Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai „Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne“: augalai ir gyvūnai

BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ Institute of Lithuanian Language REIKŠMIŲ APIBRĖŽIMO YPATUMAI GENERAL LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE DICTIONARY: PLANTS AND ANIMALS KEY WORDS: meaning, definition, cognitive definition, traditional definition, dictionary, General Lithuanian Language Dictionary. ĮVADINĖS PASTABOS The lexical meaning of the term word and the definition of the word meaning are an integral part of the explanatory dictionaries. Do we know how these concepts are perceived by dictionaries? The introductions of the Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries usually present rather formally the ways of interpreting the meanings of words and the graphical presentation of the meanings of words in the dictionary article. However, it is not always clear what concept of lexical meanings is followed in these dictionaries, what definition formulas are used to define words of different semantic groups, what characteristics of lexical meanings are most often emphasized, etc. This article is about the description of plant and animal categories in dictionaries. The choice of these categories was determined by several factors: since the science of botany and zoology has a very developed terminological system, the words naming plants and animals can (and tend to) be defined very scientifically, referring to the membership of various kingdoms, families, genera, etc., on the other hand, the words naming plants and animals are everyday, common, constantly used and heard, so they can be defined and in a household way, referring to typical features that are associated with those plants and animals. The interpretative dictionaries of the Lithuanian language treat these two alternatives differently. The article examines the definitions of the meanings of several specific nouns naming plants and animals. The nouns are selected from the manuscript of the Bend rinės Lithuanian Language Dictionary (hereinafter – BLD) and from the part already published on the Internet. 1 The aim of the article is to discuss the peculiarities of the definition of the meanings of selected words naming plants and animals in the Common Lithuanian Language Dictionary and to make proposals for the formulation of definitions of these and other names in this field. 1 Based on the online (http://bkz.lki.lt) published part of this dictionary and the manuscript of the unpublished parts. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne: augalai ir gyvūnai |2 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 In order to achieve the goal set the following tasks: 1) atskleisti, kaip žodžio leksinė reikšmė suvokiama BŽ rengėjų; 2) nustatyti, kokiõs žodžio reikšm s apibrėžties – tradicinės ar kognityvinės – the most commonly used BS for defining the generic names of the plant and animal categories šioms kategorijoms priklausančius žodžius (naminiai gyvuliai, medžiai, vaisiai ir kt.) ir palyginti juos su kitų aiškinamųjų lietuvių bei kai kuriais anglų ir rusų kalbų žodynų apibrėžtimis; 3) nustatyti, kokie požymiai dažniausiai pasirenkami BŽ apibrėžiant konkrečius and the names of the selected plant and animal categories. existing or existing in linguistics at a 1. ŽODŽIO REIKŠMĖS KONCEPCIJOS IR BENDRINĖS LI ETUVIŲ KALBOS ŽODYNAS Kalbotyroje esama daugybės semantinių koncepcijų – struktūralistinė, kognityvinė, loginė ir kt. (plačiau žr. Jakaitienė 1988: 30–40; Gudavičius 2007: 14–27 ir kt.). Toliau 1 lentelėje pateikiamos Dirko Geeraetrso (2006: 387) apibendrintos semantinės koncepcijos, certain time: 2 1 LENTELĖ. Semantinės koncepcijos (pagal D. Geeraetrsą) PERIOD CONCEPT PRINCIPALLY PRINCIPLEMPIRICAL DOMAIN EXPLAINATIVE ES PRINCIPLE 1870–1930 Historical-Languabout Efficiency and Philological age as an Semantic saviraiška Individual Principles of Statements Expression or the Change of Meanings of the Community 1930–1975 Structural-Lasemantics autonomous nguage as paradigmatic syntagmatic Statements and breakdown meaning semantinius ryšius about Meaning or structure postulates 1970–Logical Language as a Reference Statements on Worlds under the Algorithmic Semantic Conditions of Falsehood of Decomposition of the Meaning (Composite 1975–Cognitive Language as on Natural Language as a Propositions into Possible Language Truth/Unit) a Reference Statements Reference 2 Informaciją išvertė A. Gaidienė. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 semantika kognityvinis įrankis lankstumą, vidinę sandarą, patirtinį foundation, enciklopedinį pobūdį ir kt. kategorizavimas (prototipiškumas) and cognitive strategijos According to Nikolai Boldyrev (Boldyrev 2004: 7–8), one of the theoretical positions of kognityvinę semantikas, pateikiančias visiškai skirtingą požiūrį į žodžio reikšmės sampratą. structuralist semantics is that there is a clear boundary between linguistic and extralinguistic factors, i.e. the meaning of a word does not depend on what the speaker knows about the real or imaginary world (for more details see Boldyrev 2004: 7–8). According to cognitivists, the Gaidienė 2016: 16). Kitaip sakant, struktūralistų požiūriu, reikšmė yra gana savarankiška meaning of a word is the result of cognitive activity (Mikulskas 2009: perceived as an integral part of the mental content formed by knowledge of the relevant field (Gudavičius 2011: 113). The 40), mąstomosios būties apraiška (Jakaitienė 1988: 40), t. y. žodžio reikšmė kognityvistų meanings of a word, of a linguistic unit in general, convey only a part of our knowledge of the world, and the main part of it lies in the concepts associated with them (Boldyrev 2014: 87). It can be said that lexical meaning is in speech, in a specific sentence is actualized in the context of structures (which are aroused in the speakers’ consciousness) and it does not matter koncepto dalis. Svarbu pabrėžti, kad žodžio reikšmė tampa suprantama tik kitų kognityvinių whether these structures are verbalized, i.e. the meaning of the word is linked to cognitive contexts – kognityvinėmis struktūromis arba žinių blokais, kurie ir leidžia tas reikšmes suprasti (Boldyrev 2004: 8–9; see for more details. 2016: 21. Many linguists (cf. Geeraerts 1989: 142; Vežbickaja 1996) agree that “<...> it is perfectly possible to reconcile both cognitive and structural approaches to word meaning” (Jakaitienė 1988: 57). It is precisely this combination of cognitive and structuralist concepts of word meaning that is applied by the editors of the BZ. The structuralist aspect of word meaning naturally reveals itself in the sintagminius ir paradigminius aiškinamųjų žodžių santykius konkrečiuose pasakymuose analysis (in illustrative examples) and their relationships with their hyponyms / hyperonyms or synonyms, etc., and the investigated connections of those words with wider mental structures (concepts) allows to supplement their definitions of meanings with prototypical features, to link the meanings of a multi-meaning word into a motivated network and otherwise improve the structure of the dictionary article. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos dictionary: plants and animals |4 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 Thus, in this article, based on the definitions of the words naming plants and animals given in BZ, the combination of these two semantic concepts will be shown. Lithuanian language Aiškinamieji žodynai dažnai kritikuojami dėl to, kad juose kurios nors leksinės reikšmės sampratos laikomasi nenuosekliai. Evaldos Jakaitienės (2005: 81) teigimu, Dabartinės žody ne (male ed. S. Keinys) common, everyday words are defined by indicating semantic 3 features. This difference in the definition of meanings is due to several factors: to avoid nedaug semantinių požymių, bet gerai žinomi augalai, gyvūnai ir pan. apibrėžiami išsamiai differences in the definition of words’ meanings, prototype theory is often suggested (see leksikos įvairovė, žodyno paskirtis, žodyno adresatas ir kt. Šiuolaikinėje leksikografijoje norint Geeraerts 2006: 327–355). First of all, this theory helps the dictionary writer to distinguish the meanings of polysemic words on the same basis, e.g. as a motivated network of esminius leksemos reikšmės požymius, taip pat siūlo konceptualias priemones, leidžiančias meanings dominated by one or more nodes (prototypes). 2. PROTOTIPŲ TEORIJA IR LEKSIKOGRAFINĖ PRAKTIKA The concept of the prototype is associated with the experimental studies carried out by Eleonora Rosch in the 20th century, the results of which showed that some members of the categories have more and others less characteristic features of the category, and the boundaries of the categories themselves are not clear. The most characteristic member of the category, by which the category can be recognized, E. Rosch called the prototype (Ungerer, Schmid 2006: 10). In general, for the specialists of cognitive psychology, the categorization of the reality around us, which they began to look at from the perspective of cognitive human activity, became essential (Kubriakova 1996: 45–46). Prototipų teorijos požiūris į kategorinę narystę prieštaravo klasikinei teorijai. In classical theory, the boundaries of a category are clear: all members of the same category share the same set of (necessary) characteristics, so members of the same category are classified one kito atžvilgiu yra lygūs (Dirvenas 2009: 15). Toliau pateiksime Holgerio Diesselio 4 lentelę 5 , by one in order to summarize the differences between classical and prototype theory (see Table 2). 3 E. Jakaitienė relied on the fourth edition of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language Dictionary, published in 2000. 4 For more details see jena.de/~x4diho/Script.Language%20and%20Cognition%201.pdf. 5 Informaciją išvertė A. Gaidienė. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos http://www.personal.unižodyne: plants and animals |5 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 TABLE 2. Differences between classical and prototypical theory Classical theory Prototype theory Kategorijos apibrėžiamos vadovaujantis general signs. Kategorijos apibrėžiamos pagal geriausią narį. Categories have clear boundaries. Categories Visi kategorijos nariai yra lygūs. Vieni kategorijos nariai yra geresni už kitus have blurred Kategorijų reikšmė yra pastovi. Kategorijų reikšmė priklauso nuo kultūros ir boundaries. members of the category. context. Cognitive semantics took over from cognitive psychology and began to apply the sąvoką. Pasak Aloyzo Gudavičiaus (2009: 67), „[s]emantinio aprašymo centru tapo prototipas – daiktas ar reiškinys, kuris kalbantiesiems atrodo tipiškas, pavyzdinis, normalus margoje panašių prototype to a variety of objects or phenomena." The concept of prototype in lexicography can be used and applied in two ways: it a) žodžio reikšmė apibrėžiama remiantis prototipu. Tokiu būdu apibrėžiant reikšmes moves away from the logical criteria of necessity and sufficiency, since the definition first lists those characteristics that characterize the prototypical member of the category (Jakaitienė 2005: 82). b) the prototypical meaning of a polysemantic word is considered to be the meaning of the word that is primarily associated with that word in the consciousness of the average speaker (language community). In other words, the different meanings of a word are structured according to the same principle as the different members of the same category, i.e. the view is held that a word has a prototypical meaning, with which less prototypical meanings are associated. According to Pragglejaz (2007: 3), prototypical meanings tend to be more specific, refer to things that are easier to imagine, see, hear, feel, smell or taste, they are related to body actions, are more defined, often historically older, and not necessarily more frequent. In dictionaries, these meanings are often given first. According to Rolandas Mikulskas (2009: 72), “[one] of the main representatives of lexicography in reality”. This is exactly what the prototype-defining features help to do. apibrėžimo uždavinių yra padėti žodyno skaitytojui atpažinti žodžiais žymimų kategorijų Nors ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos dictionary: plants and animals |6 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 The benefits of prototype theory for lexicographers are undeniable, but there are shortcomings in the practical application of this theory – the separation of truly prototypical features from non-prototypical ones. According to E. Jakaitienė (2005: 83), “one of the most difficult tasks of ir kokių žodžiu pavadinamo dalyko (prototipo ar sąvokos) požymių reikia įtraukti į patikimą lexicography is to determine how much meaning is interpreted and how they need to be presented in that interpretation”. This article attempts to look at how the authors of BZ implement this task. In the introductions of the Lithuanian language explanatory dictionaries, the interpretations of the meanings of words are discussed in a rather formal manner. There are usually three main ways of interpreting the meanings of words 6 – descriptive, synonymous and referencial, and the introductions 7 to the glossaries provide brief references to the principles of 8 interpretation of the meanings of words (see Table 3). TABLE 3. Principles of Interpretation of the Meanings of Words BZ and DZ7i BŽ DŽ7i “The main way of interpreting the meaning the characteristics of the briefly describes the characteristics of characteristics, without encyclopedic of a word is by means of briefly indicating defining-descriptive interpretation. It objects, phenomena, concepts <...>“9. accuracy and detailing”10. As can be seen, the editors of dictionaries limit themselves to hints about the characteristic features of objects, phenomena and concepts. The question legitimately arises as to how these “characteristic” features are understood and based on what criteria they are determined and selected. After all, “[t]he establishment of a minimum complex of semantic characteristics in the definition of meaning, the distinction between what belongs to meaning and what belongs to our knowledge of reality, is the main and perhaps the most difficult thing to define a specific meaning” (Gudavičius 2009: 61). 6 Be šių trijų, reikšmių aiškinimo būdų gali būti ir daugiau, pvz., nusakomasis, vienažodis, mišrusis ir Šio pan. (plg. Naktinienė 2006: 22; Svetikienė 2006: 181). 7 aiškinimo būdo pavadinimas įvairuoja, jis vadinamas aprašomuoju (plg. Murmulaitytė 2006: 37; Naktinienė Svetikienė 2006: 181; LKŽe skyrius „Struktūra“, skyrelis „Žodžio reikšmių aiškinimas), aiškinamuoju (plg. 2006: 22), apibrėžiamuoju (plg. Jakaitienė 2005: 79), apibrėžiamuoju-aprašomuoju (DŽ7i, skyrius „Įvadas“, skyrelis „Žodžių reikšmių aiškinimas“), apibrėžiamuoju-aiškinamuoju (Murmulaitytė 2000: 148) ir pan. 8 In the online version of the LKŽ, in the section "Interpretation of the meanings of words", only sinoniminis ir nuorodinis reikšmių aiškinimai, todėl lentelėje cituojami tik BŽ ir DŽ7i. 9 Žr. http://bkz.lki.lt/?pg=reiksmiu_aiskinimas, skyrių „Reikšmių aiškinimas“, skyrelį „Reikšmių the ways of interpretation are described in more detail. 10 Žr. http://lkiis.lki.lt/lkz-ivadas, skyrių „Žodžių reikšmių aiškinimas“. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne: augalai ir gyvūnai |7 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 Lietuvių kalbos aiškinamuosiuose žodynuose paprastai naudojamos tradicinės definitions, i.e. the definition of the meaning of a word is based on elements of scientific categorization (scientific nomenclature). Cognitive semantics, especially prototype theory, offers new tools for improving word definitions in explanatory dictionaries. The following will briefly introduce the difference between traditional and cognitive definitions of word meanings. The traditional definition often uses elements of scientific knowledge, thus 11 achieving the structure of a category, which consists of a related (hyperonymous) concept perteikti maksimaliai objektyvų tikrovės elemento vaizdą, remiamasi hierarchine vidine and specific (distinctive) features that characterize a lower level (hyponymous) concept (Gudavičius 2009: 70–72; 2015: 64–65. Cognitive definition is based on everyday, personal knowledge and experience of the world; 12 mentioning the word; reflects all the features of lexical meaning, i.e. central and peripheral, joje stengiamasi parodyti, kokios asociacijos kyla kalbėtojo sąmonėje šnekos akto metu without drawing a strict boundary between the so-called denotative and connotative features, especially if the latter are associated with certain usual contexts (Gudavičius 2009: 70–72; Smetonienė 2009: 100–101). 2015: 64–65). Let’s compare the definition of the word honour presented in DŽ7i and the cognitive definition of this word formulated by Irena Smetoniene (2015: 80) (see table 4). 4 LENTELĖ. Žodžio garbė apibrėžtis Tradicinė apibrėžtis Kognityvinė apibrėžtis honor‖ėj (4) respect for merits recognized by society; glory, good name: T ai is the guard of dalykas. Nuplėšti garbę. Netekti ~ės. Toks pasiūlymas teikia jums garbę. Tai nedaro tau ~ės. ~ės narys (pagerbiant išrinktas). ~ės ~ēash (intended to honor). ◊ ~the word of patikinimas žodžiu) (DŽ7i). garbė – „tai savivertės bei atsakomybės appreciation (a strong feeling when a person gyvenimą, nuveiktus darbus, ir geras vardas, pelnytas visuomenėje už gerus ir feels appreciated for his/her selfless deeds, for his/her decent behaviour and decent life, high morals, honesty, justice, keeping his/her word, ir rūpinimąsi kitais, už pasiaukojimą tėvynei, respect for the idea of others, the welfare of other people, patriotism and heroism” (Smetonienė 2015: 80). 11 It is also called the classical, dictionary definition. 12 J. Bartminskis (1988), A. Gudavičius (2009), I. Smetonienė (2015) and others use the term cognitive definition. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos dictionary: plants and animals |8 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 As can be seen, the cognitive definition of the word honor is much broader than the traditional definition of this word given by DŽ7i. In the cognitive definition, an effort was made to show all possible features of this concept that may be relevant in certain contexts and situations. For example, the concept of honor is understood here not only as an external phenomenon, "respect for merits recognized by society", which was emphasized at the time when the paklotas konceptualusis DŽ pamatas, bet ir kaip „savivertė bei atsakomybės jausmas“, t. y. criteria of behavior considered honorable in society must be internalized by the individual, perceived as an internal imperative of his behavior. It can be argued that BZ editors often combine traditional and cognitive definitions of word meaning. Let's look at how the already mentioned word honour is defined in 13 BZ: dkt. (4) 1. set of moral human values (decency, honesty, duty, etc.): Good 2. visuomenės pripažįstama pagarba už nuopelnus: Šlov (to be worshiped). 3. good name, good reputation; Sin. glory: Nupl garb žr. žodis. (ką) pagerbiant: Sv . The main characteristics of the concept of honour, presented in the cognitive definition, are also recorded in the dictionary article of the word honour in BZ, only they are broken down into separate meanings (see table 5). 5 LENTELĖ. Sąvokos garbė apibrėžčių palyginimas BZ presented values I. Smetonienės presented cognitive apibrėžtis 1. moral human values (submission, honesty, duty is a sense ir kt.) visuma  of responsibility 2. visuomenės pripažįstama pagarba už a deserved sense of self-esteem, when a  person feels appreciated for his life, the work done 13 The final edited word honor dictionary article BZ is subject to change. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos dictionary: plants and animals |9 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 3. good name, good reputation good name,  earned in society for good and selfless deeds, for honest behaviour and decent life, high morals, for honesty, justice, word of others, for sacrifice to the laikymąsi, pagarbą kitiems ir rūpinimąsi fatherland, the idea, kitų žmonių gerovei, patriotizmą ir didvyriškumą Also, let us compare the definition of the proper noun Europa, given by BŽ, and Mariaus Smetonos suformuluotą šios sąvokos kognityvinę apibrėžtį (žr. 6 lentelę). 6 LENTELĖ. Žodžio Europa apibrėžtys BŽ M. Smetona (2016: 154) economy that opens up great opportunities”. Europe dkt. vns. (2) part of continent, the continent14: the states of pusrutulyje, su Azija sudaranti Eurazijos ätsija [Tarýba]. Keliáuti põ Euròpą. Europe. European Economic Area. Euròpos Kom i besidriekiančiame nuo Pirėnų pusiasalio iki Uralo kalnų, civilizacijos lopšys su turtinga history, symbiosis of different cultures, nations, languages, customs, architecture, based on which it can even be understood as one great state, in bendradarbiavimu, humanistinėmis idėjomis, which peace, security, justice prevail, and uniting various free states and peoples, having a common currency and common law. The BZ was chosen to systematically identify all states, parts of the world (whether close or far away) and so on – simply by indicating their geographical position, cf. : the world Northern Europe – “that is, the 15 14 The same definition applies to DG6p. 15 Having in mind M. Smetona’s definition of the word Europe, the editors of the BŽ could consider its definition, because Europe is not only a continent, but also a concept that evokes not one historical, cultural or political stereotype. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos dictionary: plants and animals |16 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 TABLE 11. Animals are described as ‘signs of reality that are recorded as opposed to a bird, reptile, fish, or reptilija, žuvis, or insektas’. WEBSTER any of a kingdom (Animalia) of living ‘gyvas’, ‘daugialąstis’ ar ‘vienaląstis’, skiriasi nuo augalų kad ‘ląstelių sienelėse nėra ‘neturi chlorofilo’, protozoans) that fotosintezės’, ‘būtinas plants in sudėtingesnis maistas (toks kaip baltymai)’, ‘geba savaime judėti’, greitai reaguoti į dirgiklius’ requiring proteins), in being organized to a greater degree of environment around it. a. any living complexity, and spontaneous movement and rapid insect, a bird, or a fish b. any living things including many-celled organisms and often many of the tuo, single-celled ones (such as celiuliozės’, typically differ from ‘neatlieka having cells without cellulose walls, in lacking chlorophyll and the capacity for photosynthesis, in ‘geba more complex food materials (such as OXFORD ‘alive’, 1 A living organism which feeds on organic matter, typically having specialized sense organs and nervous system and able to respond rapidly to organism other than a human being. 1.2 A mammal, substances’, ‘has sense ‘feeding on organic MACMILLAN any living thing that can stimuli;’; incentives. 1.1 A living ‘alive, but not human’; ‘mammal, but not bird, independently move ‘living’, ‘can move independently’, organs and nervous and that has senses for ‘has senses’, recognizing and reacting to the in having the capacity for not a human, a plant, an animal, an motor responses to stimulation that is not a human, a plant, an animal, system’, ‘capable of ‘recognizes the environment and reacts to it ’; ‘a living thing that is an insect, a bird, a fish’; žmogus’ insect, a bird, a fish’; ‘a living thing COLLINS ‘alive, but not a bird, a fish, 1. An animal is a living creature such ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos 17 as a dog, lion, or rabbit, rather ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 than a insect or man’; ‘gyvas a creature but not a human 2. Any living creature other than a human being can be referred to as an animal. […] 3. Any living creature, including a human being, can be referred to as an animal. bird, fish, insect, or human being. being’; ‘visi živii padarai’ CAMBRIDGE ‘gyvas’, ‘juda, bet ne žmogus, A1 something that lives and moves but is not a human, žuvis ar vabzdys’; ‘whatever is alive and moving, including human beings.’ As with plants, the definitions of two dictionaries (WEBSTER, partly OXFORD) record more scientific features that characterize an animal, namely ‘multicellular’ or ‘monocellular’, ‘capable of self-movement’, ‘reacting quickly to stimuli’ and ‘made of organic matter’. The WEBSTER dictionary definition bird, fish, or insect B2 anything that lives and moves, including people, birds, etc. paukštis’ paukštis, not perform photosynthesis’, ‘does not have cellulose in its cell walls’ and ‘needs more complex food, such as proteins’. However, other English dictionaries (including OXFORD) emphasise that an further emphasizes that an animal differs from a plant in that it does not have ‘chlorophyll’, ‘does animal is ‘living’ and ‘moving’, distinguishing several meanings of the word ‘animal’, similarly to BG, i.e. that animals can be all living creatures, that animals can be all living creatures except humans, and that animals are only mammals. In addition, the COLLINS dictionary lists typical mammals, whose characteristics are supposed to form the center of the prototype of that meaning. Thus, English dictionaries, with the exception of WEBSTER, follow a strategy of cognitive meaning when defining an animal. Below are the definitions of the animal formulated in the dictionaries of the Russian language (see Table 12). The word animal (ru. животное) in definitions 12 LENTELĖ. Gyvūno apibrėžtis rusų kalbos žodynuose Žodynas apibrėžtis Realijų požymiai, fiksuojami СЕМ 1. Живой организм, существо, обладающее (за исключением губок, коралловых полипов и некрых других) способностью ‘gyvas’, ‘(išskyrus koralus ir kai kurias kitas rūšis) geba judėti’, ‘feeding on organic medžiagomis’; ‘gyvas padaras, bet ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne: augalai ir gyvūnai |18 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 moving and feeding, as от большинства растений, готовыми органическими веществами. 2. Живое существо в противоп. человеку (обычно о млекопитающих). opposed to ne žmogus’ МАKС 1. Всякое живое существо, except plants. || Живое ‘living существо в противоположность человеку. ‘viskas, kas gyva, išskyrus augalus’; creature, but not man’ with ТСОШ ‘alive’, 1. Живой организм, существо, possessing the ability than moving and feeding, unlike от растений, готовыми organic compounds. 2. Такое живое существо, в противоп. человеку. ‘capable of moving’, ‘different plants feed on organic substances’; ‘a living creature, but ne žmogus’ Russian dictionaries give the basic characteristics of an animal: ‘living’, ‘moving’ and ‘feeding on organic matter’. Furthermore, as in English dictionaries and BZ, Russian birds, insects, kalbos žodynai gyvūnui priešina žmogų. Tačiau žinduolių priešprieša su kitais gyviais (žuvimis, reptiles) are not included in these dictionaries, except for the CEM dictionary, which indicates that most often mammals are meant. The definition of the word animal in the latter dictionary is more detailed than the other two – it also lists what living things (braids, coral polyps) ‘cannot move’. When comparing the definitions of the meaning of animal in the dictionaries of all three languages, we see that the strategies for defining the meaning are similar. In Lithuanian gyvūną laikomasi tradicinės reikšmės strategijos. BŽ pirma šio žodžio reikšmės apibrėžtis taip pat yra tradicinė, tačiau antros ir trečios reikšmių skyrimas ir apibrėžimas atspindi kultūrinės language dictionaries (LKŽe and DŽ7i) the definition of environmentally determined everyday, rather than scientific categorization, is associated with a cognitive strategy of meaning definition. The same applies to dictionaries of the Russian language. WEBSTER žodžio gyvūnas apibrėžtis yra tradicinė (labiau mokslinė). Kiti anglų kalbos žodynai (OXFORD, MACMILLAN, COLLINS, CAMBRIDGE), panašiai kaip ir BŽ, skirdami ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos dictionary: plants and animals |19 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 several animal meanings and naming typical mammals (COLLINS) keep more cognitive reikšmės apibrėžimo strategijos. 5. DEFINITIONS OF TREED VALUE There are some differences in the definition of words in the plant and animal categories. Let’s compare how dictionaries define three trees – birch, aspen and pine. These trees were yra labai būdingi Lietuvos kraštovaizdžiui ir tikėtina, kad jų požymiai didžia dalimi formuoja chosen because they are the prototype of the category tree in this geographical region, and more broadly, in the linguistic consciousness of the inhabitants of the same geographical lietuvių kalbos žodynuose pateiktos žodžio beržas apibrėžtys. latitude. Table 13 lists the main 13 TABLE. The word birch is derived from the Latin word for spring, betula, which means "white-leaved tree" or "white-toothed tree". white, easy to peel with toshi, flowering with horsetails, DŽ7i LKŽe All three dictionaries first state that birch belongs to the category of trees, then mention the commonly recognized external feature of birch, which distinguishes it from other trees 22 – ‘white toshi’. The definition of the word birch in BZ also includes such features recognisable to Lithuanians – ‘the birch is easily felled’ and it ‘blooms with horseshoes’. In addition, the BZ indicates another sign – that the birch is ‘letting juice’. Table 14 shows the definitions of the word in question in English dictionaries. TABLE 14. Definition of birch in English dictionaries Definition Žodynas of birch in definitions Realijų požymiai, fiksuojami WEBSTER ‘vienanamis’, ‘lapuotis’, the family Betulaceae, the birch family) of monoecious deciduous trees or shrubs krūmas’, External signs are those signs that are ‘medis ar any of a genus (Betula of perceived, felt by sight, touch, etc. ‘lapai su paprastais lapkočiais’, 22 būdais. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos dictionary: plants and animals |20 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 having simple petioled leaves and ‘lengvai nusilupanti tošis’ bark that peels readily with typically a layered membranous outer slender, fast-growing tree that has thin ‘liaunas’, ‘greitai auga’, ‘lengvai MACMILLAN a tall tree horseshoes’ like paper nusilupanti tošis’ outer covering) and thin branches šakos’ OXFORD a ‘aukštas’ (in two dictionaries). Further external characteristics of birch are mentioned only in one dictionary: ‘lion’, ‘fast growing’, ‘flowering with horseshoes’, ‘ppr. ‘balta žievė’, ‘lygi žievė’. bark (often peeling) and bears catkins Lithuanians might be a bit surprised by the latter sign, because the bark of birch trees growing in nusilupanti tošis’, ‘žydintis with thin branches and an ‘aukštas’, ‘plonos šakos’, ‘lengvai COLLINS is a type of tall tree with Lithuania is more often buckled than smooth. It is also interesting that only one CAMBRIDGE dictionary mentions the whiteness of birch trunks – although birch trunks are not necessarily outer layer that comes off in thin strips thin branches ‘aukštas’, ‘plonos šakos’ As in the Lithuanian language dictionaries, in the cited white, for Lithuanians this is a distinctive feature of birch trees. We also do not consider this (tarsi popierinėmis juostomis) English language dictionaries the word biržas has scientific birch characteristics (except tree to be particularly high, so the term ‘high’ is not used in Lithuanian dictionaries. Let us compare the definitions of the word birch in Russian dictionaries (see table 15). CAMBRIDGE a tree with smooth, often white bark (= WEBSTER – ‘family’, ‘vienanamis’, ‘leaved’), but the most typical external characteristics of this ‘lygi’, ‘ppr. balta žievė’, ‘plonos tree are: ‘lengvai nusilupanti tošis’ (in three dictionaries), ‘plonos šakos’ (in three dictionaries), apibrėžtis jau kitokia negu žodžių augalas ar gyvūnas. Anglų kalbos žodynuose nurodomi ne Lietuvoje augantys plaukuotasis ir karpotasis beržai 23 pasižymi būtent baltais kamienais ir 24 23 There are other birch species in Lithuania, but these are the most common. 24 Plg. https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karpotasis_ber%C5%BEas. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos dictionary: plants and animals |21 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 TABLE 15. Definition of birch in Russian dictionaries Žodynas Žodžio beržas (ru. берёза) apibrėžtis Realijų požymiai, fiksuojami definitions liстьями A deciduous tree or shrub. ‘leaved’, ‘tree or shrub’, берёзовых с белой (реже тёмной) корой and with heart-shaped ‘white žievė (rečiau tamsi)’, ‘širdiški lapai’ leaves MAX hardwood with white bark ‘lapuotis’, ‘balta žievė’ TSOSH Hardwood with white (less often тёмной) корой и с сердцевидными ‘lapuotis’, ‘balta žievė (rečiau tamsi)’, ‘širdiški lapai’ Kaip iš 15 lentelės matyti, rusų kalbos žodynams, kaip ir lietuvių kalbos žodynams, The most important external characteristic of birch is the ‘white bark’ (toshis), probably because they are our neighbors and their birches are similar to ours. This is only because in the lapai’. BŽ šio požymio nėra, kaip ir ‘liaunų šakelių’, kurias mini kai kurie anglų kalbos žodynai. definition of BZ there are already enough typical features by which it is possible to identify birch, i.e. ‘white toshes’, ‘easily peelable toshes’ and ‘flowering with horseshoes’. The fact that almost exclusively only 25 birch bark, ppr. its upper, peelable, layer (although cf. tošis „birch bark cork fabric“ (VLE XXIV: 50)), in Lithuanian language deserves a separate – tošies – name (cf. the abundance of derivatives: tošėti, tošiauti, tošininkas (-ė), toši nė, tošinukas, etc. (LKŽe)), probably should be linked to the meaning of tošies in the daily life of traditional Lithuanian rural inhabitants, cf. : Once upon a time clay pots were wrapped in birch trunks – to make them more durable (DLKT). We walk from one hive to another, observing that the birch log, which was put under the roof of the hive forty years ago, has not yet broken down at all <…> (DLKT). From birch bark various bags, boxes, tar, tanning substances, etc. were woven. As already mentioned, the definition of BZ records another characteristic of birch, which is not in foreign dictionaries – that in spring it ‘lets juice’. However, sometimes, by analogy, the bark of 26 other trees can be called toshi, e.g. Recorded in LKŽ yra svarbus ir atpažįstamas lietuviams, kurie pavasarį leisdavo (ar vis dar leidžia) sulą ir ją geria, 25 pavyzdį: Vyžikės būdavo iš liepos tošų Erž. 26 When searching for the word sap in the English dictionaries under consideration, only one CAMBRIDGE dictionary (see http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/sap?a=british) mentions maple juice, which is much more popular than birch juice (especially) in America and Canada. According to English and German Wikipedias (see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birch_sap, https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birkensaft), birch sap is more widely used in our neighboring countries and in Northern China. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos dictionary: plants and animals |22 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 plg. : J. Marcin (LKŽe) dripped a bucket of juice, that sweet spring joy. Jula has long been used by 27 Lithuanian peasants as a drink, less frequently for cooking sri ubai, fermenting beetroots MLTEIII340 (LKŽe). A. Gudavičius (2007: 22), cf. „white color of the leaves, conical shape of the leaves, Nebėr žiemų šaltų, nebėr nė sul ų saldžių Šts (LKŽe). Šį beržo požymį, kaip ir daugelį kitų, mini ir heart-shaped leaves, smoothness of the twigs, characteristic of the Lithuanian landscape, the fact that people drink its juice in spring, etc.“. By the way, two of the dictionaries discussed – WEBSTER and SEM – in their definitions indicate that birch can also be a shrub. The BŽ (as well as other dictionaries) does not mention this characteristic, although in Lithuania there grows birch and slender birch, which 28 are shrubs. However, in the consciousness of the average speaker (Lithuanian) birch is still a tree, so the authors of BZ do not mention the bush in the definition. Thus, here, focusing on the consciousness of the average speaker, the cognitivists constantly emphasize the categorization of the everyday (domestic) reality around us, according to which the descriptive features of the meaning of the word are first selected as the features of the prototypical members of the category. With the exception of WEBSTER and SEM, the same is done in the discussed English and Russian dictionaries. Next, let’s look at how Lithuanian, English and Russian dictionaries define another common tree in Lithuania – aspen (see tables 16–18). TABLE 16. Dictionary of the word trebulė definition in Lithuanian language dictionaries Dictionary of the word trebulė definition in Lithuanian language dictionaries Sin. poplar tree with grey or grey-green bark and shaking leaves (Populus tremula), poplar tree with shaking leaves, poplar tree (Populus tremula) BZ tall tree with almost circular, on a long stem, DŽ7i LKŽe shaking from the smallest As in the definition of birch, dictionaries indicate that aspen is a tree. Next, one of the distinctive external signs of tremor is recorded – ‘swinging (shaking) leaves’. The definition of LKŽe is limited to this. The BZ also describes how the leaves look, i.e. ‘almost round’, ‘on a long 29 stalk’ and why they shake, i.e. ‘from the slightest breeze’ (an external sign). The above definition refers to another external characteristic of the treble – the ‘bark colour’, which is požymiai, manytina, yra tipiškiausi ir pirmiausia asocijuojami su šiuo medžiu (juk ir paties medžio pavadinimo motyvacija susijusi su vienu iš minėtų požymiu – ‘drebėjimu’). DŽ7i gray or grayish-brown. 27 28 Plg. VLE III: 121–122 ir https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ber%C5%BEas. 29 Čia turima omenyje lietuviška apibrėžties dalis. Apie lotyniškus pavadinimus, t. y. papildomą apibrėžties informaciją, bus kalbama vėliau. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos dictionary: plants and animals |23 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 pilkai žalia. BŽ žievės spalvos požymio apibrėžtyje neteikia, nes šio medžio žievės spalva jam augant kinta 30 , tačiau nurodo kitą išorinį požymį – kad drebulė yra ‘aukštas’ medis 31 . 17 LENTELĖ. Žodžio drebulė apibrėžtis anglų kalbos žodynuose Žodynas definition of aspen, quaking aspen in definitions Realijų požymiai, fiksuojami WEBSTER ‘auga JAV ir Kanadoje’, U.S. and Canada with small nearly circular leaves that have flattened petioles and finely serrate margins and that flutter in the slightest breeze (Populus tremuloides) chiefly of the ‘small’, ‘almost round leaves’, ‘with spread leaflets’ and ‘toothed at pakraščiais’, ‘virpa nuo the slightest breeze’ OXFORD a poplar tree with rounded, long-‘apvalūs dantyti typically coarsely toothed only a slight wind. breeze little wind lapai’ ‘ilgais stalked, and koteliais’, ‘virpa nuo menkiausio MACMILLAN a tall thin tree that grows in North America and Europe and has that rustle (=make a noise as they rub against each other) in the wind America and leaves Europoje’, ‘aukštas plonas’ (medis), ‘nuo vėjo virpa lapai’ COLLINS an aspen is a tall tree with leaves that wind very move a lot in the ‘high’ (medis), ‘from the wind virpa lapai’ vėjelio virpantys leaves that tremble in even a slight vėjelio’ that shake even when there is Tipiškiausi drebulės požymiai, fiksuojami minėtų anglų kalbos žodynų šio žodžio apibrėžtyse, būtų šie: ‘aukštas’, ‘plonas’ (medis), ‘nedideli’, ‘beveik apskriti lapai’, ‘su išplatėjusiais lapkočiais’ ir ‘dantytais pakraščiais’, ‘lapai ilgais kotais’. Taip pat visose šio žodžio the definitions also refer to ‘the shaking of leaves at the slightest wind’. Two dictionaries also indicate where this 30 VIKIPEDIJA pateikia tokią informaciją: „Jaunų medžių kamieno žievė glotni, blyški, žalsvai pilka su stains, then shrinks and darkens. The bark of mature trees a few meters from the ground is grayish brown, ir gruoblėta, dar aukščiau glotni ir lygi, žalsva ar balzganai žalia“ (plačiau žr. spotted (https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drebul%C4%97). 31 It grows up to 35 m tall (cf. VLE V: 134). ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos dictionary: plants and animals |24 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 tree grows – in the USA and Canada (WEBSTER) or in North America and Europe (MACMILLAN). By the way, in fact, this tree is widespread not only in North America and Europe, but also in North Africa and Asia (see the term bank of the Republic of Lithuania – hereinafter LRTB: http://terminai.vlkk.lt/pls/tb/tb.result). The two dictionaries indicate a scientific term, kad šis medis priklauso poplar (family) 32 . TABLE 18. The word aspen (ru. осина) МАКС лиственное дерево Žodynas рода тополей, с 'leafy','relative to poplar', 'greenish' ТСОШ Realijų požymiai, fiksuojami SEM deciduous tree, related to ‘lapuotis’, popolu, s hladkou šerou kôrou a s листьями, постоянно дрожащими на thin long stalks ‘giminingas tuopai’, ‘pilka lygi žievė’, ‘lapai ilgais koteliais’, ‘nuolatos virpantys lapai’ лиственное дерево, родственное 'leafy','relative to poplar' definition in definitions greenish-white smooth bark balta lygi žievė’ poplar First of all, Russian dictionaries indicate that aspen is ‘leafy’ and ‘relative to poplars’ (see English poplar (family)). And in fact, both aspen and poplar belong to the willow family. The information mentioned in the definitions of these words in the BZ is not mentioned, because it is kurią galima susirasti pagal BŽ pateikiamą lotynišką pavadinimą. Apie tokį, rodos, akivaizdų considered as secondary, the external sign – ‘shaking leaves’ – is mentioned only in the CEM dictionary, which generally defines tremor in the most detailed of the Russian language požymis nurodoma ‘žievės spalva’ – viename pilka, kitame žalsvai balta. Kaip jau minėta, BŽ dictionaries examined. The two dictionaries do not have this characteristic as typical and therefore do not indicate that this colour varies (see footnote 30). A look at the dictionaries of drebulė apibrėžtis panaši tiek į rusų, tiek į anglų kalbų žodynuose teikiamas apibrėžtis ir dažniausiai išsamumu joms nenusileidžia. Dar panagrinėkime žodžio pušis apibrėžtis (žr. 19–21 all three languages (tables 16-18) shows that BŽ is a word of the same origin. 32 Poplar lietuviškai yra tuopa, family – šeima. Lietuvoje drebulė priskiriama gluosninių šeimai (žr. LRTB: http://terminai.vlkk.lt/pls/tb/tb.result). ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos dictionary: plants and animals |25 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 TABLE 19. LKŽe evergreen tree with long needles and round cones (Pinus) LKŽe evergreen tree with long needles and round cones definitions valuable timber trees and ornamentals Žodžio pušis apibrėžtis with long, clustered needles, round needles and long needles definitions valuable timber trees and ornamentals turpentine BŽ evergreen coniferous tree with long, clustered needles, round kankorėžiais, išskiriantis daug sakų (Pinus) turpentine BŽ evergreen coniferous tree with long, clustered needles, round needles and long needles definitions valuable timber trees and ornamentals turpentine BŽ evergreen coniferous tree with long, clustered needles, round needles and long needles definitions valuable timber trees and ornamentals turpentine BŽ evergreen coniferous tree with long, clustered needles, needles and long needles definitions Furthermore, the dictionaries record the external features of pine trees that are recognizable to everyone – ‘long spikes’ and ‘round cones’. The BS specifies another external feature – ‘spikes gathered in clusters’ and adds the feature – ‘expels a lot of sacks’. TABLE 20. Definitions of pine in English dictionaries Žodynas Definitions of pine tree in English dictionaries apibrėžtis Realijų požymiai, fiksuojami round needles and long needles definitions valuable timber trees and ornamentals turpentine WEBSTER ‘pergalis’, any of a genus (Pinus of the family Pinaceae, the pine family) of coniferous evergreen trees that have slender some needles that do not fall off in BŽ evergreen coniferous tree with long, clustered needles, round needles and long needles ‘bridina konkorėžius’, ‘ilgi ploni spygliai’, ‘vērtna mediena’, ‘daži medžio rūšys dekoratyvinės’ OXFORD an evergreen coniferous tree that has clusters of long needle-shaped Many kinds are grown for their soft timber, which is widely used for furniture and pulp, or for tar and definitions valuable timber trees and ornamentals turpentine BŽ evergreen coniferous tree ‘visžalis’, ‘brandina kankorėžius’, leaves. ‘spygliai susitelkę kuokštais’, ‘vertinga mediena’, ‘išgaunama derva, terpentinas’ MACMILLAN a tall tree with thin sharp leaves called ‘visžalis’, ‘aukštas’, ‘ploni winter, spygliai’, ‘rudi kankorėžiai’ and hard brown fruits called cones aštrūs elongated needles and include COLLINS a pine tree or a pine is a tall tree which has very thin, sharp leaves and a fresh smell. Pine trees have leaves all year round in dictionary: plants and ‘visžalis’, ‘aukštas’, ‘ploni aštrūs spygliai’, ‘gaivus kvapas’ ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos animals |32 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 2. any geraniaceous plant of the genus Geranium, such as cranesbill and herb Robert, having divided leaves and pink or purplish flowers AMERICAN HERITAGE 1. Any of various plants of the genus Pelargonium, native chiefly to southern Africa and widely cultivated for their rounded, often variegated leaves and showy clusters of red, pink, or white irregular flowers. An essential oil is obtained from the leaves of some species. Also called Pelargonium, storksbill. 2. Any of various plants of the genus Geranium, having palmately divided leaves and pink or purplish regular flowers. Also called cranesbill. <…> INFOPLEASE 1. any of numerous plants of the genus Geranium, which comprises the crane's-bills. 2. the wild geranium, G. maculatum44, of eastern North America, having loose clusters of lavender flowers. 3. Also called any of various plants of the allied genus Pelargonium, native to southern Africa, having showy flowers or fragrant leaves, widely distributed throughout the cultivated in gardens and as houseplants. <…> world. 4. Also called any of various plants of the allied genus Pelargonium, native to southern Africa, having showy flowers or fragrant leaves, widely distributed throughout the world. 9. SAVŲ / SVETIMŲ REALIJŲ APIBRĖŽTYS Speaking about the national aspect of definitions, A. Gudavičius (2009: 85) states that the national specificity of the meaning of a word is determined by the relationship of the object or phenomenon named with the whole material and spiritual life of the nation, the emotions and images aroused by the word. According to A. Gudavičius (2009: 86), following the principle of nationality, the meanings of closely related words (those with whom the nation lived and lives) should have more detailed, broader definitions than those of foreign cultures. Based on DŽ’s examples, he states that in this dictionary and in many Russian explanatory dictionaries the opposite picture is usually seen, while English dictionaries define both their own and non-own realities in equal detail (Gudavičius 2009: 86–88). Let’s look at how the three dictionaries of Lithuanian language define plants that originated in Lithuania (own reality) and plants that entered Lithuania not so long ago (foreign reality). 44 The Spotted Beak. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos dictionary: plants and animals |33 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 9.1. First, let’s discuss the definition of our own realities (common plants in Lithuania) – apple, thistle, potato and beet (see table 26). Since the words potato and beetroot have two meanings – the plant itself and the tuber – only the latter will be compared. a) Savų realijų apibrėžimas TABLE 26. Definitions of vegetables and fruits growing in Lithuania Word BZ definition DŽ7i definition LKŽe definition small seed apple round hard, juicy apple fruit apple fruit apple fruit obels fruit with green, yellow or red peel and (Solanum tuberosum)); thornberry thornberry (1 r.) fruit –thornberry orange vitaminic, sweet and sour berry with many seeds of that vegetable its tuber tuber tuber potato round or oval starchy tuber edible tubers have red round or vegetable plant with round fleshy root, white, yellowish, red or tubers fruit, berry thornberry fruit, berry long or round red or (vegetable whose (vegetable whose beet is white, yellowish or dark (of the squash family (root vegetable with thick, violet very thin a lot of starch peel, eaten as a vegetable45 have a lot of starch elongated root vegetable, or elongated (Solanum tuberosum); used for food, feed and as a source of sugar in root crops (Beta); ) tuber of its root beet (Beta); ) his Words apple and thistle DŽ7i and LKŽe are defined very laconic, about them sužinoma tik tiek, kokio augalo jie yra vaisiai. BŽ šių žodžių apibrėžtis visai kitokia, joje 45 The second meaning of the word is "garden plant with a branched stem leading to such tubers (ppr. bulvė, Solanum tuberosum)“. BŽ tokie atvejai (augalas ir jo vaisius) visur sistemiškai buvo atskirti į dvi reikšmes – edible plant and its fruit. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne: augalai ir gyvūnai |34 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 nurodoma, ne tik, kokio augalo tai vaisiai, bet ir išsamiai apibūdinami tipiškiausi šių vaisių išoriniai požymiai – forma (obuolys – ‘apvalus’; erškėtuogė – ‘pailga’ ir ‘apvali’), spalva (apple – ‘green’, ‘yellow’ or ‘red’ peel; thistle – ‘red’ or ‘orange’), as well as external features – pateikiami ir vidiniai 46 vaisių požymiai – skonis, konsistencija (obuolys – ‘kietas’, ‘sultingas’; erškėtuogė – ‘saldžiarūgštė’). Žodžių bulvė ir runkelis apibrėžčių schema BŽ yra iš esmės tokia pati, t. y. minimi shape (potato – ‘round’ and ‘oval’; beet – ‘round’ and ‘oblong’), colour (beet – ‘for food, feed and (bulvė – ‘balta’, ‘gelsva’, ‘raudona’ ar ‘violetine’ žievele), vidinis požymis (bulvės) – ‘krakmolingumas’, tik dar nurodoma, kam jie vartojami (bulvė – ‘valgoma kaip daržovė’, as a source of sugar’). The latter attribute is given instead of the taste attribute, because 47 vegetables are usually eaten in various forms – raw, fried, boiled, stewed, etc. From the method of preparation accordingly and changes the taste of the vegetable. If we compare the definitions of all four words DŽ7i and LKŽe, it is obvious that the potatoes are runkelio apibrėžtys išsamesnės. Tačiau ir pastarųjų dviejų apibrėžčių schema skiriasi: runkelio referred to the external characteristics (appearance), and the potatoes are referred to the internal characteristic, i.e. its ‘starch content’, thus there is inconsistency. The definitions of DŽ7i and LKŽe differ from BŽ also in that the properties of the root or tuber in these two dictionaries are added to the description of the plant, i.e. the properties of one object are 48 explained to the other object. b) Svetimų realijų apibrėžimas When describing foreign realities (plants that do not grow under normal conditions in Lithuania), as when describing our own realities, the definition is given not of the plant itself, but of its fruits (see table 27). 46 Internal characteristics are those characteristics that are not related to the visual appearance of plants, but reveal their internal characteristics related to taste, consistency, etc. 47 Prie žodžių bulvė ir runkelis nenurodoma, koks augalas juos veda, nes tai aišku iš antros reikšmės: potato <...> 2. a vegetable plant with a branched stalk producing such tubers (e.g. the edible potato, Solanum tuberosum); beet <...> 2. a large-leaved garden plant producing a root crop (Beta). 48 Analogiškais atvejais, kai kalbama apie augalą ir jo vaisių, DŽ7i ir LKŽe taip dažniausiai ir elgiamasi, o BŽ vaisiaus (šakniavaisio, gumbo ir pan.) apibrėžimas teikiamas ten, kur jis logiškai ir turėtų būti – apibūdinant root or tuber. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne: augalai ir gyvūnai |35 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 TABLE 27. Definitions of vegetables and fruits not growing in Lithuania Word BZ definition DŽ7i definition LKŽe definition its fruit dried eggplant cylinder, pear or (from the potato family warm (from the potato family shiny, ppr. dark oblong or pear-shaped cucumbers with edible purple skin, fruit rutulio pavidalo vaisius valgomas kaip daržovė kraštų augalas, vedantis (Solanum melongena); ) fruit (Solanum ficus augalas su panašiais į melongena)); this Apricot round fleshy, augalo vaisius sweet-sour fruit of the thorny family fleshy, (mulberry kaulavaisis gelsvai oranžine dažnai apricot fig soft, family (mulberry vaismedis, vedantis sultingus vaisius su (warm-sided (1. apricot tree.) 2. family with fluffy date small, oval, (palm, leading (palm with edible (Phoenix dactylifera)); saldus finiko vaisius su fruit sweet onion or dark, fleshy sweet edible its fruits (Phoenix tree warm-country fruit tree, tropical-country single-seed fruit tree edible fruit (Ficus dactylifera)); to carica)); its fruit skin, longitudinal groove, round kriaušės pavidalo stone (Armeniaca)); fruit, ppr. its edible resembling a peach vedantis minkštus, (Ficus carica)); bei jo vaisius The BZ words eggplant, apricot, date and fig are defined basically the same as their own realities – their external characteristics are highlighted – shape (eggplant – ‘cylinder, pear’ or rutulio pavidalo’; abrikosas – ‘apvalus’; datulė – ‘nedidelė, ovali’; figa – ‘kriaušės pavidalo’), colour (eggplant – ‘shiny, ppr. tamsiai violetinė odelė’; apricot – ‘yellow-orange (apricot – ‘sweet dažnai pūkuota odelė’; datulė – ‘tamsi’), taip pat pabrėžiami vidiniai požymiai – skonis and sour’; date – ‘sweet’; fig – ‘sweet’) or purpose (eggplant – ‘eaten as a vegetable’; fig – ‘e.g. eaten dried’). DZ7i all four words definitions pretty dictionary: plants and animals |36 ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 detailed but based on different criteria: for eggplant, appearance (external characteristic), for apricot, appearance (external characteristic) and consistency (‘juicy’, internal characteristic), for dates and figs, taste or consistency (‘sweet’, ‘soft’, internal characteristic). The LKŽ defines eggplant by appearance and states that it is an edible fruit, but apricot, date and fig are defined very laconic, according to the same scheme as apple or thistle (i.e. whose fruit). Thus, after analyzing the definitions of the meanings of the above-mentioned words in three Lithuanian dictionaries (Table 27), it is clear that in all cases BG is treated the same – the sava ar svetima realija, apibrėžiama pagal tam tikrą schemą: kieno vaisius (šakniavaisis ar pan.), definitions are detailed, no distinction is made between appearance (shape, color), most characteristic internal properties (taste, consistency, etc.) and (or) (especially with vegetables) reikšmės apibrėžiamos pakankamai išsamiai ir panašiai, savų vaisių reikšmės apibrėžiamos itin purpose. DŽ7i is done in three ways in this regard: own and foreign vegetables laconic, and foreign fruits – more detailed, but according to different criteria – some according to appearance and taste, others only according to taste, and so on. LKŽ is more systematic, although that system also raises questions: the meanings of vegetables (own and foreign) are defined quite detailed, and fruits (own and foreign) – very laconic. Of course, it must be borne in mind that such assumptions were made only after examining a few examples. 9.2. Another category of animals can also be considered from this point of view. a) Savų realijų apibrėžimas Table 28 presents definitions of own realities (animals living in Lithuania) Word BZ lietuvių kalbos žodynuose. 28 LENTELĖ. Lietuvoje gyvenančių gyvūnų apibrėžtys definition DŽ7i definition LKŽe definition vulpes) tail (ppr. brown fox, Vulpes beast (Vulpes) with beautifully falling bitter hair and animal that is used for work, tail, used for heavy in dictionary: plants and animals |37 lapė plėšrus brangiakailis žvėris su smailiu snukiu ir ilga, puria plėšrus brangiakailis žvėrelis plėšrus šunų šeimos arklys didelis stiprus naminis gyvulys darbinis gyvulys naminis vienanagis važiuojama, jojama (Equus ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 to carry things, ride, etc. (Equus caballus)49 beak goose large, well-swimming wide bird (Anser) water bird (Anser) (e.g. real goose, Anser) In BZ, as in other dictionaries, the definitions of the words in question first indicate the class to which the animal belongs, e.g.: fox – ‘beast’, horse – ‘domestic animal’, goose – ‘wild or domestic water bird’, and the distinctive features, e.g.: fox – ‘predatory precious-skinned’, horse – ‘large strong’, goose – ‘large, well-swimming’. However, the greatest attention is paid to the appearance of the animal, which is important for identification, because it is the first thing we see, e.g.: fox – ‘with a pointed muzzle and a long, fluffy tail’. When describing domestic arklys – ‘gražiai krentančiais karčiais ir uodega’, žąsis – ‘ilgu kaklu ir plačiu snapu’. animals, their purpose is also indicated, e.g. horse – ‘used to carry heavy things, ride, etc.’. b) Svetimų realijų apibrėžimas Table 29 presents definitions of foreign realities (animals from other countries, living in Lithuania only in zoos, etc.) in Lithuanian language dictionaries. TABLE 29. Elephants of other countries definitions elephant giant African and Southern giant straublin giant of Word BZ definition DŽ7i definition LKŽe definition Loxodonta) caballus) flaming white-pink warm warm countries Asian animal with a long fangs (Loxodonta) mammal warm-country straublin (Elephas and white-pink warm water mammal straub and two (Elephas) marginis) large wild and large wild and domestic wild or domestic water domestic water bird long-necked and 49 It is not clear to the authors of the BZ whether such a Latin name should remain. Equus caballus is a species of wild horse. The VLE describes domestic horses as descended from wild horses (probably from the Przewalski horse and tarpan), but the Latin name is not given (VLE I: 779). WEBSTER's definition of horse uses the same Latin name, Equus caballus, and states that horses have been domesticated for a long time, indicates their purpose, and thus suggests that it is a domestic, not a wild horse. In Wikipedia, the domestic horse is described by the Latin name Equus ferus caballus (see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_horse). ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos dictionary: plants and animals |38 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 with long legs, long (Phoenicopterus) (Equus zebra) feathered neck, (Phoenicopterus) downward beak (Phoenicopterus roseus) zebra African striped African animal, similar to striped uniped striped equine the family of zebra) animal white and reptiles black animal horse (Equus Foreign animals are defined in the BZ in the same way as their own, i.e. their appearance is detailed, e.g.: elephant – ‘with a long beak and two fangs’, flamingos – ‘white-pink’, ‘with long legs, long neck, beak bent down’, zebras – ‘like horses’, ‘with white and black stripes’. The BZ also indicates where these animals live, cf.: elephant – ‘in Africa and South America’ 50 in Asia’, flamingos in ‘warm countries’, zebras in ‘Africa’. In DŽ7i these animals are defined very similarly (a fairly laconic appearance and habitat are given). LKŽ is treated in a similar way. However, if the LKŽ definition of the word zebra did not specify the external characteristic ‘striped’, hardly a non-specialist would understand what animal we are talking about, cf. the scientific classification presented in the definition of zebra: equine family, herd of reptiles, unipod animal. Similarly, if a person who has not seen an elephant would appear, the information that the elephant is a straublinian mammal would hardly help him (this definition was adopted by DŽ7i). It can be assumed that the word straublinis means "with a straubliu", but in DŽ7i there is no such word at all, and in LKŽe straublinis, -ė means "1. belonging to the order of straublinae; 2. belonging to the straw beetle group." The word straubliniai is interpreted as "1. the order of higher mammals; 2. beetle squad". Thus, once again, we were able to see that the most appropriate and clearest definition for the average speaker would not be the one that provides encyclopedic knowledge, but the one that is based on everyday perception, which forms the basis of the daily categorization of the reality around us. Thus, as can be seen, the authors of the BZ, defining animals (both living and not living in Lithuania), basically rely on the same scheme: the aukštesnei kasdienio kategorizavimo klasei, prototipiniu požiūriu apibūdinama gyvūno išvaizda (kiti lietuvių kalbos žodynai gyvūno išvaizdos dažnu atveju išvis nemini), jeigu tai naminis belonging of the animal to a certain animal is recorded, its purpose is indicated. The definition of gyvena. 50 Taip pat daroma ir apibūdinant svetimus augalus (žr. abrikosas, citrinmedis). ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos alien animals mentions where they are in the dictionary: plants and animals |39 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 IŠVADOS 1. After examining the definitions of the meanings of several words naming plants and animals, matyti, kad Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodyno (toliau – BŽ) autoriai dažnai derina tradicinę (labiau mokslinę) ir kognityvinę žodžio reikšmės apibrėžtis. 2. BŽ autoriai aiškindami bendras kategorijas pavadinančių žodžių augalas ir gyvūnas (turima omenyje pirmoji žodžio gyvūnas reikšmė) reikšmes pasirinko tradicinę (labiau the scientific) definition of the meanings of words: the most typical characteristics of the plant augalai ir gyvūnai yra ‘organizmai’, kad augalai minta ‘neorganinėmis medžiagomis’, gyvūnai – ‘organinėmis medžiagomis’, kad augalams būtina ‘šviesos energija’, kad gyvūnai ‘ppr. gali and animal are recorded, i.e. that move from one place to another’. Since there are so many species of plants and animals known in nature, it would be difficult to define these words through, for example, the characteristics of their most prominent prototypical members – such a definition would inevitably be schematic, non-informative and hardly sufficient for a dictionary article. However, the attribution and definition of the second and third word animal in BD is already related to the cognitive strategy of definition of meaning. 3. When defining words bulvė, lapė, žąsis, reikšmes BŽ autoriai pirmiausia nurodo, kokiai klasei priklauso aprašomas belonging to the categories of plants and animals, e.g. birch, pine, word, the following are most commonly listed some of the most typical, easily recognizable external and / or internal features of these plants and animals - thus following a cognitive strategy of definition of meanings. It is often used to indicate the purpose of plants and animals, their location or growth, especially if these features help to identify the denotation. It should be noted that fruit shrubs and fruit trees are defined differently in the PB, i.e. not according to their most typical external and/or internal characteristics, but according to vedamus vaisius, pagal kuriuos jie paprastai žmonių yra atpažįstami. 4. The choice of the most typical features when defining the names of plants and animals often depends on national specifics, i.e. the features recorded in the definitions of words may be related to human activities, habits and customs, the country landscape, etc. Therefore, some plant and animal characteristics recorded in the definitions of these words in the CB are not necessarily included in the definitions of these words in the English or Russian dictionaries, and vice versa. 5. unlike other dictionaries of the Lithuanian language discussed in the article, the information in the apibrėžiant daiktavardžių, pavadinančių gyvūnus ir augalus, reikšmes nenurodomos jų taksonominės grupės, t. y. šeimos, gentys ir pan. Taip elgiamasi todėl, kad vidutiniam BZ is of little use to the speaker (not a botanist or zoologist). 6. identify similar plants or animals in BŽ, as in some other Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries. Unlike other interpretative dictionaries teikiami lotyniški augalų ir gyvūnų terminai. BŽ autorių manymu, lotyniškų terminų ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne: augalai ir gyvūnai |40 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 pateikimas žodyno straipsniuose naudingas tais atvejais, kai pagal žodžio apibrėžtį sunku of Lithuanian language, when describing own and foreign realities, the same treatment is used – the 7. Išnagrinėjus kai kurių vaisių ir daržovių reikšmių apibrėžtis pastebėta, kad BŽ, definitions of words are detailed, defined according to a similar scheme, e.g., whose fruit (root crop or similar), the appearance is described (shape, color), the most characteristic inner features are described. savybės (skonis, konsistencija ir pan.) ir (ar) (ypač prie daržovių) nurodoma paskirtis. Kitaip 8. Išnagrinėjus BŽ ir anglų bei rusų kalbų aiškinamuosiuose žodynuose pateiktas definitions of plant and animal names, it has emerged that the definitions of BS are no less comprehensive and systematic than those in the dictionaries mentioned above. 9. In summary, it can be said that the authors of BZ are more courageous to follow the cognitive path, i.e. they often give up the scientific or encyclopedic definitions typical of explanatory kurios paprastam bendrinės kalbos vartotojui yra mažai kuo naudingos. BŽ autoriai dictionaries, and when defining the words (examined in the article) pay more attention to the most typical, characteristic, easier recognizable features of realities that are perceived, regimuoju, lytėjimu ir kt. būdais. Tokiu būdu žodžių apibrėžtys žodyno skaitytojams tampa felt clearer, more understandable, more informative and unambiguous. (10) It would be difficult to draw any conclusive conclusions on the whole of the biotechnological industry on the basis of the analysis of only a few examples in two categories (plants and animals). It would therefore be appropriate to carry out an analogous study for the other category(s) and to compare the results obtained with those obtained in this study. This would allow to draw more substantial conclusions and foresee further improvements in the vocabulary perspektyvas. ŠALTINIAI AMERICAN HERITAGE – The American Heri tage® Dictionary of the English Language. Prieiga internete: https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html. ANGLONAS2 – B. Piesarskas. Kompiuterinis anglų – lietuvių kalbų žodynas, UAB „Fotonija“. BŽ – Bendrinės lietuvių kal bos žodynas. Redaktorių kolegija: D. Liutkevičienė (vyr. redaktorė), G. Naktinienė, R. Petrokienė, D. Svetikienė, K. Vosylytė, J. Zabarskaitė. (rengiamas). – Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: http://bkz.lki.lt. ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Ben drinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne: augalai ir gyvūnai |41 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 CAMBRIDGE – Cambridge Dictionary. Prieiga internete: http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/. COLLINS – Collins English Dictionary. Prieiga internete: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/. DLKT – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos tekstynas. Prieiga internete: http://tekstynas.vdu.lt/tekstynas/. DŽ6p – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas: 6-as patais. ir papild. leid., kompaktinė plokštelė. Vyr. red. Stasys Keinys, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2006. DŽ7i – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas: 7-as patais. ir papild. leid. Vyr. red. Stasys Keinys, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2012; elektroninis variantas, 2015 (atnaujinta versija, 2017). Prieiga internete: http://lkiis.lki.lt/dabartinis. INFOPLEASE – Infoplease Dictionary. Prieiga internete: https://www.infoplease.com/dictionary. LKŽe – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (t. I–XX, 1941–2002): elektroninis variantas. Redaktorių kolegija: Gertrūda Naktinienė (vyr. redaktorė), Jonas Paulauskas, Ritutė Petrokienė, Vytautas Vitkauskas, Jolanta Zabarskaitė.Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2005 (atnaujinta versija, 2008). Prieiga internete: www.lkz.lt. LRTB – Lietuvos Respublikos terminų bankas. Prieiga internete: http://terminai.vlkk.lt. LTE I – Lietuviškoji tarybinė enciklopedija 1, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1976. MACMILLAN – Macmillan Dictionary. Prieiga internete: http://www.macmillandictionary.com/. OXFORD – Oxford Dictionaries. Prieiga internete: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/. VIKIPEDIJA – Laisvoji enciklopedija. Prieiga internete: https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagrindinis_puslapis. VLE I – Visuotinė lietuvių encikl opedija 1, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2001. VLE II – Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 2, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2002. VLE III – Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 3, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2003. VLE V – Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 5, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2004. VLE X – Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 10, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2007.