„Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas“ ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos

DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language THE DATABASE OF NEOLOGISMS IN THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE AND PERSPECTIVES ON NEOLOGISM RESEARCH KEYWORDS: neologism, word formation, word root, word family, semantic neologism. INTRODUCTION On the basis of the Database of Lithuanian Neologisms (hereinafter ND, the Database), this article surveys some word-formation connections among the neologisms presented in this source, seeks to identify directions for further research into neologism formation, and aims to examine more thoroughly the possibilities offered by the ND as a tool for such research. As a continuously expanding collection of new lexis, the Database can be analyzed from various perspectives: origin (borrowings, formations), form (words, phrases, quotations, abbreviations), norm (standard, nonstandard, and uncodified lexis), semantics (new meanings), and so on (ND, available online: http://naujazodziai.lki.lt/?Apie_duomenyna). It is not only a source on new linguistic phenomena, but also one of the tools for studying the current state and development of words, making it possible to obtain, in addition to the neologisms themselves, information important for word-formation research—definitions and other semantic explanations, notes on origin, authentic usage examples with source references, which often help clarify a neologism’s meaning and/or the circumstances of its emergence (formation), and so on. A user of the ND interested in word formation receives minimal information about the word-formation relations of a neologism of interest: the ND provides words recorded in it that share the same root: “Neologisms usually do not exist in a language in isolation; rather, entire families of them are borrowed or formed. Related neologisms are linked by cross-references” (ND, available online http://naujazodziai.lki.lt/?Apie_duomenyna)1. This makes it possible to form an approximate picture of a particular 1 Admittedly, not all related words are always listed, nor are the same related words consistently included in the entries for other words sharing the same root. For example, the related-words section of the entry for the neologism karkadienis, “the day of the emergence of the ice cream ‘Kar kar’ (a symbolic birthday),” lists algadienis; bilietadienis; koldūnadienis; mamadienis; melionadienis; nekalbadienis; picadienis; pigadienis; putadienis; sofadienis; tortadienis; tėvadienis; valentiniadienis; valentindienis; žavadienis, but not dykadienis; gimtadienininkas, -ė; gimtadieninkas, -ė; kalbadienis; nelovadienis; neseksadienis; pusgimtadienis (of these, only pusjubilejis; pusknygė; pusrezultatis; pustautis, -ė are listed as related words), BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 2 a picture of the neologism’s derivational environment and the scope of its derivational relationships, as well as making assumptions about its popularity, need, and establishment in usage, clarifying its semantics, etc. However, it is difficult to identify all the systematic derivational relationships in the ND lexicon, which would be more clearly visible if all word-formation nests were available. Compiling them manually—that is, initially processing all the material—would take too much time; therefore, for the time being, the study is limited to neologisms of Lithuanian origin, with neologisms containing borrowed roots addressed only in certain respects (for comparison, etc.). On 31 March 2016, the ND contained about 3,200 neologisms, borrowings, and neologisms formed by mixed derivation (new word combinations, quotations, and abbreviations were not included in the study material); on 31 August 2016, it contained about 3,400. The word-formation nests compiled while examining words with individual roots were supplemented with newly discovered neologisms2. 1. DIRECTIONS FOR RESEARCH INTO THE DERIVATIONAL RELATIONSHIPS OF NEOLOGISMS Neologisms in the ND can be studied in various ways on the basis of word-formation relationships. Several of the most promising, interrelated directions can be distinguished according to the following aspects: 1) the root, 2) derivational categories (derivational affixes), and 3) lexico-semantic groups. 1.1. The first direction involves examining words with the same root and their relationships to one another, compiling, analyzing, and comparing word-formation nests, and exploring questions such as: whether the nest is extensive; sulčiadienis; šeimadienis; vaikadienis (related words in this family: only mamadienis; tėvadienis; vaikišė; vaikjuostė; vaikmaišis; įsivaikaitinti; šėtonvaikis); accessed 25 August 2016. 2 The statistical data are approximate, partly because of the way data are presented in the Database. For example, some nouns and adjectives are apparently listed in a single entry in the ND, and thus counted as one word, because their usage has not yet stabilized or has not yet been sufficiently studied. One example is the names and/or descriptions coined for yarns according to the period (waves) of emigration: pirmabangis, -ė; antrabangis, -ė; trečiabangis, -ė. Some usage examples clearly indicate a recorded noun (Pirmabangių gyvenimo ženklų Jungtinėje Karalystėje aptikti nėra lengva) or adjective (<...> į bažnytėlę dabar plūsta vien trečiabangiai atvykėliai <...>), whereas in some cases it is difficult to determine the part of speech, or at least a broader context is needed to do so (Pasitaikė pakalbinti tuos žmones, kurie panašūs į antrabangius). Compare also pilnatinis, -ė: even with more context, it is unclear whether this is an adjective (if, in an example referring to pilnatinius rinkėjus, the noun rinkėjai is omitted) or a noun (Nors medikai nesutaria, ar pilnatis turi įtaką žmogaus organizmui ir savijautai, tačiau Seimo nariai tikina, kad pilnaties paveikti rinkėjai kreipiasi turėdami keisčiausių prašymų, pasipiktinimų ar skundų. Tokie parlamento koridoriuose net vadinami „pilnatiniais“ ir dažnam kelia ne rūpestį, o šypsenas). Another example of this neologism found in online usage is equally ambiguous: <...> mano viena bendradarbe pilnatinė, tai net klientus perspjauna su savo komentarais... atrodo trukdau jai net kvėpuodama <...> (http://83.246.46.152/prisiminkdev/lt/diskusijos.zinutes/127541/ka-veikiat?page=649. Examples of neologism usage found online are reproduced here and elsewhere in the article without correction; omitted portions of text are marked <...>. Accessed April–October 2016.) In this case, the ambiguity arises from the neologism’s position in the sentence, which makes it unclear whether it is an appositive—that is, a noun—or a postpositive modifier—that is, an adjective. On the other hand, the adjective use of the word pilnatinis, -ė is also attested online and is unambiguous (pabūsiu piktoji pilnatinė ragana:D). BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 3 how many derivational levels make up the word family; whether it is extensively branched or, conversely, whether most neologisms are based on the same new or previously recorded word rather than being derived from one another; how many derivatives the neologisms themselves have produced; how regular and occasional, nonce formations relate within the family; how far the new derivatives have diverged from the word family’s initial word—that is, whether they are based on base words with a simpler morphemic structure or are derived from morphologically more complex base words; what proportion of the derivatives are formed by unusual processes (blending, analogy, contamination, etc.), and so on. Later, these studies should be supplemented by an analysis of the frequency of use of derivatives, which could reveal: how much and in what ways the derivational potential of neologisms depends on their frequency of use; whether more frequently used derivatives form larger and/or more extensive word families than less frequently used ones; whether they tend to serve as bases for other derivatives, and how frequent those derivatives are; whether, to what extent, and in what ways a derivative’s position in the word family (its derivational level) is related to its frequency of use, and so on. 1.1.1. It was established that, during the period under study, the ND contained neologisms (derivatives, compounds, hybrids, semantic neologisms) based on approximately 800 Lithuanian roots (counting their variants, e.g., darb-/dirb-, did-/didž-, krau-/krov-/krūv-/kro-, lenk-/link-/lank-, vers-/verč-/vert-/virkšč- and others—876). The root kalb- is found in the largest number of derivatives (40). Other more frequent roots include: raš- (35 neologisms); dien- (26); žmog- (21); darb-/dirb, tinkl-, žod- (19 each); galv-, laid-/laidž-/lai- (16 each); skaič-/skait-, sklaid-, tyr-, veik-, viet- (14 each); daug-, gy-, sav-, vaizd-, vien- (13 each); did-/didž-, lap-, lent- (12 each); dvi-, laik- (cf. laikas), vald-/valdž- (11 each); bat-/bač-, dėž-, kab-, teis-, važ-/vež-, žal-, žin- (10 each), and so on. A total of 375 roots (aišk-, al-, alv-, an-, band1- (cf. bandelė), band2- (cf. bandyti), bėg-, čiuž-, duon-, gam-, kiem-, lauk-, maž-, mėg-, pien-, rat-, slap-, sūr-, šyp-, tam-, trūk-, uog-, vabzd-, vaist-, žing-, žiūr-, žvirbl- and others) occurred in just one neologism. Thus, about 47% of the roots are found in neologisms that are derivationally isolated, that is, do not belong to word families. It should be noted, however, that the publicly available data were examined, and the Neologism Repository may contain more derivatives or compounds with the aforementioned 375 roots (for information on the ND’s structure and data-processing levels, see Section 2.1). In addition, it should also be borne in mind that BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 4 Not all words related to a neologism appear in the Repository immediately, since the ND does not aim, upon finding a neologism and seeking to provide a comprehensive derivational picture, to search systematically for its cognates or derivatives formed with the same derivational affix. 1.1.2. It is worth discussing one specific example, even if this means digressing somewhat from the main point. Suppose that the ND contains the sole attestation of the root niauk-, the participle (probably already adjectivized) niauktas “tinted (of car windows).” Internet usage also shows that it has an abstract noun: “After gathering himself and slowly exhaling through his nose, the little corpse resolutely moves toward the jeep belonging to Sail, with its niauktais rear windows, through which absolutely nothing could be seen. As far as he knew, such completely opaque window ‘niauktumas’ is not permitted by law. It’s frightening even to imagine what the police officers might have experienced when they tried to stop this car3. Moreover, usage shows (and this should come as no surprise, especially if the ND’s entry niauktas, -a is considered a participle) that the base verb niaukti is used with a new figurative meaning: <...> how to niaukti/paint in two colors? <...> The front bumper and hood need painting, so I decided to repaint the whole car, or niaukti it with film, in some matte color4; This page lists companies whose main business is Niaukti car windows5. Thus, sooner or later, the ND should also include the semantic neologism niaukti ‘to tint (usually windows)’ (not necessarily car windows, since the windows of residential premises, etc., can also be niaukiami), a figurative use of the meaning of niaukti 1, given in LKŽe: “to envelop, cover, or darken with clouds.” A derivative of this latter lexeme—an abstract noun formed from the verb—is also used online: a nice little Passat; tinting the windows would make it look better <...> I don’t know, that niaukimas is completely unnecessary... if it were mine, I’d niaukčiau just all the windows, about 50% at the rear, and the lightest tint at the front, or I wouldn’t neniaukčiau6 at all. Since abstract nouns (both nominal and verbal) are regular formations (Urbutis 1978: 100, 267–268), in the case of the neologism niauktas, -a, it could immediately be surmised that it was not alone in usage; examining usage makes it possible to construct a derivational family of at least four members. Without further investigation, the family can provisionally be presented as follows (see Fig. 17). 3http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:BX0VuptrEZQJ:bloodyrose.forumlt.com/t689p50-gyvenamasis-namas+&cd=2&hl=lt&ct=clnk&gl=lt; For sources of usage for all derivatives of niaukti, see 2016 09 08. 4 http://www.mb1.lt/showthread.php?t=12027. 5 https://www.spec.lt/paieska/niaukti-auto-stiklus. 6 http://www.passat-club.lt/forum/viewtopic.php?f=6&t=3120&start=10. 7 In this and the following figures, numbered columns indicate derivational stages; lexemes already recorded in the ND’s reference sources are shown against a gray background; derivational affixes are given in small caps, and those of neologisms are highlighted in bold. The number of neologisms in a word family is shown in parentheses beside the initial word. The following conventional abbreviations are used: anl – analogical formation, dpp – changes in the derivational base; kd – contaminative formations; ntp – atypical formation; sd – semantic derivation, i.e., transfer of meaning, etc.; vrt – calque. The detailed ordering of words within the family is still under consideration, being coordinated and refined, since the methodology for presenting words of each part of speech has its own particularities; however, its essential principles would be as follows: first come derivatives belonging to the same part of speech, followed by those belonging to other parts of speech; first suffixal, then prefixal and ending derivatives, followed by compounds (first those in which the initial family word is the first constituent, then BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 5 SD 1 2 niaukti “to envelop, cover, darken with clouds” niaukti figuratively “to darken (usually windows)” niaukIMAS niaukTAS niauktUMAS FIG. 1. Derivational relations of the neologism niaukti It should be noted that the verbal abstract niaukimas is not a semantic, but a lexical neologism, derived from the new (figurative) lexeme niaukti. It is a homonym of the form niaukimas recorded in LKŽe, since the latter is based on another verb, niaukti2 “to rain”: niaukimas → 2 niaukti: That rain keeps raining and raining, and there is no end to its raining. Thus, returning to the discussion of numerical data, it can be concluded that the aforementioned 47 percent of Lithuanian roots that are morphologically isolated in the Database do not provide an accurate benchmark when discussing neologism formation in general and assessing derivational relations among neologisms. They do not show that this proportion of neologisms with Lithuanian roots have no related neologisms, that is, do not serve as base words for them, form no new derivational families, or expand existing ones. A more accurate picture can be obtained only by additionally investigating the existence and usage of possible neologism derivatives—not included in the ND—at least those that are regularly formed. These should be sought systematically; for example, upon finding an adjective (depending on whether it is qualitative or relational), one should check whether its abstract nouns with the suffixes -umas, -ybė are used, as well as derivatives with the suffixes -inis, -ė; -iškas, -a, and adverbs with the suffix -ai; upon finding a verb, one should check whether it has abstract nouns with the suffixes -imas/-ymas, and names of persons with the suffixes -tojas, -a; -ėjas, -a, and so on. To obtain an even more accurate picture of contemporary word formation, computer-based neologism detectors that extract neologisms from large corpora should of course be used, since ND data are collected manually, “so the work is not swift, and its results can indicate only the most general quantitative trends in new vocabulary” (Miliūnaitė 2015: 171). 1.1.3. Several more neologism derivational families are presented below, illustrating the variety of derivational relations among the neologisms included in the ND. those in which it is the second element are aligned at the right margin, and so on; finally come compounds formed by mixed and atypical methods. Derivatives formed by the same method (e.g., prefixal derivatives, compounds, etc.) are listed alphabetically within their groups. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 6 1 2 3 pilti pilDYTI PApildyti papildA (5) pocket filler, -er pilSTYTI pilstUKAS pilstukININKAS, -Ė pilNAS, -A pilnATIS pilnatINIS, -Ė FIG. 2. The word pilti derivational nest neologisms The ND records 5 neologisms with the root pil-8. The nest consists of derivatives formed at three derivational levels; there are no first-level neologisms. The recorded neologisms are formed by various derivational methods—suffixal and ending derivatives, and compounds. The third-level suffixal derivatives each have three suffixes. However, the nest is not large, and the derivational chains are short and not diverse (see Fig. 2). 1 2 day (26) payday ticket day free day birthday birthdayININKAS, -Ė birthdayINKAS, -Ė half-birthday language day bark day ntp dumpling day mum day melon day no-speaking day non-walking day non-sex day pizza day 8Note that here and in the other figures only neologisms and their base words (new and previously recorded) are shown; all other derivatives of the headword of the entry already included in dictionaries are not shown. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 7 1 2 cheap day foam day sofa day juice day family day father day cake day children's day Valentine's Day Valentine's Day name day FIG. 3 Day word-family neologisms According to the ND data, the word family of day has expanded by 26 neologisms (see Fig. 3). The vast majority of them (88 percent) are first-level derivatives, i.e., they are based on the original word-family word. 92 percent of the neologisms are compounds, in all of which the base word day is the second constituent. There are also formations with atypical derivation (karkadienis ‘the day the “Kar kar” ice cream appeared (symbolic birthday)’), and analogical formations (nelovadienis, neseksadienis, cf. nekalbadienis). There is no reluctance to combine the base word with morphologically more complex (prefixed) or simply longer first constituents, often of international origin. Compared with the neologism family of pilti, this one is more numerous, but has a simpler structure and is more homogeneous in its derivational patterns. The same holds when it is compared with the neologism family of another noun, head (see Fig. 4), although at first glance the word families may appear similar—two derivational levels, with compounds also accounting for the majority of neologisms (69 percent). However, in those compounds the base word head occurs with roughly equal frequency as the first and second constituent. The only formation with a more complex morphemic structure is perhaps the adjective riestainiagalvis, -ė, whose first constituent has two suffixes. head 1 2 (16) headISM to think thinkING sd THINKER, -ER sd BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 8 1 2 cf. headlong, headlong headlongly headband head hook head cutting head washer headache headman gasoline-head, -headed dull-headed, -headed dull-headISM shin-head pumpkin-headed, -headed pretzel-headed, -headed power-head FIG. 4. Head derivational nest neologisms This nest is distinguished by 2 cases of semantic derivation—the derivatives of the word to think (thinking “Arvydas Šliogeris’s Lithuanian word for philosophy” and thinker “a special word for Lithuanian philosophers”) have acquired new meanings (see also Murmulaitytė 2016a on this). 1 2 3 to speak (40) speakINTI NUto interview NEto speak non-speaking day speakA speakAINIS speakISH, -A speakISM speakISH kalbišIŪTĖ language nerd, -ette language sofa, -ette language chatter language pollution English-speaking (adj.) BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 9 1 2 3 English speaker (noun) Arabic-speaking woman Arabic-speaking (adj.) Arabic speaker (noun) sign-language speaker (noun) native-language (adj.) native speaker (noun) Spanish-speaking (adj.) Spanish speaker (noun) cliché-speaker Polish-speaking (adj.) Lithuanian speaker (noun)/Lithuanian-speaking (adj.) soft-talker blabbermouth French-speaking (adj.) Russian-speaking (adj.) Russian speaker (noun) narrow-mouthed speaker Slavic-speaking (adj.) Swedish speaker (noun) online speaker brief speaker visual-language speaker German-speaking, -a noun/adj. speakSCHOOL speakER, -A speaking day public-speaking, -a noun/adj. FIG. 5. Neologisms in the speak word-formation nest BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 10 Looking at the neologisms in the speak word-formation nest (see Fig. 5), several things catch the eye. First, the vast majority of the new formations in this nest are second-stage formations—compound mobile names (nouns) for people who speak a particular language, or corresponding descriptions (adjectives), in which the first-stage suffixed derivative speech is the second component, e.g., English-speaking, -a; native-speaking, -a; sign-language-speaking, -a, etc. At first glance, the similar neologism public-speaking, -a is formed differently—a compound of an adverb and a verb (: publicly + to speak). The second-largest group of compounds by number of neologisms consists of names for various language varieties or ways of speaking: cliché-speech “a language mixed from several languages,” soft-speech “a way of speaking characterized by indecisiveness,” chatter-speech “speaking in a rambling, wordy manner,” narrow-speech “an electronic language variety operating through texts of limited length (usually in phone messages),” network-speech “a type of language characterized by unique features typical of the internet, determined by the internet’s environment as an electronic, global, and interactive medium,” short-speech “an electronic language variety operating through texts of limited length (usually in phone messages)”; these are joined by imagery-speech, which names language in a particular aspect, “figurative (i.e., vivid, beautiful, artistic, etc.) language.” Overall, the new compounds in this nest account for 80 percent of all neologisms. The new compounds whose first component is language are formed with different linking vowels; cf. language-rooter, -a (: language + to root) and language-path “a junction of multilingual space” (: language + path), language-pollution “pollution of language with foreignisms” (: language + pollution). Examining compounds in other nests from this perspective, it would be interesting to check whether, in the case of neologisms too, “the linking vowel in many compounds coincides with the stem-final vowel of the noun used as the first component,” and whether nouns with an -o stem are joined with the linking vowel -o- less often than with -a- (DLKG 1996: 153); perhaps this would reveal a tendency to choose as the linking vowel one that coincides with, or is phonetically closest to, the final vowel of the first component in the combination of words serving as the derivational basis (cf. to root language, language path, language pollution). 1234rašyti(35)PArašytipaSirašytiparašASparašIAUTIUŽrašytiužrašASužrašINĖ*iŠrašytiišsirašytirašyTOJAS, -ArašytoJAUTIrašytojaUTOJASrašytnamisdpp BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 11 1 2 3 4 wriTER wriTING INSTRUMENT penCASE wriTING PRESS release newspaper newspaPER DAY newspaPUBLISH large newspaper news newspaper fence newspaper scare newspaper dpp explanatory letter diet journal desire journal playlist night journal news journal soul journal camp journal blog blogGER, -ESS blogGER, -ESS video blog short journal single-person journal place journal hiking journal draftling entryTINTI entryTINIMAS songwriter, -ess FIG. 6. To write derivational nest neologisms The to write derivational nest is broader (4 derivational levels) and more diverse in terms of the methods used to form neologisms, although compounds make up the majority of neologisms in it as well, accounting for 57 percent (see Fig. 6). In 4 compounds at the third derivational level, the second constituent is based on a compound noun. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 12 newspaper, so these neologisms each have 3 roots and are generally of rather complex morphemic structure, e.g.: nauj-ien-laik-raš-t-is, k(laik)-raš-t-is (: klaikus, -i + laik-raš-t-is). The latter is also characterized by a change in the derivational base and morpheme overlap—the sequence of sounds (letters) -laik- belongs to both constituents of the compound. 1 2 3 4 5 to work (19) work together workTUVĖS sd clog-maker, -ess clog-makingYSTĖ cross-maker, -ess cross-makingYSTĖ knife-maker, -ess workAS workER, -ESS ntp workING To employ to be employed [*employable] employMENT workaholic, -ess workaholISM work addict, -ess job exchange desktop employer, -ess work holiday kd Agenda ntp multi-job holder, -ess *multi-workING, -A multi-workING freelancer, - freelancERSHIP handicraft handicraftING FIG. 7. Work-family neologisms The derivational family of the word work is not the most abundant, but it stands out from the others in the number of derivational levels—the nominal abstract noun employability is at the fifth derivational level (see Fig. 7). Two words (Darbietis, -ė ‘a member of the Labour Party’ and Darbovarkė ‘a witty name for the two Lithuanian political parties that intended to merge—the Labour Party and “Order and Justice”—’ BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 13 ‘name’) are formed atypically, since semantically they are based not on the word work, but on the proper name, the phrase Labour Party. Because it is semantically based not on the common words work and order, but on the names of the parties, Darbotvarkė should be considered a neologism, rather than the meaning of the noun darbotvarkė, long recorded in dictionaries, ‘the order of proceedings at meetings, gatherings, and conventions’ (DŽ, LKŽe). In contrast to dirbtuvės ‘a form of vocational training (practice) in various artistic or scientific fields (for example, a teaching rehearsal, artistic translation exercises, etc.)’—this is a new, borrowed meaning of the word (cf. workshop 1. ‘a room or building in which manufacturing or other forms of manual work are carried on’; 3. ‘a group of people engaged in study or work on a creative project or subject ⇒ a music workshop’ (CED, http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/workshop). Darbostogos is a blend, formed from work and holiday, calqued from the English worliday (: work + holiday) (Miliūnaitė 2014: 252). 1.2. Another direction for examining ND neologisms is by derivational categories (derivational affixes). 1.2.1. To examine neologisms belonging to the derivational category of instrument names. Data from ND were compared with descriptions in grammars (LKG 1965: 381–392, DLKG 1996: 129–132), in which instrument names are grouped according to the productivity of derivational affixes. Derivatives formed with derivational suffixes were studied. About 95 were found in ND; some have two or three meanings, so 123 lexemes were examined in total. The results of the study are presented in Table 1, which shows that ND data do not correspond to the order of derivational-affix productivity given in the grammars. TABLE 1. Instrument names by derivational affixes In the Contemporary Grammar of the Lithuanian Language and the Database of Neologisms of the Lithuanian Language No. (DLKG) Suffix No. of ND neologisms words lexemes No. (ND) 1. -tuvas 9 12 3. 2. -iklis 38 53 1. 3. -tas 0 0 – 4. -tukas 9 11 4. 5. -alas 1 1 10. 6. -yklė 13 15 2. 7. -tuvė 2 2 9. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351–7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 14 No. (DLKG) Suffix No. of ND neologisms words lexemes No. (ND) 8. -ynė 3 4 8. 9. -tis 0 0 – 10. -eklis 0 0 – 11. -klas 0 0 – 12. -tė 0 0 – 13. -klė 3 6 7. 14. -lys 1 1 10. 15. -(i)oklis 0 0 – 16. -ikas 0 0 – 17. -stis 0 0 – 18. -ukas 7 7 6. 19. -ta 0 0 – 20. -tuvis/-tuvys 0/0 0/0 – 21. -lė 1 1 10. 22. -stas/-štas 0/1? 0/1? – 23. -las 1 1 10. 30. -klis 6 8 5. Note: In column 1, derivational affixes are ranked by productivity (number of derivatives) according to DLKG data; in the last column, they are ranked by the number of neologisms in ND. 10 suffixes (–tas, –tis, –eklis, –klas, –tė, –(i)oklis, –ikas, –stis, –ta, –tuvis/–tuvys) produced no derivatives in ND during the period under study. In grammars, instrument names are first described under the most productive suffix –tuvas. According to ND data, it ranks only third, since more neologisms are recorded there with the second-most productive suffix (according to the grammars), –iklis, and the sixth, –yklė. Thus, most instrument names listed in ND are formed with the suffix –iklis—53 lexemes, cf. only 12 with the suffix –tuvas. The suffix –yklė may have become the second most productive partly because ND includes names of computer programs (naršyklė ‘a computer program for browsing the World Wide Web and searching for information on it’, rengyklė ‘a computer program for preparing documents’, tvarkyklė ‘a program for controlling a computer’s peripheral devices’, vertyklė ‘a computer program for translating text from one language into another’), deliberately formed with this suffix to replace borrowed computing terms BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 15 (cf. also words not included in ND: braižyklė, rašyklė, etc.9). No new derivatives formed with the traditionally third most productive suffix –tas (e.g., gnybtas, grąžtas, kaltas, raktas, žibintas, etc.) were found in ND, whereas the suffix –klis, considered unproductive (LKG 1965: 392, DLKG 1996: 132), yielded 6 new derivatives, giving 8 lexemes in all: kopijuoklis ‘a machine for copying printed documents and publications’, koreguoklis 1. ‘a device or apparatus for repairing or correcting something’, 2. ‘a substance that conceals or corrects defects’, maskuoklis 1. ‘a cosmetic product for concealing skin imperfections (dark circles, pimples, etc.)’, 2. ‘a product for concealing scratches on a car’, skaitmenuoklis ‘a device that converts analog data into digital data’, vaizduoklis ‘a computer device with a screen that enables users to monitor and control processes taking place in a computer’, žingsniuoklis ‘a type of exercise machine—a device for training leg muscles and the hip, knee, and ankle joints, and stimulating cardiovascular activity by stepping in place’. Thus this suffix, formerly unproductive, became the fifth most productive. When examining ND material from this perspective, one should also bear in mind what is probably an even more important, reverse direction of research: taking the ND data themselves, rather than grammatical descriptions, as the point of departure, since they are likely to contain phenomena not described in grammars, atypical word formation, analogical and isolated neologisms, and so on. 1.2.2. Another example of research in this direction concerns names differentiated by gender and formed with the ending -ė. ND records several, generally isolated, feminine derivatives of nouns that traditionally refer only to males, e.g.: išmintė ‘a woman who has acquired wisdom’, vyskupė, orakulė ‘a female animal that, through unpredictable behavior in situations devised by people, “predicts” the outcome of competitions or the course of events’10, the situational neologism tėvė ‘according to the ideology of genderism, one of the family members raising a child (regardless of sex)’. Cf. also lavonė, robotė, šviesulė. (Incidentally, the reverse also occurs: alongside older names for general-practice nurses, seselė, sesutė, masculine nouns seselis, sesutis have been formed.) The novelty is that grammars (DLKG 1996: 143, LKG 1965: 418) discuss only animal and bird female names formed in this way from species names (and separately from names for males) (e.g., vilkė, kalakutė, etc.), but do not mention people 9 “An editor is a program intended for preparing computer documents. More commonly used editors have specific names reflecting how the data are processed: a text editor is a rašyklė (because texts are written), a spreadsheet editor is a skaičiuoklė (because it continually recalculates the values in spreadsheet cells), a drawing editor is a braižyklė, and so on.” (EKŽ 2016). Semantically related to these in ND is the apparently analogical, isolated derivative šypsenuoklis ‘a computer program that recognizes a person’s face in a photograph and assesses their mood’; nevertheless, it should not be considered an instrument name, since formally it is based on the noun šypsena ‘smile’, whereas instrument names are derived from verbs. 10 ND note to users: “in usage, the word orakulas has acquired not only a new meaning but also feminine gender.” BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 16 derivatives naming [them]. To examine more thoroughly the innovations and tendencies in this derivational category, more research material would be needed. It is more difficult to search for it systematically in internet usage, since these are not potential formations. For now, it is apparent only that when a need arises to name new realities (a female priest, a female bishop), familiar derivational methods are adapted to the form, and the possibilities for semantic motivation are expanded. 1.3. Another possible direction for studying derivational relationships among neologisms is by lexical-semantic groups. 1.3.1. One example could be around 40 neologisms formed from proper names, mostly personal names, and titles. Most are based on the surnames of well-known people who are frequently mentioned (gražuliada, grybauskizmas, kubiloidas, putleris, čiviliuoti, žvagulinis, nusišalčiūtinti, janutiena, Kalantinės, šrioderizacija, etc.); some are based on company and party names (snoriada, snoriukas, apsisnorinti, nusnorinti (: Snoras), tvarkietis, -ė, darbietis, -ė (cf. the party “Order and Justice” and the Labour Party), uberizacija ‘the expansion of the activities of the US-founded international ride-hailing company Uber, which uses mobile apps to summon the service; a form of this type of activity—that of the sharing economy’, etc. A few isolated examples have distinctive derivational forms and semantic motivations (rūtusėlis ‘a name for distinctive little carved works made by one artist (formed from the name Rūta, the carver’s wife)’, balsevičiai ‘the name of a newly discovered mushroom species, based on the surname of the family that discovered it’, vingijonizmas ‘sluggishness in thought and action as a cultural norm’ (: Vingiu Jonas). 1.3.2. Neologisms formed from the surnames of Lithuanian politicians or people connected with politics in one way or another were examined in greater detail. The ND lists 10: adamlilksas, gražulėjimas, gražulesnis, -ė, gražuliada, gražulizmas, grybauskizmas, grybokratija, kubilizmas, kubiloidas, uspasikzuoti; thus, they are based on the surnames of just five politicians (Valdas Adamkus, Petras Gražulis, Dalia Grybauskaitė, Andrius Kubilius, and Viktoras Uspaskich). Clearly, very few neologisms from this group have made it into the ND, compared with what can be found in internet usage, which indicates that there are considerably more such neologisms, both in terms of their base words and their derivational affixes. Selecting the surnames of a few other famous politicians and the most common derivational affixes for neologisms in this lexical-semantic group (-ietis, -inis, -ė (adjective), -inis, -ė (noun), -izmas, -istas, -ė, -oidas), a targeted internet search was conducted for derivatives formed in this way. According to the ND’s principles, all of them are considered neologisms, since derivatives originating from personal names are generally not included in general dictionaries and are therefore not recorded in the ND’s reference sources. Of course, this is not an exhaustive study of this lexical-semantic BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 17 group of neologisms, but an examination of these data as well (see Table 2) allows some assumptions to be made and guidelines for more in-depth research to be outlined. TABLE 2. Derivatives from the surnames of Lithuanian politicians Asmenvardžiai (pavardės) Darybos afiksai Kitokios darybos dariniai-ietis, -ė; -ininkas, -ė; -inis, -ė; bdv.; -inis, -ė; dkt.; -oidas; -izmas; -istas, -ėV. Adamkus: −, +, +, +, −, +, +; proadamkinis, -ė adamik­sas (ND); A. Brazauskas: +, +, +, +, −, +, +; L. Graužinienė: −, −, −, + dgs. dpp, −, +, −; P. Gražulis: +, +, +, + dgs., −, +, +; gražulėti gražulėjimas (ND) gražulesnis, -ė (ND) gražuliada (ND); D. Grybauskaitė: +, +, +, +, −, + (ND), +; grybokratija (ND) progrybauskinis, -ė; A. Kubilius: +, +, +, +, + (ND), + (ND), +; kubilinės ‘nemokamos atostogos’; V. Landsbergis: +, +, +, +, +, +, +; prolandsberginis, -ė landsberginis ‘tam tikras automobilis’; R. Ozolas: −?, +,?,?, +, +, +; R. Paksas: +, +, +, +, +, +, +; paksoidinis, -ė; V. Uspaskich: +, + dpp, + dpp, + dpp, + dpp, + dpp, + dpp, + dpp; us­paskinis ‘Uspaskich’ us­paskizuoti (ND); Vedininiai iš kitų pavardžių: sustauskininkas, tomasėškininka, sustauskinis, butkevičinis, lubiniai, keriliniai, kerilioidas, paluckoidas, uolizmas, paluckizmas. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 18 First, it was noted that the creation of the neologisms examined is connected with society’s attitude—generally a more negative one—towards a particular politician or a person connected with politics. It is natural for such people to be viewed differently; different word-formation devices are used to name or describe them, their activities, and their supporters. Neologisms that are more or less neutral are formed with the suffixes -ietis, -ė; -ininkas, -ė; -inis, -ė (adjective), whereas derivatives with the suffixes -izmas, -oidas have negative connotations regardless of context. Not all surnames are productive, and this apparently does not depend on how frequently they are used. A person may be constantly mentioned in the media because of a high-ranking position or their actions, yet have no distinctive political views or the qualities of a strong leader who can rally supporters; consequently, society has no need for words to name their politics, style of governance, supporters, and so on. On the other hand, one need not be a politician to be judged for active involvement. For example, one of the most recent neologisms is tapinoidas, coined only in the past few months in response to the highly active civic engagement of the writer and journalist Andrius Tapinas, which brings society together and, evidently, does not appeal to everyone. Cf. also other recent neologisms derived from his surname: tapinadienis; tapinistinis, -ė; tapinizmas; Tapino zombeliai, etc. As for the neologisms themselves, the affix -izmas merits particular attention. It is characteristic of names for philosophical, religious, artistic, and political movements, systems, and social and political structures. Grammar states that this suffix is readily identifiable in many international words, but that new derivatives are generally not formed with it in Lithuanian itself (DLKG 1996: 103). Apparently, derivatives of this suffix based on personal names are an exception, since there are quite a few new ones (for example, in a 2011 interview with new-lexicon researcher Jurgita Girčienė, “a great many neologisms associated with the surnames of politicians well known to the public” are mentioned: “adamkizmas,” “gentvilizmas,” “kirkilizmas,” “kubilizmas,” “landsbergizmas,” “paulauskizmas,” “paksizmas,” “prunskizmas,” “šuštauskizmas,” “valinskizmas,” “zuokizmas,” “uspaskizmas” <...>” (Zailskaitė 2011). One website even publishes a short glossary of such derivatives, compiled by a non-linguist, containing about 20 neologisms based on the surnames of contemporary Lithuanian figures in politics, the media, public life, and entertainment11. The words are not defined there; it merely indicates whose surname each is derived from. It should also be noted that this suffix can form names of another derivational category as well—that is, words and expressions characteristic of someone (DLKG 1996: 141, LKG 1965: 416); cf. landsbergizmas. Some derivatives in this lexical-semantic group of neologisms have an altered derivational base. This applies first of all to V. Uspaskich’s non-Lithuanian surname, from which two derivatives with the suffix -inis, -ė were formed: uspaskichinis (listeners can thank V. S. for the election to the Seimas of Paksas’s and uspaskichinesparties <...>) and uspaskinis (an ordinary uspaskinis 11 http://naujienos.istorija.net/2010/01/lietuviskieji-izmai.html, accessed 2016 10 17. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 19 nonsense and putting Lithuania on the line), the latter has a truncated stem. Also, Uspaskichism (Fanaticism has different roots, and they most often stem from evil. From a personality devoid of any humanistic views. At best, it is Kaikarism, Bradauskism, Grybauskism, Paksism, Uspaskichism constrained, thanks to fate and a healthy self-preservation instinct, by the rules of the democratic game12) and Uspasism (the title of A. Rūžas book Three Lithuanian “-isms”: an overview study of Landsbergism, Paksism and Uspaskism). In this respect, compare also Graužininis, -ė (or are those Graužiuniniai really sane, and do they understand what “member of parliament” means13) – a noun formed for ease of pronunciation by shortening the surname morphologically, Graužiunienė. It is possible that these secondary reasons (in addition to political, personal and other factors) also contributed to the fact that the latter surname has produced few derivatives overall. On the other hand, the foreign surname mentioned above is no less “unconvenient” morphologically, yet its word-formation family is notable for its abundance of derivatives. Perhaps, for phonetic reasons, the derivational base has also changed in prunskizmas (: Prunskienė), but it has not in vėsaitizmas (: Vėsaitė) – *prunskienizmas and *vėsizmas would be less convenient to pronounce. Suffixes of women’s surnames may be omitted for other reasons too, for example, to avoid an overly long neologism, e.g.: grybauskizmas, pogrybauskinis (: Grybauskaitė), but cf. nu(si)sālčiūtinti (: Šalčiūtė). The derivational base is further shortened in the hybrid grybokratija—undoubtedly to create an additional semantic connection with the common noun grybas and the resulting stylistic connotation. 1.3.3. In this age of the internet and social networks, society responds very quickly to one event or another, immediately expressing its opinions on various issues, especially those that have made headlines, and doing so freely, without restraint (neologism formation in this area often hovers on the boundary between wordplay and mockery). Numerous isolated, occasional, situational and author-created neologisms emerge, and they do not disappear straight away, as they do in spoken language. Neologisms in the lexical-semantic group under discussion apparently become especially numerous during political events. For example, during the Seimas elections, when the public was particularly sensitive to the actions of politicians and people aspiring to become politicians, an entire series of surname-based neologisms sprang up before users’ eyes on Facebook, formed from the surnames of Juozas Pundzius, Ramūnas Karbauskis, Juozas Oleka, Audronė Pitrenienė, Birutė Vėsaitė and Rolandas Paksas: – Will he get Pundzius out of his system, or get Pundzius out of his system? – They’ll get Karbauskis out of their system, get Pundzius out of their system, and get Oleka out of their system then Pitrenienė it. 12 http://lietuvosdiena.lrytas.lt/aktualijos/partija-be-pasitikejimo-zlugusi-partija.htm?utm_source=lrExtraLinks&utm_campaign=Copy&utm_medium=Copy, accessed 2016-10-17. 13 https://www.tv3.lt/komentarai/161832/a-kubilius-darbo-partijai-bel ieka-issivaikscioti; accessed 2016-10-17. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 20 – I think that they’ll get married and take drugs. – It cannot be ruled out that he’ll screw everyone ☺ – Statau už išpu. – Išpundzins ir po rinkimų pripundzins atgal. <...> – So what happened was that he got screwed and there was also someone who got screwed. – Pundzius’s complete14. It is unlikely that these situational neologisms would catch on and become established in general usage, but they aptly illustrate the extensive word-formation possibilities of surname-based verbs with the suffix -inti and their reflexive derivatives. Some neologisms apparently quickly become historicisms, such as Kubilinės, “unpaid leave”—a feature of the period when A. Kubilius headed the Government of the Republic of Lithuania (2008–2012), brought about by the global financial crisis of 2008; for example: “I want to be understood correctly: we fully realize that money doesn’t grow on trees, but what solidarity can we talk about if we, library employees, have to take unpaid leave to pay for heating and electricity in library premises? We’ve already had a taste of ‘Kubilinės,’ because at the beginning of the year the municipality allocated only half the amount needed for these services, and then cut it further15 and Landsbergian ‘Mercedes-Benz 126 car’ (ĮŽ, http://www.zodynas.lt/jaunimo-zodynas/L/landsberginis; accessed 2016-10-17), e.g.: ‘Mercedes-Benz 126’ nickname: Landsbergian (Lithuanian heads of state at the time were fond of these cars16. Although long out of use, these might probably be included in ND.” 2. THE DATABASE AS A TOOL FOR CONTEMPORARY WORD-FORMATION RESEARCH 2.1. Levels of ND management The reflection of the derivational relationships of neologisms in ND has already been mentioned (see section 1.1.1). It should be recalled that, before appearing in ND, neologisms first enter the digital Neologism Card File (hereafter, the Card File), which consists of a headword list and usage data, and from there they move to the Neologism Repository (hereafter, the Repository), which takes the form of a database 14 Cf. https://www.facebook.com/haroldas.mackevicius?fref=ts; accessed 2016 10 19. 15 http://www.alytusnaujienos.lt/alytusnaujienos/spausdinti/?nid=4100; accessed 2016 08 16. 16 http://m.autoplius.lt/tyrimai/nuotrauku-galerija/populiariausios-automobiliu-pravardes-2-dalis, accessed 2016 10 17. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 21 the Repository), which is the main tool for managing them (collecting, systematising, and describing them). Data processed and selected from this source are entered into ND. Sometimes a neologism makes this journey very quickly, while in other cases considerable time passes between its inclusion in the Card File’s headword list and its appearance in ND, as the word’s origin, semantics, and other aspects are investigated. According to data from the end of 2014, the Card File contained several times more neologisms and usage examples than were presented in ND. At the end of 2015, ND contained over 3,000 headwords and about 11,700 illustrative usage examples (Miliūnaitė 2015: 163–164, 172). By mid-2016, nearly 3,500 neologisms had been described in ND (Miliūnaitė 2016: 48). All three sources of neologisms (the Card File, the Repository, and the Database) are continuously updated. Thus, it is clear that the Card File will always contain more information, and more recent information, albeit unprocessed, than ND, which is the only one of the sources mentioned that is publicly accessible. This is important and should be borne in mind when examining neologisms’ derivational relationships and discussing their word-formation nests and how complete these are, as well as regular and potential derivatives. Essentially, the most accurate and up-to-date picture for a given period could be obtained from the Card File data (the headword list), provided that there is no doubt about the neologism’s origin and, above all, its semantics. In some cases, however, ND contains only the neologism as a headword, accompanied by the notice “Neologism added to the database’s headword list. Information is being collected.” For example, on 2016 08 27, afrokaribietiškas, –a; arkivyskupė; išsivaikinti and others were presented in this way. The mere presence of such words alongside afrokaribietis, -ė, which had been added to ND, and the long-established arkivyskupas and įsivaikinti is significant when investigating neologisms’ derivational relationships. On the other hand, items presented in ND in a similar way—babatukas, kalčis, janutiena, katariumas—offer little at first glance without definitions or at least usage examples. In the latter two cases, one might guess that the neologism has something to do with the well-known media personality Rūta Janutienė and with cats. This is easy to verify by browsing the internet a little: <...> all sorts of janutienos an injured Lithuanian, in his attitude to politicians’ lies, is no different from Russian vatniks who glorify V. Putin17; katariumas – a special house for cats where they can enjoy fresh air, so that the kitties do not sit by the window looking outside through the glass, but can be outdoors whenever they want. Like lions (at the zoo. – Ed.), they can go out at any time18. This shows that less information is needed to investigate neologism formation than is required for a neologism to be included in ND; some data can be quickly obtained by searching for examples of the specified neologism in use. It is clear, however, that the neologism itself must be known—that is, it must already have been recorded at least in the initial stage of the chain of the three sources mentioned (the Card File, the Repository, and the Database). 17 http://www.delfi.lt/news/ringas/lit/r-sadauskas-kvietkevicius-siulau-melagiu-diena-perkelti-is-balandzio-1-osios-ir-pavadinti-trecioko-diena.d?id=70608144, accessed 2016 08 27. 18http://augintinis.lrytas.lt/pamatyk/kaunieciu-namuose-kilmingu-katinu-rojus.htm?utm_source=lrExtraLinks&utm_campaign=Copy&utm_medium, accessed 2016 08 27. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 22 2.2. The Problem of Distinguishing Lexical and Semantic Neologisms 2.2.1. Some of the lexicon in ND has more than one meaning. Since the aim was only to obtain an overall picture of the lexicon presented in ND, determine the approximate size of the material under study (by segmenting neologisms morphologically and grouping them according to Lithuanian roots), and outline guidelines for further research, the focus so far has been on words rather than individual lexemes. There is no doubt that a comprehensive study of neologism formation will be possible only at the level of lexemes, especially given the problem of distinguishing neologisms from new meanings (semantic neologisms) in ND, which has been mentioned on various occasions and examined to a greater or lesser extent more than once (Miliūnaitė 2015: 175–178, Murmulaitytė 2014: 12–14, see also Miliūnaitė 2016: 48–49, Murmulaitytė 2016b: 17). To briefly recall, ND essentially applies a formal criterion for distinguishing these phenomena, taking into account whether the word was recorded in the reference sources for ND: LKŽe, DŽ₆ and TŽŽ (http://naujazodziai.lki.lt/Index.asp?Apie_duomenyna). This pilot study did not examine the problem under discussion in greater depth. Clearly, one of the first steps in expanding the study would be to distinguish lexical and semantic neologisms on the basis of derivational oppositions and the semantic development of words. Only a few examples can be mentioned to show that, in future efforts to resolve this problem, the formal criterion of whether a word or meaning is recorded in the reference sources will not suffice. For example, ND treats both svaigti, “to rave; to talk nonsense; to be fervently (but groundlessly) convinced of or infatuated with something,” and svaigimas, “raving; talking nonsense; an unfounded but passionate conviction or infatuation with something,” as new word meanings. However, from a derivational perspective, only the verb could be regarded as a semantic neologism, that is, the result of semantic development; its abstract noun is undoubtedly a neologism formed from the new lexeme svaigti, rather than having developed semantically from other lexemes of the verbal noun svaigimas. Another example is trumpukas. ND records five new meanings of this word (1. “short film”; 2. “short poem”; 3. “short blouse”; 4. “short skirt”; 5. “short-legged dog”); LKŽe records it with the meaning “a small narrow-gauge train.” ND also lists the plural noun trumpukai, “shoes with short uppers,” classified as a neologism. Clearly, the new lexemes are distinct results of the lexicalization and specialization of the diminutive, whose derivational meaning is “something short”; that is, each arose independently from an unlexicalized derivative, rather than developing from one another (or from the first lexeme, recorded in LKŽe). A different case is ežys, “a spiked strip used to force vehicles to stop on the road.” The new lexeme is clearly based on the basic meaning of the long-attested word ežys, “a small animal covered in spines (Erinaceus europaeus)” (LKŽe), and arose through semantic transfer. Compare the lexeme blakė, “a device for covert listening and surveillance,” which arose in exactly the same way BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 23 way, only not in Lithuanian—compare English (American) bug 3. “a miniature microphone, typically concealed in a room or telephone, used for surveillance” (OD, accessed online: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/bug), 4. “a small piece of electronic equipment used for secretly listening to what people are saying” (MD, accessed online: http://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/american/bug_1), thus, in Lithuanian it is borrowed19. Another example is kramtukas, classified in ND as a new word meaning, with the additional information: in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽe), kramtukas, -ė has the meaning “one who bites, chews”—a term for a living being.” ND gives two lexemes: 1. “a chewable aid, usually in the form of a toy, for massaging gums during teething, safely accustoming a child to solid food, etc.; a chewable aid for dogs in the form of a bone or toy”; 2. “chewable food (usually a treat) or a dietary supplement.” However, it should be borne in mind that LKŽe records a substantivum mobile (a masculine and feminine noun), a derivative with the suffix -ukas, -ė belonging to the derivational category of agent nouns and nouns denoting bearers of a verbal property (DLKG 1996: 111). The first of the new lexemes could be considered a derivative with the suffix -ukas, belonging to the derivational category of instrument nouns, with the derivational meaning “an aid for chewing” (DLKG 1996: 131). Alternatively, like the second, it could be considered a diminutive of a derivative formed with the ending -as, which by its derivational meaning would be a noun denoting the result (object) of an action (DLKG 1996: 125), formed with the suffix -(i)ukas, -ė (kramt-ukas: kram-tas: kramt-yti). Thus, for at least two reasons—differences in grammatical properties and belonging to different derivational categories—the newest lexemes of kramtukas should, from a derivational perspective, be regarded not as semantic (meaning-based) but as lexical neologisms, that is, newly formed words. 2.2.2. By way of a brief digression, attention should be drawn to one aspect of ND’s structure: the type of neologism (a neologism, a new word meaning, a word with a newly borrowed root, a newly borrowed quotation, etc.) is indicated in the general information section of the neologism entry, and thus applies to all the lexemes (meanings) listed separately below in the “Meanings and Usage” section of the entry. It would follow that however many new lexemes of a particular word are found, they can only be of one and the same type—either neologisms or new word meanings 19 This lexeme was adopted from English not only by Lithuanians; compare From films, everyone knows that a device intended for covert surveillance is called a “bug” or a “flea.” It may be a microphone or a video camera (http://planeta.by/article/680, accessed 2016 10 08); Bugs (short for “concealed devices”; unexpectedly, “bugs,” from English bugs, also known as “bedbugs,” “fleas,” etc.) <...> (http://lurkmore.to/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BA%D0%B8; accessed 2016 10 08. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 24 (with the problem under discussion in mind). However, cases are also possible in which one new lexeme arose through semantic development (lexicalization, specialization, transfer of meaning), while another was newly formed, for example, on the basis of another lexeme of the base word (compare with the already recorded lexeme). Given that ND most often distinguishes lexical neologisms from semantic ones according to the aforementioned formal criterion (whether or not the word had already been recorded in reference publications) (Miliūnaitė 2015: 175–179), this feature of the database’s structure does not seem unsystematic. However, when studying the data in ND and reclassifying some semantic neologisms as lexical ones, it is clear that several lexemes may not belong to the same type. In general, given that the problem of distinguishing lexical and semantic neologisms has been little studied to date, and increasingly recognizing that it is multifaceted and merits a separate, thorough examination, it would probably be best first to select all the semantic neologisms from ND and investigate the history of each one’s emergence, as well as its semantic and derivational relations with other lexemes of the same already recorded word. Their principal groups should then become clear, the criteria for semantic neologisms in ND themselves and for distinguishing them from lexical neologisms should become more transparent, and a more precise picture of contemporary word formation and semantic derivation should emerge. This could be another interesting and promising direction for research. CONCLUSIONS 1. The Database of Lithuanian Neologisms is not only a source on new linguistic phenomena, but also one of the tools for studying the current state and development of words. In addition to the neologisms themselves, it provides information important for word-formation research, including definitions and other explanations of meaning, etymological notes, and authentic usage examples with source references, which often help clarify the meaning of a neologism or the circumstances of its emergence (formation). 2. Neologisms in ND can be studied from the perspective of word-formation relations in various ways. Several of the most promising, interrelated approaches are: by roots (compiling and analyzing word-formation families), by word-formation categories and their characteristic affixes, and by semantic lexical groups. 2.1. Compiling word-formation families for the neologisms in ND would show what proportion of each family they make up, how far they are removed from the family’s initial word—that is, how many derivational levels can be distinguished within a family—how many neologisms have themselves given rise to new formations, what proportion of the new formations are non-typical in their formation, how many have a changed derivational base, and so on. It has been established that, during the period under study, ND included neologisms (derivatives, compounds, hybrids, semantic neologisms) with BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 25 800 Lithuanian roots. About 47 percent of these occurred in only one neologism in ND. Thus, more than half of the new formations in ND have related words in this source and form word-formation families with them. Most of these families are not large, but some are, comprising 26–40 new formations each (the roots kalb-, raš-, dien-, žmog-, darb-/dirb-, žod-, etc.), encompassing 4–5 derivational levels (e.g., the word-formation families of the words rašyti, dirbti). It should be noted that the aforementioned 47 percent by no means indicates that this proportion of neologisms with Lithuanian roots lack neologisms with the same root—that is, that they do not serve as base words for them, form new word-formation families, or expand existing ones, and so on. When regular derivatives of a neologism are sought deliberately (e.g., nominal and verbal abstract nouns), they are most often found in internet usage. 2.2. An exploratory study of tool names recorded in ND, undertaken to test the potential of the second research approach, suggests that, according to LKG and DLKG, the suffix -tuvas, formerly the most productive in this word-formation category, is yielding ground to the second most productive suffix, -iklis, and the sixth, -yklė. Interestingly, the suffix -klis, considered unproductive, has as many as 6 derivatives (8 lexemes) in ND and ranks fifth in productivity. Ten suffixes described in grammars (-tas, -tis, -eklis, -klas, -tė, -(i)oklis, -ikas, -stis, -ta, -tuvis/-tuvys) were not found in ND. In examining ND material from this perspective, one should also bear in mind the converse direction of research, which is probably more important: taking the ND data themselves, rather than grammatical descriptions, as the point of departure, since these data are likely to include phenomena not described in grammars, atypical formations, analogical formations, isolated neologisms, and so forth. 2.3. An examination of one lexical-semantic group of neologisms in ND—several dozen derivatives formed from personal names, e.g., gražuliada, gryb auskizmas, kubiloidas, putleris, čiviliuoti, žvagulintis, janutiena, Kalantinės, etc.—showed that only a very small proportion of them made it into ND. Internet usage indicates that neologisms formed, for example, from the surnames of Lithuanian politicians are much more numerous. More or less neutral neologisms are derived with the suffixes -ietis, -ė; -ininkas, -ė; -inis, -ė (adjectives), whereas derivatives with the suffixes -izmas (meaning a quality associated with a person, not a characteristic expression) and -oidas are negatively connoted regardless of context. ND could perhaps include kubilinės ‘unpaid leave’ and landsberginis ‘Mercedes-Benz 126 car’, which are probably already becoming historicisms. 3. When assessing ND as a tool for studying word-formation relations among neologisms, several points should be noted. 3.1. ND is not intended exclusively for the study of word formation. To facilitate comprehensive research in this field, its database should provide for the possibility of analyzing neologisms derivationally and morphemically, compiling their word-formation families, recording morphemic patterns, and so on. 3.2. The formal criterion used in ND to distinguish lexical from semantic neologisms (whether the word is recorded in reference sources) is convenient when presenting neologisms in ND and in many BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 26 cases are unavoidable when they are later included in dictionaries, but they are unsuitable for studying word formation, where the starting point should be a derivational opposition, while new meanings (semantic neologisms) should be assigned only the results of semantic development (transfer of meaning, narrowing, lexicalization, specialization, etc.). 3.3. Neologisms in the ND are collected and selected exclusively by hand; moreover, until the information has been properly processed, not all of the information already collected is publicly accessible. Consequently, the ND data for a particular period generally lag somewhat behind actual usage during that period. These distinctive features of the ND’s development and maintenance in no way preclude research into its data from the perspective of word formation. Such research should be combined with ongoing analysis of usage on the internet. Of course, its results would differ from those of studies based on data obtained using other methods (e.g., neologism-catching tools). However, this would only help provide a better understanding of contemporary word formation, its differences from the word formation described in grammars, and discernible developmental trends. ŠALTINIAI CED – Collins English Dictionary. Prieiga internete: http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/. DŽ6 2006 – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. S. Keinys. 6 (3 elektroninis) leidimas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: http://lkiis.lki.lt/dabartinis;jsessionid=7FCC6E4C38456E666DB66EB848A7F6F1. DŽ7 2012 – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Red. S. Keinys. 7 leidimas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. EKŽ 2016 – Dagienė V., Grigas G., Jevsikova T. Enciklopedinis kompiuterijos žodynas. 4 leidimas. Prieiga internete: http://ims.mii.lt/EK%C5%BD/. JŽ – Jaunimo žodynas. Prieiga internete: http://www.zodynas.lt/jaunimo-zodynas/. LKŽe 2008 – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 1–20 (elektroninis variantas). Vyr. red. G. Naktinienė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: www.lkz.lt (žiūrėta 2016 m. balandžio–spalio mėn.). MD – Macmillan Dictionary. Prieiga internete: http://www.macmillandictionary.com/. OD – Oxford Dictionaries. Prieiga internete: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/. ND – Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas. Sudarytoja R. Miliūnaitė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: http://naujazodziai.lki.lt/ (žiūrėta 2016 m. balandžio–spalio mėn.). Tomo Baranausko istorijos puslapiai. Lietuviškieji -izmai. Prieiga internete: http://naujienos.istorija.net/2010/01/lietuviskieji-izmai.html. BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas ir naujadarų tyrimų perspektyvos | 27 TŽŽ 2001 – Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. Ats. red. A. Kinderys, Vilnius: Alma littera. Zailskaitė D. 2011 – Kas geriau: futbolininkas ar spirdžius? Prieiga internete: http://www.tv3.lt/naujiena/519836. Луркоморье, русский Lurkmore. Prieiga internete: http://lurkmore.to/. Vartosенos pavyzdžių ieškota interneto paieškos sistema Google. LITERATŪRA DLKG 1996: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika. Red. V. Ambrazas. 2 leidimas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. LKG 1965: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1. Vyr. red. K. Ulvydas, Vilnius: Mintis. Miliūnaitė R. 2014: Naujieji kontaminaciniai dariniai lietuvių kalboje. – Acta linguistica Lithuanica 71, 246–264. Miliūnaitė R. 2015: Naujažodžių atranka ir pateikimas „Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenyne“. – Leksikografija ir leksikologija 5, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 161–184. Miliūnaitė R. 2016: Žodžių reikšmių slinktys ir bendrinės kalbos normos. – 23-ioji tarptautinė mokslinė Jono Jablonskio konferencija „Reikšmė kalboje ir kultūroje“, 2016 m. rugsėjo 23–24 d. Tezės, Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas. Murmulaitytė D. 2014: Priesagos -iklis naujadarų apibrėžčių sistemiškumas. – Bendrinė kalba 87, 1–17. Prieiga internete: http://www.bendrinekalba.lt/Straipsniai/87/Murmulaityte_BK_87_straipsnis.pdf. Murmulaitytė D. 2016a: Naujažodžių duomenyno leksika pakeliui į Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodyną (priimtas spausdinti žurnale Acta linguistica). Murmulaitytė D. 2016b: Naujieji asmenų pavadinimai darybos ir semantiniu aspektu. – Lietuvių kalba 10, 1–22. Prieiga internete: http://www.lietuviukalba.lt/index.php/lietuviu-kalba/article/view/200. Urbutis V. 1978: Žodžių darybos teorija, Vilnius: Mokslas. Įteikta 2016 10 31 Priimta 2017 01 19 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius [email protected] BENDRINĖ KALBA 89 (2016) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204