (Ткачева 1987а, б and her disciples), while Moscow scientists inclined towards summing up terminological experience (Akhmanova, Agapova 1974; Akhmanova 1977; Гринев 1993; Даниленко 1971, 1977; Канделаки 1977; Лейчик 1989; Суперанская, Подольская, Василье ва 1989, 1993). In 1980s–1990s as the result of wide scope of terminological research resulting in more than 100 annually defended dissertations (Grinev 1993), a number of terminological disciplines emerged, including comparative terminology science, concerned with translation and harmonisation of terminology (Лейчик 1988; Циткина 1987, 1988); terminography, concerned with optimization of design and elaboration of terminological dictionaries and term banks (Герд 1986; Гринев 1986, 1995; Марчук 1992), historical terminology science, concerned with discovering trends in development of concepts and terminological forms (Ткачева 1987б;
2 6 Sergiusz Griniewicz | Terminological Activities: Principles and Perspectives Диа нова 1995, 2000; Хижняк 1997а, б; Борнхвальд 2000; Фельде (Борнх вальд) 2001) and typological terminological science concerned with establishing general and specific features of terminologies (Казарина 1998; Володина 1997; Авербух 2004; Сложеникина 2005). In the Russian standards of the 1960s and partially 1970s due to the huge amount of work to be done in a short time, the above mentioned divergence in theory and practice and the absence of trained terminologists and methodical materials (the first instruction on standardising terminology appeared only in 1977) one may find all of the classical mistakes in defining concepts and choosing optimal terminological forms. The absence of preliminary systematisation and coordination resulted in overlapping standards containing the same terms with different definitions with the concurrent absence of standards for a number of subject fields. At the same time in the 1970s–1980s there was accumulated a considerable experience of coordination in preparing information retrieval thesauri that may be used in organising systemic ordering of special vocabulary. With an established interest of linguists in terminological problems, standard guides and instructions on organising terminological work throughout the country were worked out, for: - organising leading branch organisations responsible for standardising terminology; organising and managing branch bases of standardised terminology; - co-ordinating of standardising terminology with developing linguistic means of information retrieval systems; - co-ordination of separate terminologies within the general system of terms; standardising terminology; - standardising abbreviations of words and word-combinations for the Russian language; - harmonising terminology, etc. A number of directions of terminology work had taken shape in Russia at the end of 1980s. One of them is terminological inventory — collection and preliminary description of special lexemes of the chosen subject field — which may take form of an independent work resulting in descriptive terminological dictionary, though usually it serves as a preliminary condition
2 7Terminologija | 2013 | 20 and stage of terminology ordering — the central and most important terminological work aimed at transforming terminologies — naturally formed collections of terms of particular subject fields into term systems — ordered sets of terms with the established relations between them reflecting the respective relations between concepts. Experience showed the complex nature of terminology ordering which consists of a number of stages, described by prof. Picht (Picht 2009: 15–16) and in the ISO 704 Terminology work: Principles and methods. Other directions of terminological work included: co-ordination of national terminological activities (a complex of actions towards establishing system of institutions and projects committed to regulating and advancement of national terminologies); co-ordination of separate terminologies within the general system of terms; design and construction of term-systems for new fields of knowledge; here, besides creating a new term-system based on certain patterns, a set of rules for forming new terms is elaborated and suggested; terminographic work — compiling various terminological dictionaries and data bases; terminological editing; terminological expertise; terminological translation; terminological documentation and information services; normalised terminology implementing; terminological training of specialists; terminological training of non-specialists; terminological management; terminology planning. Directions of terminological research were shaped by the problems which had to be solved in terminological work. As the result of such research some theoretical principles concerning various stages and types of terminological work were formulated. These principles do not belong exclusively to the Russian scientific school, because they were worked out collectively with participation of terminologists from practically every former Soviet Republic.
2 8 Sergiusz Griniewicz | Terminological Activities: Principles and Perspectives It is assumed that terminology science deals with the principles of: elaborating general methods of study of terminologies; - investigating the main types of concepts, their definitions and relations between them; - identifying and describing the main types of special lexical units, analysis of their peculiarities; semantic (semasiological) analysis of terminologies; - structural (onomasiological) analysis of terminologies and main means of forming new terms in various languages and various fields of knowledge; - analyzing peculiarities of formation and development of terminologies in various languages and various fields of knowledge; - establishing the optimal principles of designing, elaborating and perfecting various types of dictionaries; - comparative analysis of various modes of implementing normalised terminology; - elaborating effective means of terminological editing and terminological expertise; elaborating effective means of terminological translation; establishing effective methods of terminology training; - lately, thanks to prof. Picht’s constant reminders, investigating other than verbal, semiotic denotations of concepts; - investigating the role of terminologies in cognition and acquiring knowledge, as well as in special education and communication; - elaborating main principles of organisation of national terminological activities and terminology planning. There were many Russian publications concerned with the methods of study of terminologies. Some of the general methods were already shortly described in Grinev-Griniewicz (2011). In investigating the main types of concepts it seems necessary to pay attention to differentiating natural or flexible concepts which are concepts, having a finite number of essential features which form the nucleus of the concept and a flexible periphery, where there is no settled and universally accepted opinion and matrix concepts — precisely defined and universally approved — the former not mentioned in the existing guides on ordering terminology. Investigating the main types of concepts and relations between them is traditionally considered the domain of
2 9Terminologija | 2013 | 20 logicians. However, when it comes to definitions terminologists succeeded in adding some requirements of linguistic character, such as uniformity of syntax and lexical features in definitions of similar concepts, brevity of definition with exclusion of redundant information and idle expressions, avoiding unnecessary definitions when the specific features are represented in the form of term (Гринев 1993: 89–90; ГриневГриневич 2008: 85–87). Identifying and describing the main types of special lexemes started with the problem of establishing specific features of a term in contrast to a common word. At the end of the 1970s the dispute concerning the difference between a term and an ordinary word finally was settled on the basis that term denotes a concept — a unit of knowledge created by a unique combination of characteristics, and the ordinary word denotes a notion which is a sensory-direct, generalised image of objects and phenomena of reality that is preserved and reproduced in memory without the direct influence of those objects and phenomena on the sensory organs. On the scale of consciousness notions are a step lower than concepts and belong to the level of memory. Discovering at the same time that special vocabulary is not limited to terms only, caused some consternation and the need to identify and describe the main types of special lexical units. Already in the 1980s such main types as terminoids, pre-terms, quasiterms, proto-terms, professionalisms and nomens were generally described (Grinev 1996; Гринев 1993: 41–52; Шелов 1985), though not investigated as thoroughly as terms, the number of various revealed features of terms reaching more than two hundred — 265 (Гринев 1998: 61–76). It seems expedient to study all of the special lexemes further with the special attention towards nomens — names of unique concepts, and that for two reasons. Firstly, they lately prevail in special lexicons, making up, perhaps 99% of the overall number of special lexemes; and secondly, a large part of them may be easily regulated and formed according to certain rules. Ordering terms has two aspects — unification aimed at eliminating discrepancies between lexical meaning of a term and terminological meaning (the content of respective concept) and optimisation, concerned with the choice of the optimal forms and means of forming terms. The corresponding directions of research became traditional in terminological studies and nowadays took the shape of respective terminological subdisciplines — semasiological terminology science and onomasiological terminology science.
3 0 Sergiusz Griniewicz | Terminological Activities: Principles and Perspectives Ordering terms should presuppose a multi-aspect analysis of terminology, which is carried out with the aim of establishing not only the existing drawbacks but also tendencies of its development. Such investigation should consist first of semantic analysis, with the aim to find out various deviations from the one-to-one correspondence between the lexical and terminological meanings of terms. There also should be carried out formalstructural and etymological analyses — to establish the most effective means and patterns of producing terms in the chosen subject field, as well as the existing unsuitable forms and means of their improvement or substitution; then functional analysis to find peculiarities of usage of terms (Гак, Лейчик 1981) and finally diachronic analysis to discover tendencies of development of the chosen terminology (Алексеева 1994; Алесенко 2000; Клепальченко 1999; Миронова 2002; Филиппова 1996; Герд 1971; Кутина 1964, 1966), and parametric approach (Grinev 1992; Grinev Griniewicz 2011: 30). Such approach may ensure right decisions in forming a term system. In semantic analysis of terminologies there is still much to be done. In synonymy it seems expedient to establish a generally accepted classification of synonyms and also to define more precisely ratio of various types of full synonyms which may be used as lexical resources for creating names of species in the process of cognition. Apart from synonymy and polysemy there were found other types of discrepancy of lexical and terminological meanings. Sometimes meaning of the lexical form may contain superfluous characteristics — in tautological terms, such as living flats, living houses, traumatic injury, plans for the future, or, on the contrary, it may lack the essential characteristics of the concept. These are cases of using a lexical form with a broad meaning for a narrow concept — the British standard BS 4118:1967 Glossary of Sanitation Terms suggests the term capacity for naming a very specialised concept “storage cistern capacity”, term angle in the meaning “a fitting used on a rainwater gutter to change the direction of the gutter” and term chair in the meaning “a metal frame for building into a thin partition wall and the floor so as to provide means of supporting a wash basin, W.C. pan or other sanitary appliance clear of the floor”. In the British Standard BS 2780:1972 Glossary of leather terms the broad term bend is presented in the narrow meaning — “half of a cattle hide butt, obtained by dividing it along the line of the backbone”, etc. It also becomes necessary to investigate a new phenomenon
3 1Terminologija | 2013 | 20 which is paronymy playing the role of limit in using term variation in creating new related terms (for example terms onomasiology and onomastics are often confused by the philology students). Analysis of the main means of forming new terms is necessary for choosing the most effective ones. Their classification is presented in GrinevGriniewicz 2011: 36; here we may state their main merits and faults. Semantic term-formation. One of the oldest, traditional ways of forming new terms is metaphoric transfer of the meaning of a common word (later of a term) on the basis of comparison. It is based on two main types of similarity — exterior similarity of shape, e.g. neck and body (of a column), teeth (of a saw), hood (of ventilator) or position, e.g. foot (of a page, of a mountain), head (of a bolt); and similarity of function, e.g. horn (alarm signalling device); leader (directing gutter of roof drain). Terms may be also formed by metonymy — a transfer of the meaning on the basis of contiguity. There are various types of metonymy: - the material of an object may become the name of the object, e.g. a glass, boards, iron etc.; - name of the place may become the name of an object found or produced there, e.g. canary (bird), turkey, china (porcelain), cashmere (woollen fabric); - names of inventors often become terms denoting things they invented, e.g. watt, ohm, roentgen, etc.; - name of a process often acquires a secondary meaning of: a) result of the process: classification (process) – classification (result), definition (process) – definition (result), borrowing (process) – borrowing (result); b) means of carrying out an action: catch (action) – catch (window or door device); spray (action) – spray (device); c) place of action or respective construction: market (trade) – market (construction). Some names of operations, such as cladding, coating, flooring, insulation and wadding are also used to name both source material and result. Chronologically next is specializing the meaning of an everyday word or a broader term, e.g. case with a general meaning “circumstances in which a person or a thing is” is specialised becoming a term in law (a law suit), in grammar (a form in the paradigm of a noun), or in medicine (an illness). Elevation in linguistics becomes elevation (of meaning); in building we have lime (cement) formed from a word meaning “any gluing substance”.
3 2 Sergiusz Griniewicz | Terminological Activities: Principles and Perspectives Chronologically later appears borrowing from other terminologies: in building terms anchor, awning came from naval terminology, antennas — from biology, landscape — from painting terminology, trench — from military terminology, etc. Semantic termformation is responsible for approximately 3% of the special vocabulary, though in the young terminologies the amount of such terms is greater, but they usually form the nucleus of terminology and are used as base for derivation, composition and word-combination (Гринев 1993: 134). They are short, motivated and are frequently used, often are hyperonyms, many of them are names of terminologies. At the same time usage of semantic term-formation leads to polysemy and homonymy. When such homonymic forms are used in different subject fields it does not cause any problems (terminological form morphology is used quite conveniently in biology, geology and linguistics), but when as the result of semantic transfer two forms are used in the same science, as, for example doublet (etymological) and doublet (absolute synonym) in lexicology, or as names of processes, their means and results, it becomes very inconvenient. Morphologic term-formation accounts for about 5% of the whole special vocabulary (Гринев 1993: 134). The most productive means of morphologic term-formation is suffixation. Analysis of the usage of suffixes in coining new terms reveals some interesting phenomena. Firstly, there is a tendency to express categories by certain suffixes: - processes by the suffixes -ing/1/ and -ation/1/ – extracting, polishing, excavation, discolouration; - agents by the suffixes -er/1/, -or/1/, -an – welder, expeditor, electrician; - equipment by the suffixes -er/2/ (-or/2/) – scraper, loader, ventilator; - results by the suffixes -ing/2/, -ation/2/ – flooring, insulation; Here we also find specialised suffixes of minerals: -ite – biotite, diatomite, chromite; and chemical substances: ate, -ine, -ide, -oid, -um – chlorate, chlorine, chloride, celluloid, calcium. Secondly, we may notice both synonymy and polysemy of suffixes: suffix -er/or may be used to form terms with the following meanings: agent, doer of the action expressed by the stem (speaker), profession (teacher), a tool (transmitter), a chemical agent (retarder, hardener, plasticizer), lately a computer program (driver, supervisor).
3 9Terminologija | 2013 | 20 When long word-combinations appearing as the result of applying syntax means of nomination are frequently used they are often shortened, e.g. air cooling equipment – air cooler, cable car railway – cable railway, cable pulling tools – cable tools. Analyzing peculiarities of formation and development of terminologies facilitates the choice of ways of producing new terms. In medicine, as the result of typological research it was found that there are three types of terminologies. The first one is used in various branches of surgery (general, abdominal, neurosurgery, cardiovascular, traumatology, etc.) and is characterised by using precise, Latinised, usually compound international forms. Terminology used in hygiene (general, communal, personal, professional) is close to common vocabulary, imprecise and has national character. Terminology of branches of clinical medicine uses both types of terms with a slight predominance of the first type. Establishing the optimal principles of designing, elaborating and perfecting various types of dictionaries is thoroughly discussed in (ГриневГриневич 2007). Suffice it to say that on the basis of experience in compiling at the same time several types of dictionaries and comparison of more than 300 defining and translating terminological dictionaries an optimal procedure was elaborated for compiling a dictionary of a good quality on the basis of the preliminary chosen scope (general, branch, specialized), purpose (defining, translating, normalizing, educational) and number of languages to be covered (monolingual, bilingual, poly-lingual). Registration of the normalised term system used in implementing normalised terminology may take various forms: standardising (the strictest form used for technical terminologies); - recommending (the less demanding form used by the Committee for Scientific and technical terminology of the USSR Academy of Sciences for scientific terms); - indirect ways of normalising terminology usage in information systems. Experience gained in the last years added a new form which was found to be the most effective — preparing new manuals based on the normalised/ elaborated terminological systems. It was found that usage of this form of introducing term systems, though not explicitly restrictive, has even more compulsive character than standards, because such manuals leave
4 0 Sergiusz Griniewicz | Terminological Activities: Principles and Perspectives no place for other names of concepts — the future specialists absorb the ordered system of terms together with the ordered system of concepts. There are reasons to believe that the same approach should be used in preparing new official decrees and normative documents as well. The work on elaborating effective means of terminological editing was started by a group of authors (Квитко, Лейчик, Кабанцев 1986). At the same time a guide was prepared by VNIIKI for organizing and carrying out terminological expertise. In our opinion the majority of the state documents, beginning with the constitution and legal codes (which essentially are collections of concepts and their definitions) should pass such expertise. Establishing effective methods of terminology training should presuppose various types of such activities. We may differentiate at least three types of such training: - preparing specialists in terminology theory and methods, which starts with special courses for linguists and all interested in participating in terminological work and is followed by preparing PhD and Dr.Sc. dissertations; - courses of introduction in speciality based on presenting subject as a system of concepts and terms. There is already some experience and manuals of this type in Russia (see Помпеев 1976); - familiarising courses for linguists (first of all translators) as part of LSP. Such courses were organised in the USSR in the 1970s by the Institute for Advanced Training of Information Specialists (ИПКИР); - basic courses of terminological techniques for specialists engaged in terminological work (in many cases increases in terms of work and low-quality projects are the results of absence of terminological competence of executors). Investigating various semiotic denotations of concepts presupposes research in general and applied semiotics (Гринев 2000; ГриневГриневич, Сорокина 2012) as well as analysis in the area of intersection of semiotics and terminology science (Grinev 1997; Picht 2009, 2011). Investigating the role of terminologies in cognition should be founded on taking account of the fact that cognition is the mental process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses that starts with emergence of human species and is peculiar
4 1Terminologija | 2013 | 20 to human beings. Defining cognition as a process determines the need for diachronic approach in its analysis. Terminological diachronic studies that resulted in forming, first (in 2000) of historical terminology science and then in 2004 — of anthropolinguistics revealed that, alongside with the stage development of reasoning there is the stage development of language perception and attitudes towards language, beginning with ignorance of the existence of language in early croMagnon man, then ascription to language magical powers in primitive reasoning of prescientific epoch and primitive cultures, then descriptive approach to cope with the drastic growth of vocabulary in proto-scientific period and attempts at language perfection and elimination of the most evident drawbacks in special vocabularies. The next, intervening period affords an opportunity to turn to the conscious, meticulous, planned regulation of the improvable part of language — namely special vocabulary. This should be based on a number of principles. Elaborating main principles of organisation of national terminological activities and terminology planning becomes a must for minor languages in the era of globalisation. The Russian efforts in this direction in 1970s–1990s resulted in a number of activities: - estimation of the main directions and coverage of theoretical research, which was conducted in the 1980s–1990s and resulted in survey of dissertations (Grinev 1993), bibliography of terminological publications (Татаринов 1998) and bibliography of successfully defended dissertations of terminological character (ГриневГрине вич et al. 2006); - bibliographies of the acting terminological standards, prepared in the 1980s–1990s at VNIIKI; bank of standardised terminology (ROSTERM) at VNIIKI containing now more that 140,000 terminological entries; - glossaries of the Russian terminology of terminology science (Гринев 1998; Татаринов 2006); introductory manuals in terminology science (Гринев 1993; Гринев Гриневич 2008) and terminography (Гринев 1995; ГриневГриневич 2009) based on preliminary systematised concepts and terminology. There are reasons to believe that the similar directions of activities (on a smaller scale), supplemented by conscious planning of national
4 2 Sergiusz Griniewicz | Terminological Activities: Principles and Perspectives terminology ordering, management and advancement mentioned in (Griniewicz 2010) should be useful for minor languages. If we take for example Lithuania, terminology policy should be determined on the basis of estimating the state of the present terminology, namely: organising a base of the existing terminological dictionaries; - what has already been done in terminological research — collecting terminological publications and assessing the existing problems; - collecting standardised national terms in the form of terminological data bank; - analysis of tendencies in forming of national terminologies based on historical studies and recent development; - analysing historical tendencies in borrowing. In his impressive survey of the past of lithuanian language Jonas Klimavičius commented on the bad influence of forced bilingualism (with Polish, Russian and English) in the history of lithuania (Klimavičius 2008). Now Lithuania as an independent country may compare experiences of interaction with various languages and find out what national forms persisted and survived in competition with foreign lexical units, paying attention not only to negative but also to positive aspects of such interaction; - estimating needs in ordering/developing terminology in various branches of knowledge. Information collected may serve as basis for language policy actions, some of which are mentioned in Guidelines for Terminology Policies prepared by Infoterm (GTP), and which should include: - preparing or choosing a suitable manual on terminology and terminography, organising courses on terminology science and LSP in higher education institutions; - preparing instructions for specialists participating in terminological work; - organising courses for specialists participating in terminological work; - systematisation of Lithuanian vocabulary and preparing systematic dictionary, serving as the nucleus of national terminology; - comparing various types of term-forming and designing patterns of special nomination for various branches of knowledge;
4 3Terminologija | 2013 | 20 - assessing possibilities of using the existing admirable information on dialectal lexical material in naming new concepts; - defining borrowing policy — establishing preferable types of borrowing (material borrowings, loan translations, mixed borrowings) for various branches of knowledge; working out principles of constructing technical nomens; - investigating possibilities of controlling forms of pragmonyms. These activities may be viewed as part of a complex programme of civilised language expansion, based on such an outstanding feature of Lithuanian language as its being one of the oldest living Indo-European languages retaining many archaic linguistic features also characteristic of Latin and Sanskrit. Perhaps appeal for funds to organs of the European Union responsible for cultural heritage would be proper. Other measures of promotion of Lithuanian may be: - addressing all European universities where there are courses of general and comparative-historical linguistics with suggestions of organising courses in lithuanian; - preferential terms of employment in the country for native speakers of other languages who study and know lithuanian; courses of lithuanian free of charge; - preparing teachers of Lithuanian for various countries. CONCLUSION Survey of both theoretical and practical terminological activities in the former USSR and Russia for the last 50 years shows that intensive development of terminology theory in the 1980s–1990s resulted in formulating principles of various directions of terminology work that took shape at that time. Some of these principles may be successfully applied in terminology policy and planning for minor languages. SOURCES BS 2780:1972 Glossary of leather terms, London: British Standards Institution. BS 4118:1967 Glossary of sanitation terms, London: British Standards Institution. GTP – Guidelines for Terminology Policies. Formulating and implementing terminology policy in language communities (CI-2005/WS/4). Prepared by Infoterm, Paris: UNESCO, 2005. ISO 1087-1:2000 Terminology work – Vocabulary. Part 1. Theory and application. ISO 704 Terminology work: Principles and methods ISO WD 1087-1.5:94 Terminology work – Vocabulary. Part 1.
4 4 Sergiusz Griniewicz | Terminological Activities: Principles and Perspectives REFERENCES Akhmanova O., Agapova G. (eds.) 1974: Terminology: Theory and Method, Moscow. Akhmanova O. 1977: Linguistic Terminology, Moscow. Grinev S V. 1992: Description of Terminology: a Parametrical Approach. – IITF Journal 3(1), 41–46. Grinev S. V. 1993: Terminological Research in the former uSSR. – Knowledge Organization 20(3), 150–159. Grinev S. V. 1996: Terminology and Nomenclature in Russian Terminology Science. – Terminologie und Nomenclature, Lang, 25–42. Grinev S. V. 1997: Some Semiotic Aspects of Terminology Science. – Proceedings of the 11th European Symposium on LSP, copenhagen, August 1997, 300–307. Grinev-Griniewicz S. 2011: Terminological methods in the history of terminology science. – Terminologija 18, 27–42. Griniewicz S. 2010: Terminology and language policy (towards establishing rudiments of linguopolitology). – Terminologija 17, 16–20. Klimavičius J. 2008: lietuvių kalba ir visuomenė: bendrasis ir terminologinis aspektai (The lithuanian Language and Society: General and Terminological Aspects). – Terminologija 15, 56–104. Picht H. 2009: The Seven Pillars of Terminology. – Terminologija 16, 8–22. Picht H. 2011: The Science of Terminology: History and Evolution. – Terminologija 18, 6–26. Авербух К. Я. 2004: Общая теория термина, Иваново. Алексеева О. Б. 1994: Когнитивные аспекты диахронического исследования терминологии строительных материалов. Дисс. … канд. филол. наук, Москва. Алесенко Т. А. 2000: Особенности формирования современных межотраслевых терминологий (на материале сопоставительного анализа терминологии воды в английском и русском языках), Москва. Анюшкин Е. С. 1978: Преимущества и недостатки двуязычных переводных научнотехнических словарей. – Проблемы общей и терминологической лексикографии, Баку, 7–9. Анюшкин Е. С., Анюшкина Г. К. 1980: О некоторых типичных недостатках в содержании и оформлении переводных научнотехнических словарей. – Лингвистические аспекты терминологии, Воронеж, 90–98. Борнхвальд О. В. 2000: Историческое терминоведение русского языка, Красноярск. Володина М. Н. 1997: Теория терминологической номинации, Москва. Гак В. Г., Лейчик В. М. 1981: Субституция терминов в синтагматическом аспекте. – Терминология и культура речи, Москва, 47–57. Герд А. С. 1968: Проблемы формирования научной терминологии. Автореф. дис. ... докт. фил. наук, Ленинград. Герд А. С. 1971: Проблемы становления и унификации научной терминологии. – Вопросы языкознания 1, 14–22. Герд А. С. 1986: Основы научно-технической лексикографии, Ленинград. Головин Б. Н. 1968: Термин и слово. – Термин и слово, Горький, 3–12. Головин Б. Н. 1981: Типы терминосистем и основания их различения. – Термин и слово, Горький, 3–10. Головин Б. Н., Кобрин Р. Ю. 1987: Лингвистические основы учения о терминах, Горький. Гринев С. В. 1968: Введение в терминологическую лексикографию. Учебное пособие, Москва. Гринев С. В. 1993: Введение в терминоведение, Москва. Гринев С. В. 1995: Введение в терминографию, Москва. Гринев С. В. 1998: Исторический систематизированный словарь терминов терминоведения. Учебное пособие, Москва. Гринев С. В. 2000: Основы семиотики, Москва. ГриневГриневич 2007: О принципах создания терминологических словарей. – Terminologija 14, 20–36. ГриневГриневич С. В. 2008: Терминоведение. Учеб. пособие для студ. высш. учеб. заведений, Москва. ГриневГриневич С. В. 2009: Введение в терминографию: Как просто и легко составить словарь. Учебное пособие. Изд. 3е, доп., Москва. ГриневГриневич С. В., Гринева В. П., Минкова Л. П., Скопюк Т. Г. 2006: Указатель терминологических диссертаций. Справочное пособие, Белосток–Москва. ГриневГриневич С. В., Сорокина Э. А. 2012: Основы семиотики. Учебное пособие, Москва. Даниленко В. П. 1971: Лексикосемантические и грамматические особенности словтерминов. – Исследования по русской терминологии, Москва, 5–67.
4 5Terminologija | 2013 | 20 Даниленко В. П. 1977: Русская терминология. Опыт лингвистического описания, Москва. Даниленко В. П., Скворцов Л. И. 1982: Нормативные основы унификации терминологии. – Культура речи в технической документации, Москва, 5–35. Дианова Г. А. 1995: Язык алхимии: становление языка английской химической литературы 15–18 вв., Москва. Дианова Г. А. 2000: Термин и понятие: проблемы эволюции (к основам исторического терминоведения), Москва. Иванов С. З. 1967: Терминология сахарного производства, Москва. Казарина С. Г. 1998: Типологические характеристики отраслевых терминологий, Краснодар. Канделаки Т. Л. 1977: Семантика и мотивированность терминов, Москва. Квитко И. С., Лейчик В. М., Кабанцев Г. Г. 1986: Терминоведческие проблемы редактирования, Львов. Клепальченко И. А. 1999: Сопоставительный анализ лексики семантической группы «Лестницы и элементы лестничных конструкций» (на материале английского и русского языков). Автореф. дис. … канд. филол. наук, Москва. Кобрин Р. Ю. 1979: О принципах терминологической работы при создании тезаурусов для информационнопоисковых систем. – Научно-техническая информация 2(6), 1–9. Кобрин Р. Ю., Пекарская Л. А. 1977: Лингвостатистический анализ употребления терминов нормативных словарей и ГОСТов в реальных научнотехнических текстах. – Языковая норма и статистика, Москва, 265–279. Кутина Л. Л. 1964: Формирование языка русской науки: терминология математики, астрономии, географии в первой трети XVIII века, Москва–Ленинград. Кутина Л. Л. 1966: Формирование терминологии физики в России, Москва–Ленинград. Кутина Л. Л. 1970: Языковые процессы, возникающие при становлении научных терминологических систем. – Лингвистические проблемы научно-технической терминологии, Москва, 82–94. Лейчик В. М. 1988: Основные положения сопоставительного терминоведения. – Отраслевая терминология и ее структурно-типологическое описание, Воронеж, 3–10. Лейчик В. М. 1989: Предмет, методы и структура терминоведения. Автореф. дис. ... докт. филол. наук, Москва. Марчук Ю. Н. 1992: Основы терминографии, Москва. Миронова Е. Е. 2002: Проблемы эволюции архитектурной терминологии (на примере английской лексики поля «Окна и двери»). Дис. … канд. филол. наук, Москва. Помпеев Ю. А. 1976: Основы строительной специальности, Ленинград. Сложеникина Ю. В. 2005: Термин: семантическое, формальное, функциональное варьирование, Самара. Сорокалетов Ф. П. 1970: История военной лексики в русском языке 11–17 в., Ленинград. Суперанская А. В., Подольская Н. В., Васильева Н. В. 1989: Общая терминология: Вопросы теории, Москва. Суперанская А. В., Подольская Н. В., Васильева Н. В. 1993: Общая терминология: Терминологическая деятельность, Москва. Татаринов В. А. 1996–2004: Теория терминоведения. В 3 т., Москва. Татаринов В. А. 1998: Терминоведение. Указатель работ, опубликованных отечественными терминологами в 20 веке, Москва. Татаринов В. А. 2006: Общее терминоведение. Энциклопедический словарь, Москва. Ткачева Л. Б. 1987а: Актуальные вопросы терминологии в социолингвистическом освещении. Автореф. дис. ... доктора фил. наук, Ленинград. Ткачева Л. Б. 1987б: Основные закономерности английской терминологии, Томск. Фельде О. В. (Борнхвальд) 2001: Историческое терминоведение в теории и практике, Красноярск. Филиппова Е. В. 1996: Эволюция английской онкологической терминологии. Автореф. дисс. … канд. филол. наук, Москва. Хижняк С. П. 1997а: Англо-американская и русская терминология права: Социолингвистический аспект возникновения и развития, Саратов. Хижняк С. П. 1997б: Юридическая терминология: формирование и состав, Саратов. Циткина Ф. А. 1987: Сопоставительное терминоведение: теоретические вопросы и приложения. – Вопросы языкознания 4, 114–124. Циткина Ф. А. 1988: Терминология и перевод (к основам сопоставительного терминоведения), Львов. Шелов С. Д. 1985: Об одном классе научнотехнической лексики (три подхода к выделению номенклатурных наименований). – Научно-техническая терминология 2(3), 1–7.
4 6 Sergiusz Griniewicz | Terminological Activities: Principles and Perspectives TERMINOLOGIJOS VEIKLA: PRINCIPAI IR PERSPEKTYVOS Straipsnyje trumpai aprašomos pagrindinės praktinės terminologijos veiklos kryptys ir principai SSRS ir Rusijoje per pastaruosius penkiasdešimt metų. Atkreipiamas dėmesys į terminologijos ir savarankiškų jos disciplinų ryšį. Gvildenamos pagrindinių sąvokų tipų tyrinėjimo, pagrindinių specialiųjų leksemų tipų nustatymo ir aprašymo, tvarkomos terminijos kompleksinės analizės, terminijos semantinio nagrinėjimo problemos, apžvelgiami svarbiausių terminų darybos būdų ir tipų, sunormintos terminijos diegimo būdų, terminologų rengimo privalumai ir trūkumai, terminologijos veiklos organizavimo nacionaliniu lygmeniu principai ir metodai. Remiantis lietuvių kalbos pavyzdžiu apžvelgiami galimi bendrieji nacionalinės terminijos plėtros skatinimo ir planavimo metodai. ТЕРМИНОЛОГИЧЕСКАЯ ДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТЬ: ПРИНЦИПЫ И ПЕРСПЕКТИВЫ Дается краткое описание основных направлений практической терминологической деятельности и ее теоретических принципов в СССР и России за последние 50 лет. Отмечается филиация терминоведения с появлением самостоятельных терминоведческих дисциплин. Рассматриваются проблемы исследования основных типов понятий, выявления и описания основных типов специальных лексем, комплексного анализа упорядочиваемых терминологий, семантического анализа терминологий, разбираются достоинства и недостатки основных способов образования терминов, моделей образования терминов, способов введения упорядоченных терминологий, подготовки терминоведов и терминологов, развитие восприятия языка человеком в процессе его эволюции, принципы и методы организации национальной терминологической деятельности. На примере литовского языка рассматриваются общие методы организации и планирования развития национальной терминологии. Gauta 20131104 Sergiusz Griniewicz TC 55 Terminology RF, University of Bialystok Waska 4, m. 20, Bialystok, 15-481, Poland E-mail [email protected]