„Ekologizavimas“, „žalinimas“ ir kiti angl. „greening“ atitikmenys Europos Sąjungos institucijų dokumentuose

Greening and other equivalents of the English greening in European Union institutional documents ROBERTAS STUNŽINAS Institute of the Lithuanian Language KEYWORDS: policy, agricultural policy, greening, environmentalization, synonyms. The 2014–2020 Common Agricultural Policy sets certain environmental requirements, one of which is the implementation of greening provisions. Greening means striving for higher standards of biodiversity, soil, water and climate protection across most agricultural land in Europe. Greening activities include crop diversification, maintaining permanent grassland and pastures, and designating an area of ecological focus (fallow land, terraces, landscape features, buffer strips or other objects of environmental value). Farmers receive direct payments for implementing greening provisions (see www.zum.lt for more information). Greening is not merely a concept in the European Union’s agricultural policy. It is a fundamental principle of the worldview underpinning the EU’s green policy agenda, concerned with developing green energy and low-pollution farms, reducing air-transport emissions, and creating a green economy and green jobs (which save energy, use renewable energy sources, conserve resources and ecosystems, and help prevent waste and pollution), among other similar matters. The term greening has been included in the EU’s multilingual terminology database (IATE), where its general meaning is “making more climate- or environment-friendly” (IATE). This term and its synonyms are widely used in European Union and Lithuanian legislation, and have also entered the press and general usage, for example: “Many of the country’s farmers are anxiously awaiting the 2015–2020 period of the European Union’s rural development programme. One of the most unclear and alarming issues for them is the greening- 1 requirement.” It should be “making more climate- or environment-friendly.” Terminologija | 2014 | 21 111 requirement” (ukinin...lt). “One of the most realistic measures for reducing the aforementioned threats is the environmentalization of agriculture or, as it is fashionable to say nowadays, greening (English: greening)” (valstietis.lt). In translated documents of European Union institutions, greening is the equivalent of English greening. In addition to it, environmentalization is also used; this term is listed as a synonym in the EU terminology database IATE. However, a review of EU institutional documents shows that greening is a recent linguistic phenomenon, while before its emergence English greening was translated using many other equivalents. To identify the diversity and evolution of equivalents for English greening, 209 EU institutional documents from 2004–2014 were reviewed, yielding 280 equivalents for English greening2. The article goes on to examine Lithuanian equivalents of English greening3 in EU institutional legislation and documents in terms of their usage, expression, development and synonymy. English greening is a term spreading rapidly in EU legislation and documents. The number of documents in which the term greening is used is shown in the figure4. Fig. Number of English-language documents using English greening, 2004–20145 years 2 Only distinct terms were taken from each document. Terms recurring in different documents were included to determine consistency of usage. A term or equivalent is cited in quotation. 3 The article adopts a broad understanding of equivalents, treating as such all linguistic units used to translate English greening. 4 The data are based on the European Union’s legislation and other public documents database, “EUR-lex”. 5 The number of instances of English greening in 2014 documents is lower because the data were collected before the year had ended. 112 Robertas Stunžinas │ Ekologizavimas, žalinimas ir kiti angl. greening atitikmenys Europos Sąjungos institucijų dokumentuose The term is used when referring to making areas of state activity, economic sectors, or specific things more environmentally or climate friendly. Most often it denotes making transport (24% of all occurrences), the economy (14%), agriculture and its policy (13%), workplaces (8%), the subsidies paid for this (6.7%), public and private procurement (5%), taxation (2.5%), and industry (1.7%) more environmentally or climate friendly. The term is also used in reference to other things—technologies, the supply chain, the environment of rivers and other bodies of water, funding programmes, education, aircraft materials, the activities of institutions, the energy sector, investments, and business models. In Lithuanian documents, the English term greening6 has a wealth of equivalents—nearly eighty different words and phrases have been identified, including nouns, adjectives, noun or adjective phrases, verbal phrases, and various syntactic constructions. Most equivalents have the root of the noun ecology; a smaller number have the root of the noun environment, the verbs protect, conserve, make green, or other roots. ECOLOGY, ECOLOGISATION, ECOLOGICAL AND OTHER RELATED EQUIVALENTS Labai dažnai lietuviškuose ES institucijų dokumentuose angl. greening atitinka terminais7 laikytini leksiniai vienetai – daiktavardžiai ir daiktavardiniai žodžių junginiai. Tokie atitikmenys sudaro beveik pusę visų skirtingų atitikmenų. Trys ketvirtadaliai terminų ar jų dėmenų turi daiktavardžio ekologija šaknį. „Ekologija – biologijos šaka, tirianti gyvosios ir negyvosios gamtos sąveiką bei gyvosios gamtos tarpusavio ryšius“ (VLE V 380). Viename dokumente angl. greening atitinką8 mokslo srities pavadinimas – ekologija. Jis vartojamas tada, kai kalbama apie politikos priemones, pvz.: „<...> nurodo, kad šiandien esama daugybės vietos ir regioninio valdymo politikos priemonių; naujovėms, kurios gali padidinti našumą, ir ekologijai [“Both innovation, which can bring productivity gains, and greening, which can create new demands and markets <...>”], dėl kurios gali atsirasti nauja paklausa ir rinkos <...>“ 6 English greening is also used with other meanings—that of planting vegetation and that of turning green. The Lithuanian equivalents used are seeding with grass cover, landscaping, expansion of green areas, turning green. 7 Terminais paprastai laikomi daiktavardžiai (Gaivenis 2002: 30). 8 Equivalents are distinguished formally, since translation often involves changing the sentence structure. Terminologija | 2014 | 21 113 (52010IP0376)9. In some documents, the same concept is understood as a generalised quality and designated by the term environmental friendliness, for example: “Effective and formal participation by civil society, through democratic processes and systems of dialogue, in areas and projects significant to the e n v i r o n m e n t a l f r i e n d l i n e s s of the economy [“A precondition for this is effective, formal participation by civil society, through democratic processes and systems of dialogue, in issues and projects that are significant to the g r e e n i n g of the economy and to sustainable development”] and sustainable development is a prerequisite for this” (52011AE1386). The terms ecology and environmental friendliness should not be considered exact equivalents of English greening—they refer to attributes of an action, process, or activity. Here one can speak of partial terminological synonymy: different terms are used to designate the same phenomenon in reality. In general, terminological synonymy is characteristic of the initial stages of terminology formation, when the best term for naming a concept has not yet been selected and several terms or variants coexist (Gaivenis 2002: 125). Synonyms arise from the highlighting of various aspects of the object being designated, authors’ preferences, language policy, the creation of neologisms, the use of official and unofficial, new and obsolete terms, varying levels of proficiency in one’s own language, and extralinguistic factors (for more on the causes of synonymy, see Keinys 1980: 42; Гринев 1993: 106). Most equivalents of English greening can be considered contextual synonyms, that is, synonyms whose relationships arise temporarily in a particular context and a particular speech situation. The most frequent equivalents of the term under discussion are terms denoting the action of increasing or strengthening a quality. The compound term increasing environmental friendliness was used most consistently (2005, 2007–2014). It is used in reference to almost all areas: air transport, agriculture, public procurement, the economy, policy, subsidies, and industry, for example: “Increasing the e n v i r o n m e n t a l f r i e n d l i n e s s of air transport [“The g r e e n i n g of air transport <...>”]: developing technologies to reduce aviation’s environmental impact, with the aim of halving carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, reducing specific nitrogen oxide (NOₓ) emissions by 80%, and halving audible noise” (52005PC0440); “The EESC notes that, for this agricultural budget, agreement in the Commission was possible only after the necessary i n c r e a s e i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l f r i e n d l i n e s s had been specified” [“The EESC notes that agree- 9 The source identification number (“Celex” number) is given in parentheses. The sources can be found by this number in the European Union’s database of legal acts and other public documents, “EUR-lex”. 114 Robertas Stunžinas Ekologizavimas, žalinimas ir kiti angl. greening atitikmenys Europos Sąjungos institucijų dokumentuose …ment within the Commission on this budget allocation for agriculture was only possible by including references to the need for greening of agriculture”] (52012AE1050); “The objectives, methods and instruments of the European Semester should continue to encompass the greening of industrial processes in various sectors and of the economy as a whole [“In its objectives, methods and instruments, the European Semester should continue to address the greening of existing industrial processes in individual sectors <...>”], so that the crisis can be overcome on the basis of a more sustainable development model” (52013AE7466); “As regards the CAP and the Direct Payments Regulation[16], the greening objectives of the CAP reform [“As regards the CAP and the Direct Payments Regulation[16] the “greening” objectives of the CAP reform <...>”], one of the main priorities of the common agricultural policy after 2013, enjoy broad support from the European institutions, Member States and other partners” (52012DC0531); “As a result, companies that have invested heavily in improving their business models’ performance and greening are penalised” [“This situation penalises those companies who have been investing a lot in improving their performances and greening their business models”] (52013SC0112); “The Committee believes that an eco-label on all food products, fresh and processed, would be the first step towards genuinely greening the supply chain” [“The Committee believes that an Ecolabel on all food products, fresh and processed, would be the first step towards a genuine greening of the supply chain”] (52009AE0338); “Greening the economy [“Greening the economy is a major task <...>”] is a major task and must be carried out on many different fronts <...>” (52011AE1386). It should be noted that English texts often place the term greening in quotation marks. The use of quotation marks indicates that the English term is considered figurative. Lithuanian terms are often unnecessarily written in quotation marks by analogy with the English term, for example: “greening” (C2006/316E/02; 52006IP0528). In one document, the concept is designated by a compound term denoting a process that occurs by itself — becoming greener, for example: “Skills for green jobs; evidence of the greening of jobs was discussed at several conferences, including one held under the Belgian Presidency” [“<...> evidence of the greening of jobs was discussed at several conferences <...>”] (52011TA1215(23)). Other terms denoting the action of strengthening this characteristic include: promoting greening, pursuing greening, strengthening the component intended to promote greening Terminologija | 2014 | 21 115 strengthening of the portion devoted to greening, for example: “The documents reported by Member States generally relate to the greening of public procurement [“In general, the documents reported by Member States relate to the greening of public procurement <...>”] <...>” (52010DC0006); “A green economy, or the greening of an economy [“<...> process of greening an economy can be conceived as one of the crucial means <...>”], can be understood as an essential means of enabling more sustainable development in the future” (52010IE1177); “In the Commission’s view, the CAP after 2013 should provide for other forms of direct payments that would help promote greener agriculture (strengthening of the portion of direct payments devoted to greening) [“(the greening of direct payments) ”] <...>” (52011AE0531). Sometimes it is said that something is aligned with the science of ecology—a focus on ecology, alignment with ecology, for example: “<...> an integration scenario involving major policy changes, such as more targeted direct payments and their greening [“<...> greening of direct payments and reinforced strategic targeting for rural development policy <...>”], strengthening strategic planning for rural development policy by better aligning this policy with other EU policy areas <...>” (52011PC0626); “Greening of direct payments to farmers” [“Greening of direct payments”] (52011DC0500). Some equivalents denote the action of making something greener. The action nouns with Lithuanian suffixes ecologisation (2006–2007, 2009, 2013–2014) and ecologising (2009, 2012) are among the most frequently used equivalents. They are used in relation to transport, the economy, jobs, agriculture, industry and the environment, for example: “European transport technology centres have drawn up strategic research agendas that provide for the ecologisation of surface and air transport” [“activities include the greening of surface and air transport, the modernisation of air traffic management <...>”] (52006DC0314); “The most noticeable changes will be in the composition of employment sectors — the creation of new ‘green’ jobs, the ‘ecologising’ of existing jobs [“<...> greening of existing jobs <...>”] and the disappearance of some existing jobs” (52009DC0639); “<...> proposes continued support for the broadly defined process of greening agriculture [“<...> suggests providing further support for the broadly defined processes of greening agriculture <...>”] (52007AR0127); “This exploratory opinion examines the greening of the environment of seas 116 Robertas Stunžinas | Ekologizavimas, žalinimas ir kiti angl. greening atitikmenys Europos Sąjungos institucijų dokumentuose and rivers [“This exploratory opinion examines ‘greening’ of the environment of oceans <…>”] <…>” (52009AE0868). A term with an international suffix is also used to name this action — ecologisation. It has been observed that the same term is often used in other languages, for example: French écologisation, Spanish ecologización, Latvian ekoloģizācija, Slovak ekologizácia (IATE). Since ecologisation is hardly ever used in English-language documents, it is difficult to say what it means or whether it competes with greening. Alongside ecologisation and ecologising, the compound term making greener should be mentioned, for example: “The European Union often sets ambitious goals without specifying the measures and resources needed to achieve them. This also applies to making jobs greener¹⁰ [“In the case of ‘greening of jobs’ <…>”] <…>” (52010AE1174). Equivalents shaping an ecological action, ecological adaptation have a similar meaning, for example: “<…> whereas the Commission has announced several initiatives on combating climate change aimed at shaping ecological action in the transport sector [“<…> whereas, as far as greening transport is concerned <…>”] <…>” (52009IP0119); “<…> proposes that further consideration of the ‘Lisbon Plus’ agenda (which is to begin in 2010) should be based on the structure of the current Lisbon Strategy (the competitiveness and ecological adaptation of European industry, more and better jobs, social inclusion and sustainability [“ <…> competitiveness and greening of European industries, more and better jobs, social inclusion, sustainability”] <…>” (52009IP0120). The equivalent area of greening does not express an action, for example: “To ensure that significant results are achieved in 2012 <…> in the greening of the world economy [“To secure a significant outcome on the greening of the global economy in 2012”] <…>” (52010IE1177). Most of the equivalents mentioned are general-purpose and are used in relation to various fields and things. The expression green approach has a specific meaning: it is used in relation to everyday habits and consumption, for example: “Promoting a green approach [“Promotion of greening the use habits <…>”] to everyday habits <…>” (C2004/191/02). Equivalents used with additional elements have narrower meanings — development of greener technologies, organic farming, green measures, 10 It should read “making jobs greener”. Terminologija | 2014 | 21 117 e.g.: “Cost efficiency would be the main driving factor, while the development of more environmentally friendly technologies would not be a priority but an additional benefit” (52007PC0315); “Subject: CAP and linking 30% of payments to environmental farming” (C2012/285E/01). The English-language documents use only one term, greening, e.g.: “Cost efficiency would be the main driving factor with greening an additional benefit and not a priority” (52007PC0315); “Subject: CAP — 30% of payments linked to greening” (C2012/285E/01). Some equivalents are not syntactically independent—they are used only with the names of objects, e.g.: environmentally friendly transport use, promotion of green public procurement, development of a greener economy, greener food crop production, development of a greener Common Agricultural Policy, e.g.: “Greening of transport [“Greening of transport and internalisation <...>”] and internalisation of external costs (vote)” (C2009/234E/03); “Encouraging the development and use of environment-friendly technologies and the greening of public procurement [“Encouraging the development and use of environment-friendly technologies, the greening of public procurement <...>”], with particular attention to SMEs, and eliminating environmentally harmful subsidies and other policy measures could improve innovation performance and increase its contribution to the sustainable development of the sectors concerned” (32005H0601); “Nevertheless, the process of greening the economy [“Nevertheless, the process of greening the economy could be a powerful tool <...>”] could be a powerful lever in combating the downturn and contribute to the recovery of production and rising employment” (52012IE1304); “The most pressing issues at present are so-called sustainable intensification and greening food crop production [“Sustainable intensification” and greening of food crop production <...>”], which help to increase yields without adversely affecting the environment or expanding the area of cultivated land” (52013PC0262); “Subject: Incorporating traditional olive groves into the greening of the Common Agricultural Policy” [“Subject: Inclusion of traditional olive groves in the ‘greening’ of the Common Agricultural Policy”] (C2012/168E/01). English greeninggreening is often translated not by terms, but by adjectives, noun and participle phrases, verbs, and verbal and verb-like phrases. Adjectives predominate in this group of equivalents: environmentally friendly and greener, e.g.: “<...> having regard to its 2009” 118 Robertas Stunžinas Ekologizavimas, žalinimas ir kiti angl. greening atitikmenys Europos Sąjungos institucijų dokumentuose resolution of 11 March on the greening of transport and internalisation of external costs <...>” [“<...> having regard to its resolution of 11 March 2009 on the greening of transport <...>”] (52010IP0260); “The policy includes several proposals for more sustainable (greener) maritime transport” [“This policy includes several proposals improving the sustainability (greening) of maritime transport”] (52008DC0433). The adjectives environmentally friendly, greener and environmental are also used when English greening functions as a component, e.g.: “The Commission Communication of 8 July 2008 on ‘Greening Transport’ (4) [“<....> Commission Communication of 8 July 2008 on Greening Transport (4) <...>”] stresses that the main challenge facing the Community in slowing climate change and boosting Europe’s competitiveness is promoting sustainable mobility” (52009AP0248); “A Greener Europe” [“Greening Europe”] (52007IP0197); “The stronger focus on greening air transport [“A stronger orientation towards ‘greening’ air transport <...>”] and greater attention to its impact on climate change will be a priority of the new Seventh Framework Programme recently proposed by the Commission” (52005DC0459); “The EU needs to develop a coherent and consistent proposal for the goals of this international greening ambition and for fulfilling long-standing pledges for levels of support” [“The EU needs to develop a coherent and consistent proposal for the goals of this international greening ambition and for fulfilling long-standing pledges for levels of support”] (52010IE1177); “<...> considers that effective farm and local energy-saving and management measures should be made available throughout the EU under rural development programmes, as well as optional greening measures for the future CAP [“<...> ‘greening’ measures of the future of the CAP <...>”] <...>” (52012IP0011). With regard to the adjectives environmental, environmentally friendly and greener, a distinction should be made between lexical synonyms and grammatical synonyms of degrees of comparison. The adjectives environmental and environmentally friendly may be regarded as lexical synonyms: they share a root and the same lexical meaning, have similar lexical meanings, and differ in their derivational suffixes (for more on the concept of lexical synonyms, see Vaskelienė, Kučinskienė 2012: 153). The adjectives environmentally friendly and greener may be regarded as grammatical synonyms of degrees of comparison: in this case their meanings converge, and under certain circumstances the forms of degree can replace one another (for more on such cases of synonymy, see Pikčilingis 1969: 39). Terminologija | 2014 | 21 119 Among adjectives, adjective-like expressions should also be mentioned: English greening is also translated by the noun-and-participle phrase promoting environmental friendliness, e.g.: “<…> calls for workplace climate-change audits to be included in corporate reporting standards, in order to increase transparency in policies that p r o m o t e e n v i r o n m e n t a l f r i e n d l i n e s s and the monitoring of emissions reductions [“<…> in the monitoring of g r e e n i n g policies and emissions reductions <…>”] <…>” (52009IP0042). English greening is often translated by verbs—to make green, to green, e.g.: “There is considerable scope in Europe to create ‘green jobs’[3] and to ‘g r e e n’ existing jobs [“The scope for creating new ‘green jobs’[3] and for g r e e n i n g of existing jobs <…>”] <…>” (52009DC0639); “As the Commission considers, the best way to resolve the remaining problems mentioned is to abolish registration taxes and integrate them (in a revenue-neutral way) into usage charges, as well as harmonise and green car taxation” [“<…> as well as the harmonisation and ‘g r e e n i n g’ of car taxation <…>”] (52012DC0756). Verbal and verb-like phrases are often used: increase environmental friendliness, make environmentally oriented, make greener, while promoting environmental friendliness, with a view to environmental improvement, linking with environmental concerns, in connection with environmental concerns, e.g.: “Environmental protection depends on sustainable energy resources and adaptation to climate change, which will encourage new ways of working and increase the environmental friendliness of jobs [“<…> and this will lead to new ways of working, the ‘g r e e n i n g’ of jobs <…>”] <…>” (52010IE1165); “The analysis shows that it is possible to orient payments towards environmental objectives [“The analysis shows that g r e e n i n g is possible <…>”] at a cost acceptable to farmers, though not without some administrative burden” (52011PC0626); “However, the transport sector accounts for 25% of total EU CO₂ emissions, making it absolutely necessary to make the system greener [“<…> hence the absolute need for a ‘g r e e n i n g’ of the system <…>”] <…>” (52006PC0364(02)); “In addition, cohesion policy contributes to creating a single market in all regions of the European Union, particularly by boosting the competitiveness of SMEs and greening the economy [“<…> in particular by boosting the competitiveness of the SMEs, g r e e n i n g the economy <…>”] <…>” (52012AR1529); “<…> welcomes the commitment to a greener CAP and calls for clear, binding and precise criteria for beneficiaries in order to green the CAP, covering soil protection and the sustainable use of underground— 1 2 0 Robertas Stunžinas Ekologizavimas, žalinimas ir kiti angl. greening atitikmenys Europos Sąjungos institucijų dokumentuose water use [“<...> and requests that the greening of the CAP <...>”] <...>“ (52011AR0283). It should be noted that these expressions and the verbs mentioned above to ecologise, to make ecological are often used together with the terms ecologising, making ecological, increasing ecological character, orienting towards ecology, making more ecological, pursuing ecological character, linking with ecology. In such cases, one can speak of terminological transformations, whose emergence may have been prompted by matters of translation technique and the aim of translating fluently and without nominal constructions. There are more verbal expressions: to make more ecological11, to create a more ecological, to promote a more ecological, to ensure a more ecological, to develop a more ecological, to pursue a more ecological approach, to become more ecological. Sometimes the English term is translated using explanatory constructions: so that (all jobs) become greener; so that (maritime transport) better meets environmental requirements, for example: “The social partners can undertake ongoing ‘greening’ of all jobs” [“The social partners can undertake ongoing ‘greening’ of all jobs”] (52010AE1174); “Support from the EU’s Seventh Framework Programme for Transport (FP7) was provided for several research projects, with the aim, above all, of developing innovative maritime concepts, including clean-ship technologies, alternative fuels and operating strategies, so that maritime transport better meets environmental requirements” [“<...> alternative fuels and operation strategies for greening the maritime transport”] (52013DC0475). Other non-terminological expressions also occur—efforts to make greener, for example: “Efforts to make air transport greener [“The greening of air transport <...>”] <...>“ (C2006/316E/02). Translation theory describes such cases as descriptive, or paraphrastic, translation. This is a form of approximate translation of non-equivalent lexis in which the denotative meaning of a lexical unit in the source language is described by a free phrase in the target language that conveys some essential features of the referent (Pažūsis 2014: 277). The use of adjectives, adjectival phrases, verbs and verbal phrases may have been prompted by treating English greening as an adjective, participle or verb. The English suffix -ing is polysemous and can be used to form verbal nouns, participles and adjectives (ODE 2010: 898). 11 The translated document also contains an error in marking the instrumental case and the comparative form with the adverb more: it should read to make greener. Terminologija | 2014 | 21 121 Moreover, the abundance of non-terminological expressions and the use of lengthy explanatory syntactic constructions may indicate that translators avoided using specific terms. There may have been various reasons for avoiding terms: the concept’s lack of clarity, the search for suitable means of expression, or the inability to find a term appropriate for different fields. It was noted that less precise equivalents occur in early translations (when the content of the concept was not yet clear) or in translations that are not at the highest level, for example, protocols and opinions. The difficulty of finding a suitable term is evidenced by omission of an equivalent and use of an untranslated term, for example: “The CAP will also promote environmentally beneficial agricultural practices, such as crop diversification, the protection of permanent grassland, and the establishment and maintenance of ecologically valuable farmland and forest areas” [“Greening of the CAP will also promote the environmentally beneficial agricultural practices of crop diversification, the protection of permanent grassland, and the establishment and maintenance of ecologically valuable farmland and forest areas”] (52012PC0710); “Strategic environmental and gender impact assessments, including those relating to the budget [‘greening the budget’] and sectoral assistance, will be carried out systematically” (42006X0224(01)). Moreover, the range of translations of the root word green also indicates the opacity of the English term. Rasuolė Vladarskienė has written that translators in EU institutions translate English green in various ways, and the adjective green has various meanings, for example: green design – ecological design; green auditing – environmental audit; green job – ecological job, environmentally friendly job; green tax – environmental tax; green business – ecological business; green technology – ecological technology (Vladarskienė 2014: 7). ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION, ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION, GREENING AND OTHER COGNATE EQUIVALENTS The abundance of terms formed from the noun ecology may also have been influenced by other languages. Documents in other languages likewise often use the noun ecology and its derivatives, for example: French l’écologisation, Polish kwestie ekologiczne (52010IP0376), German Ökologisierung, Polish ekologizacja (52012AE1050), Bulgarian екологизирането, Slovenian ekologizacija (52013AE7466). Terms containing the root of the noun ecology predominate as equivalents of English greening in the EU’s multilingual terminology database IATE as well, for example: German Ökologisierung, Spanish ecologización, French écologisation, Italian ecologizzazione, Latvian ekoloģizācija, Polish ekologizacja. 122 Robertas Stunžinas Ekologizavimas, žalinimas ir kiti angl. greening atitikmenys Europos Sąjungos institucijų dokumentuose The fact that terms derived from the name of a scientific field are unsuitable for translating English greening is demonstrated by the use of other equivalents. Lithuanian terms with different roots make up less than a quarter of all term equivalents. Some of them are related to the term environmental protection. “Environmental protection is a system of legal, technological, technical, biological and other measures that helps reconcile the use of natural resources with the preservation of an environment suitable for living organisms and human beings” (VLE I 656). The terms environmental protection, environmental conservation are used as equivalents of English greening in early documents dealing with agricultural policy, for example: “Special Report No 14/2000 (OJ C 353, 8.12.2000) on the CAP and environmental protection [“<…> ‘Greening the Cap’ <…>”], paragraph 47” (52004SA0009). Sometimes the term is used with an additional component—environmental field, for example: “EMAS certificate/Agency initiatives in the environmental field” [“<…> Greening the Agency initiatives <…>”] (32006B0488). In this case, the broader concept is used in place of the narrower one—ecologisation (greening) is only one of the environmental protection requirements. The term environmental aspect has a narrower meaning, for example: “That is why the Economic Recovery Plan devotes considerable attention to innovation and EU investment carried out with due regard to environmental aspects” [“<…> emphasis on innovation and greening of EU investment <…>”] (52008DC0800). Some equivalents denote an action of lesser intensity – environmental conservation, developing the environmental conservation aspect, e.g.: “In addition, the proposals for the revised common agricultural policy and for measures under the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development provide for new environmental conservation measures [“New greening measures are also foreseen <…>”] <…>“ (52012DC0626). The same action is described by highlighting different features of the concept – increasing environmental friendliness, less environmentally harmful (fleet) operation, e.g.: “Commission staff working document ‘Development of NAIADES II. Promoting inland waterway transport, greening and integrating it into the common EU transport area’ [“Promoting, greening and integrating inland waterway transport <…>”] <…>“ (52013DC0623); ‘To implement NAIADES II, funding is needed to support policy actions (coordination, management and preparatory actions), research and innovation, infrastructure and less environmentally harmful fleet operation’ [“RDI for greening the fleets <…>”] (C2013/264/09). Also used are sustainability- Terminologija | 2014 | 21 123 requirements, more stringent sustainability requirements. In addition, English greening is translated using adjectival and verbal phrases, e.g.: more environmentally friendly, less harmful to the environment, make more environmentally sustainable, reduce environmental harm, create something environmentally friendly. Sometimes the concept is specified by adding a modifying element – make more sustainable (“greener”), e.g.: “Funding should not only be allocated to green solutions, but all public and private investments should also be made more sustainable (‘greener’)” [“<...> greening of all public and private investments”] (52011DC0571). The term žalinimas is new, and has been recorded in EU documents since 2013. It is becoming established and is used in reference to many areas—jobs, benefits, businesses, crops, etc.—for example: “The 2014 European Resource Efficiency Platform (EREP) also stressed the importance of developing a broad strategy for greening jobs, skills and education [“<...> the need to develop a broad strategy for greening jobs <...>”] <...>” (52014DC0446); “Greening SMEs [“Greening SMEs <...>”] to increase competitiveness and sustainability” (52014DC0440); “Since certain areas are not subject to greening obligations [“<...> greening obligations <...>”] or compliance with them does not entail significant costs, Member States should continue to be allowed to decide to disregard such areas when establishing cases of hardship <...>” (32014R0639). Although žalinimas is a new term, its beginnings can be traced back earlier. For example, expressions used in 2008 included green objectives, becoming green, pursue a greener, e.g.: “Although most of this money will be used to fund research activities not related to GPP, the overheads of the projects (up to 7% of the allocated support) could be used for ‘green’ purposes” [“<...> the overheads of the projects <...> would be suitable for ‘greening’] (52008DC0400); “Greening private procurement” [“Greening private procurement”] (52008DC0400); “<...> stresses the urgent need for a ‘greener’ EU development policy and aid, and that this should be implemented without prejudice to the provisions of EU environmental and climate change policy [“Stresses that a ‘greening’ of the EU’s development policy <...>”] <...>” (52008IP0032). In reference to the European Union budget, the compound term greening measures is used, e.g.: “The environment-related elements set out in the Commission’s reform proposals, in particular the proposals for reform of the Union’s agricultural, fisheries and cohesion policies, which are to be financed through the greening measures in the Union budget under the 2014–2020 multiannual financial framework [“<...> backed by the proposals for 124 Robertas Stunžinas Ekologizavimas, žalinimas ir kiti angl. greening atitikmenys Europos Sąjungos institucijų dokumentuose greening the Union budget <...>” are intended to support those objectives” (32013D1386). It should be noted that the underlying verb žalinimas žalinti is not used in European Union or Lithuanian legislation and documents; only forms of the verb žalėti occur, e.g.: “For the promises of a safer and more hospitable world to come true as the economies of developed and developing countries continue to ‘green’, greater attention must be paid to development in the field of environmental policy” [“<...> the ‘greening’ of the developed and developing countries economies <...>”] (52009DC0461). Sometimes English greening is translated with adjectives—green—e.g.: “Moreover, it would be easier to ensure that the funds raised in this way are actually spent on green initiatives” [“<...> will indeed be spent in ‘greening’ initiatives <...>”] (52009AE0868). The term žalinimas can be assessed in two ways. It appears to have arisen through calquing. By reproducing morpheme by morpheme the structural meaning of formations in the source language, one creates formations of analogous derivation, or structural meaning, in the target language; these are called calques or loan translations and are intended to develop the target language’s lexicon (Pažūsis 2014: 261). In terminology theory, blind loan translations are generally regarded as unacceptable linguistic units: “Blind translation of words or word combinations from other languages is harmful to a language, because literal calques most often do not conform to the internal requirements of the language system” (Keinys 1980: 94). Moreover, žalinimas, as a loan translation, belongs to the category of unmotivated terms12. It may also be added that the meaning of the base word žalinti is not entirely clear—it is not used in European Union documents or Lithuanian legislation. On the other hand, analysis of the examples shows that no suitable term corresponding to the concept has been found in ten years. Ecologisation and other terms with the same root are unsuitable for denoting the concept under discussion, because the act of greening is not always based on the criteria of the science of ecology. Moreover, the adjective green has long13 become the common name for a political movement (or its representative) that campaigns for ecology and nature conservation14. Finally, calquing terminology can be regarded as one way of expanding a language’s expressive resources, particularly where its own means of expression are lacking. 12 Vertinius nemotyvuotais terminais laiko V. Danilenko (plačiau žr. Даниленко 1977: 63). 13 The word žalieji is recorded in the 1991 transcripts of the Supreme Council. 14 R. Vladarskienė writes that “The fact that in European languages names of the colour green are increasingly used in the sense ‘ecological, in accordance with the laws of nature’ was noted a few years ago by Aloyzas Gudavičius <...>. However, in his view, in Lithuanian the word žalias, -a is used in this sense much more narrowly, probably only in the Green Party and the greens, ‘representatives of a social movement that campaigns for ecology’ (Vladarskienė 2014: 7).” Terminologija | 2014 | 21 125 CONCLUSIONS 1. English greening is a term increasingly used in documents of the European Union institutions to denote the objectives of the EU’s green policy direction: making various areas of government activity, economic sectors, technologies, the environment and other things more environmentally and climate friendly. In Lithuanian documents, this term is rendered by nearly eighty different linguistic units, almost half of which are terms—nouns and noun phrases. 2. More than three-quarters of the terms are derived from the noun ecology or contain elements derived from that noun. English greening is most often translated using compound action nouns. Action nouns denote the concept most precisely. Other terms or their elements are derived from the words environment, protect, conserve, green, make green. Greening is a new term, but terms with the root of the adjective green were also used earlier. 3. English greening is also translated using adjectives, noun and participial phrases, verbs, verbal and verb-type phrases, and explanatory syntactic constructions. Most non-terminological expressions are formed with the noun ecology. 4. Many of the terms and other equivalents discussed are general-purpose and are used in reference to various things. Some terms are used with modifiers that specify their meaning, and there are also equivalents with specific meanings. The synonymy of equivalents is determined by similarities in the lexical meanings of their base words or elements; in some cases, derivational synonyms and grammatical synonyms involving degrees of comparison can be distinguished. For a substantial proportion of the equivalents, the basis for their semantic similarity is contextual only. 5. The diversity of forms used for equivalents of English greening may have been caused by the opacity of the concept, the highlighting of different features of the concept, the polysemy of the word being translated, varying translation quality or technical aspects of translation, the ongoing search for suitable equivalents, or the influence of other languages. SOURCES15 C2004/191/02 – Environmental demonstration projects under the Financial Instrument for the Environment (LIFE): guidelines. 52004SA0009 – Special Report No 9/2004: ‘Forestry measures in rural development policy, together with the Commission’s replies’. 32005H0601 – Council Recommendation of 12 July 2005 on the broad guidelines for the economic policies of the Member States and the Community. 15Presented in chronological order. The two digits preceding the letters indicate the last two digits of the year. For example, in identification number 52009DC0639, the fourth and fifth digits, ‘09’, indicate that the document was drawn up in 2009. 126 Robertas Stunžinas Ekologizavimas, žalinimas ir kiti angl. greening atitikmenys Europos Sąjungos institucijų dokumentuose 52005PC0440 – Proposal for a Council Decision on the specific programme ‘Cooperation’, implementing the European Community Seventh Framework Programme for research, technological development and demonstration activities (2007–2013). 32006B0488 – Amending budget of the European Environment Agency for the 2006 financial year. 42006X0224(01) – Joint statement by the Council, the representatives of the governments of the Member States meeting within the Council, the European Parliament and the Commission, ‘The European Consensus’. 52006DC0314 – Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, ‘Mid-term review of the European Commission’s 2001 White Paper on transport policy’. 52006IP0528 – European Parliament resolution on the time to move up a gear in creating a competitive Europe and promoting growth. 52006PC0364(02) – Amended proposal for a Council Decision on the 7th Framework Programme of the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for nuclear research and training activities (2007–2011). C2006/316E/02 – Minutes. Thursday, 30 November 2006. 52007PC0315 – Proposal for a Council Regulation establishing the ‘Clean Sky’ Joint Undertaking. 52007AR0127 – Opinion of the Committee of the Regions, ‘The importance of education and awareness-raising in promoting sustainable development’. 52008DC0800 – Communication from the Commission to the European Council, ‘A European Economic Recovery Plan’. 52008DC0400 – Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, ‘Public procurement for a better environment’. 52008IP0032 – European Parliament resolution of 31 January 2008 on the outcomes of the Bali Conference on climate change (13th Conference of the Parties to the Convention and 3rd Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol). 52009AE0338 – Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on the Community eco-label scheme. 52009AE0868 – Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on greener maritime and inland waterway transport. 52009AP0248 – Tyre labelling with regard to fuel efficiency ***I. European Parliament legislative resolution of 22 April 2009 on the proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on tyre labelling with regard to fuel efficiency and other essential parameters. 52009AR0103 – Opinion of the Committee of the Regions on the Green Paper “Review of the TEN-T policy”. 52009DC0461 – Commission report to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, “The 2009 EU development policy agenda: report”. 52009DC0639 – Commission communication, “Key ideas from the 2009 Employment in Europe report”. 52009DC0647 – Commission working document, “Consultation on the future European Union strategy for 2020”. 52009IP0042 – European Parliament resolution of 4 February 2009, “2050: The future begins today”. Recommendations for a future integrated EU climate change policy. 52009IP0119 – European Parliament resolution of 11 March 2009 on the use of environmentally friendly transport and the internalisation of external costs, “Use of environmentally friendly transport and the internalisation of external costs”. 52009IP0120 – European Parliament resolution of 11 March 2009 on the opinion to be submitted to the European Council meeting in spring 2009 on the Lisbon Strategy. C2009/234E/03 – Minutes of the meeting of 11 March 2009. 52010AE1174 – Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on green jobs. 52010DC0006 – Commission report to the European Parliament and the Council on incentives for organisations registered under EMAS in 2004–2006. 52010IE1165 – Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on creativity and entrepreneurship. Measures to overcome the crisis (own-initiative opinion). 52010IE1177 – Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on preparations for the 2012 World Summit on Sustainable Development. 52010IP0299 – European Parliament resolution of 7 September 2010 on developing the job potential of a new sustainable economy, “Developing the job potential of a new sustainable economy”. 52010IP0376 – European Parliament resolution of 20 October 2010 on the financial, economic and social crisis, “Recommendations on measures and initiatives to be taken”. Terminologija | 2014 | 21 127 52011AE0531 – Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on the Commission communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, “The CAP towards 2020. Meeting the challenges of the future related to food, natural resources and territorial balance”. 52011AE1386 – Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on the Commission communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: “Rio+20: green economy and better governance aspirations”. 52011AR0283 – Opinion of the Committee of the Regions on the new multiannual financial framework after 2013. 52011DC0500 – Commission communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, “The budget for the Europe 2020 strategy”. 52011DC0571 – Commission communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, “Roadmap to a resource-efficient Europe”. 52011PC0626 – Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a common organisation of the markets in agricultural products. 52011TA1215(23) – Report on the annual accounts of the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training for the 2010 financial year, together with the Centre’s replies. 52012AE1050 – Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on the proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing rules for direct payments to farmers under support schemes within the framework of the common agricultural policy (COM(2011) 625 final – 2011/0280 (COD), the proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a common organisation of the markets in agricultural products (Single CMO Regulation) (COM(2011) 626 final – 2011/0281 (COD) (A-21), the proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on support for rural development by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) (COM(2011) 627 final – 2011/0282 (COD), the proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the financing, management and monitoring of the common agricultural policy (COM(2011) 628 final – 2011/0288 (COD), the proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council amending the provisions of Council Regulation (EC) No 73/2009 as regards direct payments to farmers for 2013 (COM(2011) 630 final – 2011/0286 (COD), and the proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council amending the provisions of Regulation (EC) No 1234/2007 as regards the single payment scheme and support for wine-growers (COM(2011) 631 final – 2011/0285 (COD). 52012DC0531 – Commission communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, “First scoreboard of the results of the 2014–2020 multiannual financial framework (MFF)”. C2012/168E/01 – List of written questions submitted by Members of the European Parliament, indicating the question number, original language, author, political group, institution to which the question is addressed, date of submission and content. C2012/285E/01 – List of written questions submitted by Members of the European Parliament, indicating the question number, original language, author, political group, institution to which the question is addressed, date of submission and content. 52012IE1304 – Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on the 2011 monitoring report on the European Union sustainable development strategy. EESC assessment. 52012IP0011 – “Supply chain of farm inputs: structure and implications”. European Parliament resolution of 19 January 2012 on the supply chain of farm inputs: structure and implications. 52012DC0756 – Commission communication to the European Parliament, the Council and the European Economic and Social Committee, “Strengthening the single market by removing cross-border tax obstacles for passenger cars”. 52012AR1529 – Opinion of the Committee of the Regions, “Better Governance of the Single Market”. 52012PC0710 – Proposal for a Decision of the European Parliament and of the Council on a General Union Environment Action Programme to 2020, “Living well, within the limits of our planet”. 52012DC0626 – Commission report to the European Parliament and the Council, “Progress towards achieving the objectives set out in the Kyoto Protocol (as required by Article 5 of Decision No 280/2004/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning a mechanism for monitoring Community greenhouse gas emissions and for implementing the Kyoto Protocol)”. 32013D1386 – Decision No 1386/2013/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 November 2013 on a General Union Environment Action Programme to 2020, “Living well, within the limits of our planet”. 128 Robertas Stunžinas Ekologizavimas, žalinimas ir kiti angl. greening atitikmenys Europos Sąjungos institucijų dokumentuose 52013AE7466 – Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on the Commission Communication “Annual Growth Survey 2014”. 52013DC0475 – Commission report to the European Parliament and the Council: First progress report on the implementation of the Commission staff working document “Reducing emissions from maritime transport and a sustainable waterborne transport toolbox”. 52013DC0623 – Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, “Towards quality inland waterway transport: NAIADES II”. 52013PC0262 – Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the production and making available on the market of plant reproductive material. 52013SC0112 – Impact assessment summary. Commission staff working document accompanying the Commission Communication to the Council and the European Parliament, “Building the Single Market for Green Products. Facilitating better information on the environmental performance of products and organisations”. C2013/264/09 – Call for proposals – “Support for information measures relating to the common agricultural policy (CAP)” – 2014. 32014R0639 – Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) No 639/2014 supplementing Regulation (EU) No 1307/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing rules for direct payments to farmers under support schemes within the framework of the common agricultural policy and amending Annex X to that Regulation. 52014DC0440 – Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, “Green Action Plan for SMEs. Enabling SMEs to turn environmental challenges into business opportunities”. 52014DC0446 – Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, “Green Employment Initiative: Tapping into the job creation potential of the green economy”. IATE – Interactive Terminology for Europe (http://iate.europa.eu). EUR-lex – Database of European Union legislation and other public documents (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/lt/index.htm). LITERATŪRA Gaivenis K. 2002: Lietuvių terminologija: teorijos ir tvarkybos metmenys, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Keinys St. 1980: Terminologijos abėcėlė, Vilnius: Mokslas. ODE 2010: Oxford Dictionary of English. Third edition. Edited by A. Stevenson, Oxford: Oxford university press. Pažūsis L. 2014: Kalba ir vertimas, Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas. Pikčilingis J. 1969: Leksinė ir gramatinė sinonimika, Kaunas: Šviesa. Vaskelienė J., Kučinskienė R. 2012: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos būdvardžių darybiniai sinonimai. – Žmogus ir žodis, 153–161. Vladarskienė R. 2014: Kas gali būti žalias? – Gimtoji kalba 2, 3–7. VLE I – Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 1, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2001. VLE V – Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 5, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2004. Гринев С. 1993: Введение в терминоведение, Москва: Московский лицей. Даниленко В. П. 1977: Русская терминология: Опыт лингвистического описания, Москва: Наука. EKOLOGIZAVIMAS, ŽALINIMAS AND OTHER EQUIVALENTS OF THE ENGLISH TERM GREENING IN THE DOCUMENTS OF EUROPEAN UNION INSTITUTIONS The article deals with the Lithuanian equivalents of the English term greening in translated documents of European Union institutions. Term greening is more and more frequently used in EU documents and it reflects the objectives of the green policy trend of the EU – making various fields of activities, industries, technologies and other things more environmentally friendly. In Lithuanian documents there are Terminologija | 2014 | 21 129 nearly eighty different language units corresponding to greening and nearly a half of them are terms – nouns or word combinations with nouns. More than three quarters of the terms are made from the noun ekologija or have elements made from this word. The majority of such equivalents of greening are complex terms naming actions; one equivalent is also used as a name of the field of science and a few name characteristics. Ekologiškumo didinimas and ekologizavimas are most frequently and consistently used terms. In other cases greening is translated as aplinkosauga, aplinkos tausojimas, žalinimas or other terms and their combinations. Žalinimas is a new term, though terms with a root of the adjective žalias have been used before. Greening is also translated as adjectives, words used as adjectives and their combinations, verbs and verb combinations and explanatory syntactic constructions, for instance ekologinis, ekologiškumą skatinantis, ekologinti, orientuoti į ekologiją, kad (visos darbo vietos) taptų ekologiškesnės. Adjectives, words used as adjectives and their combinations are used to name the same things. A few verbs and combinations with verbs have the same lexical structure as terms and can be treated as their transforms. The majority of word-combinations which cannot be treated as terms are made using the word ekologija. The majority of terms and other equivalents are universal and can be used when speaking about various different fields and subjects. Sometimes terms have elements which help making them more precise. The closeness of meaning of the majority of equivalents is based on the context. Some cases can be treated as derivational synonyms (ekologinis – ekologiškas) or grammatical synonyms of degree forms (ekologiškas – ekologiškesnis). The variety of expression of equivalents of the English term greening is probably caused by the unclearness of the concept, revealing of different characteristics of the concept, polysemy of the term, unequal quality of translation or translation techniques, permanent search for the more appropriate equivalent or the influence of other languages. Gauta 2014-10-07 Robertas Stunžinas Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, LT–10308 Vilnius E. paštas [email protected] 130 Robertas Stunžinas | Ekologizavimas, žalinimas ir kiti angl. greening atitikmenys Europos Sąjungos institucijų dokumentuose