Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo ypatumai

BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas MICROSTRUCTURE OF THE EXPLAINATIVE VOCABULARY: FEATURES OF SEMANTIC INFORMATION PRESENTATION KEY WORDS: lexicography, explanatory vocabulary, vocabulary microstructure, semantics, lexical meaning, functional meaning. INTRODUCTION The aim of the article is to examine several cases of presentation of semantic data in explanatory dictionaries and, among other things, to show that lexicography is not only a practical, applied activity. The microstructure of general explanatory dictionaries (see list of sources), which are most commonly used by the general public, was analyzed. The study was carried out using comparative, analytical descriptive, word formation and lexical semantics analysis methods. Without going into detail, it can be said that dictionaries only use the results of semantics, grammar, accentology, terminology, word formation theory, stylistics and other sciences, applying them in their practical activities. But perhaps some of the gaps or white spots in their theories emerge precisely for dictionaries in pursuit of their main goal – systematic presentation of data? This article attempts to examine some seemingly formal aspects of the presentation of semantic and constructive information in the explanatory dictionary and to show that even they can be linked by feedback to lexical semantics or word formation studies and their results. As can be seen from the quotation: “[m]nogie проблемы, исследуемые терминоведами, возникли в практике разработки терминологических словарей, и решение этих проблем влияет на методы многие проблемы, которые исследуют терминологи, возникают в практическом составлении терминологических словарей, и решение этих проблем влияет на методы составления словарей“ (Grinev-Grinevich 2008: 30), at least in terminology this is obvious. One of the tasks of modern lexicography theory is to develop the content, volume, form mikrostruktūros principus, t. y. apibrėžti žodyninio straipsnio sandarą, jo sudedamųjų dalių (data presentation and marking methods), additional information and features of kt. (plg. Jakaitienė 2005: 15). DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo dictionaries. BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 Elektroniniai žodynai, ko gero, jau yra pasidarę aktualesni už spausdintuosius (plg. Granger, Paquot 2012, Fuertes-Olivera, Bergenholtz 2011) 1 , jie reikalauja ir kitokios, more precise forms of data presentation. Not being a scientist, the dictionary editor would not even see problems of this kind, not seeing them – would not try to solve them, would not raise questions to himself and to specialists in other fields. And insight into the problem, raising the question in science is no less important, often even more important than finding the answer to it. “A good modern dictionary can only be written by a scientist or a professional in another field who knows the laws of lexicography” (Jakaitienė 2005: 10). On the other hand, “[l]exicography theory, of course, is not only based on the practice of writing dictionaries (and thus on the experience of the dictionaries’ authors), but grows out of this practice, crystallizes” (Jakaitienė 2005: 14). 1. SEMANTIC DATA AND MICROSTRUCTURE OF THE EXPLAINATIVE VOCABULARY So, how is semantic information presented in dictionaries, how are the adjective and lexical meanings related, how are semantic relationships reflected in the chosen way of presenting data, what does this say to the linguist and the ordinary dictionary user? Several cases discussed below should show how the structure of the dictionary article reflects the semantic structure of the word, its hierarchy of meanings, informaciją žodyno naudotojas gali gauti vien studijuodamas leksemų išdėstymą interrelationships, and what is added in the article. 1.1. Bendrasis leksemų aiškinimas daugiareikšmio žodžio straipsnyje Here are some articles from the International Dictionary of Words Interleksis: migrãcija [lat. migratio – moving, moving from one place to another], kėlimasis, judėjimas, perėjimas iš vienos vietos į kitą: 1. the movement of population from one place to another; 2. the movement of animals from one place to another; 3. movement of chemical elements in the Earth's crust or surface during geochemistry. processes. Interleksis 1 Anot S. Tarpo, leksikografija yra įdomaus, bet kartu ir sunkaus pereinamojo nuo spausdintinių to electronic dictionaries in the middle of the period (Between 2012: 322). DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo characteristics | 3 BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 metamorphosis [gr. metamorphosis], transformation of one form into another, change of something: 1. in mythology – the miraculous transformation of people into animals, of some animals into others, etc. ; 2. the biological transition from one stage of post-germinative development to another in some animals, e.g. the transformation of a moth into a frog, an insect larva into a pupa; 3. changes in the shape of plant organs associated with changes in function, e.g. stems turning into petals, roots turning into roots. Interlex From the numbering of the lexemes it is clear that migration and metamorphosis have three meanings each. In both cases, however, there is also a general interpretation, which is given before the first lexem. What is this? The general part of the definition, not to repeat, raised before all the lexems? Is it necessary, or, for example, without a more general explanation of the word migration as “movement, relocation, transition from one place to another”, the definition of the 1st lexem “movement of inhabitants from one place to another” would be incomplete, insufficiently clear? This general part of the semantic information is more abstract, it resembles a direct translation from Greek or Latin – in the case of migration, it obviously repeats what is presented in square brackets together with the etymology. In addition to the more abstract interpretation, lexicalized lexemes, terms from different fields, are presented. Such a microstructure of the dictionary, or rather one of the ways of presenting data in the article, probably does not bother a person who simply opens the dictionary to see what these words mean. The more detailed information, the better for him. Perhaps he will not pay attention and will not think about why, for example, the words concentration, condensation or compression in articles are arranged differently, without the general explanatory part: koncentrãcija [angl. concentration < lot. com – with, together + centrum – center]: 1. accumulation, concentration, thickening; 3. the ratio of the number of 2. chem. fiz. chem. sistemos (mišinio, tirpalo, lydalo) vieno komponento kiekio ir sistemos tūrio arba komponento masės ir sistemos tūrio santykis; particles to the volume of a physical system; technically feasible and economically viable mineral 4. ksb. naudingosios iškasenos vertingo komponento sukaupimas (sodrinimas), kad further features | 4 apdirbti; DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 5. concentration of physiological excitation or suppression, previously spread (irradiation) in the cerebral cortex, at the site of initial occurrence; firmose; 6. ek. rinkos situacija, kai ek. veiklos kontrolė yra sutelkta vienoje arba keliose 7. ek. firmų jungimasis, stambėjimas. Interlexis Interlexis condensation [lat. condensatio – thickening]: 1. chemical combine, water or another compound of low molecular weight is separated; 2. Steam transformation into liquid or solid; 3. ko nors tirštėjimas ar tirštinimas. Interlex compression [lat. compressio – compression]: 1. technical. compression of air, gas or working mixture piston machine (compressor, internal combustion engine) cylinder; 2. med. compression of body part, organ. reaction – when two molecules of the same or different organic compound Nevertheless, even in the first two of the latter cases there is a common, more abstract semantic information – in the case of concentration it is presented as a separate first (1. “accumulation, concentration, thickening”) and condensation as a third (3. “thickening or thickening of something”) lexicon. 2 When a dictionary writer (who is concerned not only with the completeness of the data, but also with their systematic presentation) sees the information presented before the definitions of the lexemes, and knows that it is not grammatical, accentual, stylistic, usage data, etc., which are usually presented in this place of the dictionary article, the question should immediately arise: what is this structural part of the article, does it belong to the definition (of each lexem), is it additional information (explanation), or something else that is not lexical meaning? Perhaps this is the primary meaning, the TŽZ 2013 word condensation microstructure has 2 a fundamentally different meaning – instead of the third, abstractly defined lexicon, a much more specific second lexicon “thickening or thickening of liquids by evaporation” is presented (concretizing semas – “thicken”, “evaporate”), and the first (according to Interlex) lexicon is presented as a compound from which terminas, žodžių junginys kondensacijos reakcija. DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo ypatumai | 5 BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 (in the case of metamorphosis) later developed terms in various fields? In this case, it would be very similar to the situation where at the beginning all the lexems of the construct are described by presenting the bendrąją darybinę jo reikšmę, o tada apibrėžiamos atskiros leksemos, pateikiant kiekvienos lexical meaning, for example: meridiãninis, susijęs su meridianu: 1. ‘meridian circle’ means an instrument for measuring the rectascent and declination of celestial bodies; 2. having a direction from north to south. Interlex In the printed version of Interlex (TŽŽ 2001), in the preface and in the introduction explaining the structure of the dictionary, this way of presenting information is not described. At first glance, a similar situation of word migration, metamorphosis for cases is found in the article of the international word sando: micro… [Greek micros – small], the first to form. part of words denoting minority, smallness: 1. small size, very fine; 2. Involves the investigation or measurement of small sizes; 3. The first part of the name of a partial physical unit, indicating that the unit is one million (106) times smaller than the system unit, e.g. microsecond (a millionth of a second). Interlex It also contains 3 lexemes, preceded by the general part of the interpretation. The microexplanatory lexical unit is first described in adjective terms (“the first part of the word...”), then two more specific meanings are given to the punches (but not its own meanings!), and the third specialized (physical) lexicon is described both in adjective and semantic terms, and illustrated with an explained example of use. The form of this article appears to be equivalent to the migration and metamorphosis of words in the form of articles, but the nature and structure of the data in it are different – in the case of a word sando, in addition to lexical semantic data, there are also data on the creation and its semantics (the only similarity is that more abstract information is presented before the individual lexems). In the English dictionary sando microarticle DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo ypatumai | 6 BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 in terms of the nature of the data and their structure, it is much more homogeneous – four meanings are given (the first one consists of two necessary meanings, which are not distinguished in the Lithuanian dictionary and are presented as one, first, lexicon), which it gives to stitches, and the stitches themselves illustrating such work: microa) little, small, minute: microcosm b) exceptionally little, abnormally small: microcephaly 2) enlarging or 1) amplifying: microscope, microphone 3) involving microscopes, microscopic: micrography 4) one millionth part of; the factor 10: symbol? : abbreviation. mc: microsecond Webster's New World College Dictionary, http://www.yourdictionary.com/micro#yMP22hIdBTP8wrk1.99 TŽŽ 2013 The structure of the microarticle looks more like the English version than the Interlex version (there is no general explanatory part mentioned), but it does not match the English version in terms of the systematicity of the data presented: micro- [Gr. mikros – small] 1 small dimensions, very fine 2 μ, a partial unit of measurement, equal to a millionth of a system unit, formed. first part of the name, e.g. microsecond (millionth of a second) microscope 3 very small, tiny TŽŽ 2013 It can be seen that the action information appears only in the interpretation of the second lexem. In this case, even a non-speaker may ask why the first lexem is defined as an adjective, as it can appear from the definition? Cf. the adjective mikroskopický, -ė article in the same TŽZ 2013: mikroskopin//is 1 is performed through a microscope, e.g. ~ė analysis 2 is seen only through a microscope. TŽŽ 2013 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 Žodžio signalinis straipsnyje aptariamoji bendroji aiškinimo dalis net susideda iš of two parts defining different semantics, resembling in terms of form of presentation reikšmių atspalvius (jie žodynuose neretai skiriami kabliataškiais): signãlinis [⇧ signalas], ženklinis, pirminis; pranešantis, signalizuojantis: 1. signalinis egzempliorius – pavyzdinis spaudos leidinio egzempliorius, kurį patvirtinus leidžiama gaminti tiražą; 2nd kalbot. Signal meaning – the meaning of a word that indicates that an object is, but does not specifically name it, for example, “he”, “that”, “above”. Interlex However, there are two different types of phrases, namely, phrases that are composed of two words and phrases that are composed of three words. Thus, in this case, the semantic information presented in the first line is common not to different lexems of one lexical unit (word), but to different lexical units. 1.2. Relationship between verb and lexical semantics The relationship between verb and lexical semantics is well illustrated by examples from the field of new words. Only after carrying out a constructive and semantic analysis of both the new and the existing derivatives of the suffix -iklis in the dictionaries, and after examining the usage of the latter, the main points emerged, on which one can rely in trying to systematically present the semantic structure and the system of meanings of these new words and of this type of derivatives in general in the explanatory dictionary (see Murmulaitytė 2014 for more neapibrėžtumo ir daugybės „semantinių išgalių, kurių aktualizaciją vartojimo plotmėje details). It turned out that perhaps because of the meaning of the action it is difficult to apibrėžiami daugiau ar mažiau konkretesnėmis, bet iš esmės darybinėmis reikšmėmis, predict" (Urbutis 2009: 203), a number of suffixes -iklis in Vedic dictionaries, for example: karžygis "carving tool", solver "material that dissolves" (DŽ7i) and others. Such definitions also apply to the names of new realities, until they are sufficiently lexicalized to be presented as separate lexemes. The usage, semantics and lexicographical processing of a single noun are further investigated. Polishes are a wide variety of chemicals used to give a shiny appearance to very different things (clothing, cars, paints, lips, animal fur, plant leaves, food products, etc.), but they are not the only ones. DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 in the database (hereinafter referred to as ‘ND’), the newly created polisher is represented pradžioje jis buvo apibrėžiamas kaip „priemonė blizgiai daikto išvaizdai suteikti“ as a single lexem. 2014 (Murmulaitytė 2014: 17). After better investigation of the use, it was m. gegužės mėn. pakeista jau konkretesne leksine – „priemonė batams, baldams, grindims, essentially a useful meaning 2015 for cars, hair, plant leaves, etc. polishing; substance giving foods a shiny appearance’. Essentially, these are two nuances of one meaning, or a necessity, bearing in mind that the names of food additives with this suffix are made systematically. A note to consumers is attached, stating that “the term lip gloss is now used to refer to lip gloss cosmetics”. This would seem to indicate that the semantics of lip gloss is withdrawing from the semantics of lip gloss and in this sense the prepositional (lip gloss) and the final (lip gloss) names of lip gloss differentiate according to their meanings. However, the abundance of other realities called polishers indicates that this word can still easily be used to name any new reality of the same purpose (e.g. material) whose object is not yet mentioned in the lexical definition of polisher. Therefore, it is not appropriate to divide the semantics of this newcomer by separating the individual meanings on the basis that the word refers to very different things – as these things increase, new meanings would have to be created. It is also important that in all cases the derivative is based on the same meaning of the base verb. Most 3 likely, the name of the food additive will be distinguished as a separate lexicon. A serious basis for such a distinction may be mentioned the lawful making of the names of this lexical group with the suffix in question. 4 Recalling what has been observed regarding the structure of the microdictionary articles of the words migration, metamorphosis and word sand, the question arises whether it would not be possible to present in a similar way the new word polisher and other (new) derivatives of the category of tool making, especially those whose lexical semantics has not yet settled, they are called new realities, the definitions of lexical meanings do not reflect the functional meaning, etc.? For example: 3 Plg. naujadarų gaiviklis 1. “refreshing, giving freshness, fresh scent agent”; 2. "Rejuvenating, revitalizing agent", cleanser 1. The lexicon for “adding a natural or synthetic food or alkalinity-reducing substance to the priedas, kad kepinys būtų puresnis“; 2. „kosmetikos priemonė plaukams padaryti puresniems“ ar rūgštiklis 1. „natūralus arba sintetinis maisto ar pašaro priedas rūgščiam skoniui išgauti“; 2. „dirvos rūgštingumą didinanti dough” is based on different basis verbs to refresh, to purify without knowing the rules of word formation, ir rūgštinti reikšmėmis (išsamiau Murmulaitytė 2014: 8–10). 4 Blizgiklio pavyzdžiu, be kita ko, norėta parodyti, kaip operatyviai šiais laikais gali būti tikslinami žodynų duomenys – nuolat tiriant vartoseną, kurios pokyčių fiksavimas pats savaime duotų mažai naudos the laws of lexical semantics, etc. ND is not a dictionary, but a source of information that is used to create the tikslai yra kiti, tačiau jis turi kai kurių leksikografiniam darbui būdingų bruožų ir, svarbiausia, jo, kaip greitai General Lithuanian Dictionary and other explanatory dictionaries. DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo characteristics | 9 BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 close clips dkt. (2) medium polishing: 1. a means of polishing shoes, furniture, floors, cars, hair, plant leaves, etc.; 2. a substance that gives food a shiny appearance. colorant dkt. (2) means of coloring: 1. a means of marking text with a distinctive colour; 2. a colouring agent for other chemical substances (paints, varnishes, cosmetics, etc.); 3. n.c. food additive: colouring agent. In this case, the definition of all the lexemes would be preceded by a more abstract functional meaning common to both of them. Only this would not be lexical, but constructive semantics, i.e. another kind of information, so there would be no question of how it should be linked to lexical meanings in the database. Just this general information (as well as other data of the whole word, not of individual lexems – language part, pronunciation paradigm, etc.) would be stored in the database separately, in a dedicated place. In the microstructure of the dictionary article, it could be distinguished from the lexical semantic data by smaller font or otherwise. About the same idea, but realized in a different form, is reflected in the analysis of the articles of -inis, -ė adjectives presented in DŽ7i. It should be recalled here that these productive (Kniūkšta 1976: 3, 7) operative adjectives “far outperform all other adjectives” (Kniūkšta 1976: 56–57, 59 and others), their (specific) operative meanings are very diverse (DLKG 2006: 209; LKG 1965: 568–573). In the case of such relative vedics, not only the semantics of the reference word is important, but also the semantic relationships between the reference and reference words (Kniūkšta 1976: 57; also cited there). In various editions of the DŽ, it has been much more common to interpret not the relative adjective that goes with the title word of the article, but its illustrative compounds with the indicative words, tiesiog nurodant pamatinį žodį. Ypač jei tie pamatiniai žodžiai žymi daiktus, kurių santykiai su kitais daiktais gali būti keleriopi, todėl išvestinio būdvardžio reikšmė irgi gali būti keleriopa ir be pamatinio žodžio neaiški (Kniūkšta 1976: 59). Pavyzdžiui: aliẽjin‖is, ~ė (1) → a l i e j u s: ~ė statinė. A. valgis (su aliejumi). ~ės kultūros (aliejaus which precede it. ~iais dažais tapo paveikslus peculiarities | 16 DŽ6 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 definitions are justified, because they allow to formulate the dictionary article as a whole more smoothly, without repeating the things already said (in the case of polygraphy, space saving and compactness are also important). It is expected that the user will not have difficulty finding a related definition to examine other meanings of the word. Thus, although in the dictionaries of terms “[k]each meaning of a term should be defined as an independent unit – its definition must be clearly taken separately from other meanings” (Umbrasas 2008: 222), in BZ, at least at this stage, the relational definitions are not considered the biggest problem. 1.4. Demand values (value shades) The existence and presentation of such a phenomenon in the dictionary also shows the characteristics of human thinking, the connections of his formed images, concepts. From the structures of the cited dictionary articles pharmacy and library it is clear that the analogous hierarchy of meanings is perceived differently in BŽ and LKŽ – in one case the meanings of the institution and the room are presented as equivalent, independent lexems, in the other – the meaning of the room is as if not sufficiently separated from the meaning of the institution, therefore it is considered as shades (needs) of one meaning and presented together as one lexem. Is it simply a different choice of dictionaries to present the same things in one way or another, or should they still be presented in the same way? Is it regular polysemy and semantic derivation (see Babickienė 1985, 2012)? Are the concepts of institutions and their locations sufficiently separated for Lithuanians, or can all examples of usage (more precisely, any example of usage) be precisely and unambiguously assigned to the meaning of an institution or a room? For example: when we say pharmacy / library employees or pharmacy / library working hours have already ended, we perceive the pharmacy and the library as institutions. Obviously, the premises are meant when speaking about building, repairing, renovating, etc. pharmacies (library). However, the same word combination can be ambiguous, depending on the context – e.g. I went to the pharmacy / library: if medicines / books, the institution is meant, if to wait until the heavy rain stops, the room. In order to systematically present the relationships of meanings and needs in the dictionary, it is necessary to clarify this system by studying the usage, as well as the presentation of words of one or another semantic group in the dictionaries of one’s own and other languages – both the breakdown of words by meanings and the illustration of lexems with examples of usage. When examining the usage and dictionaries of foreign languages, the specificity of those languages must also be taken into account – it is not necessary that the English person connects the same concepts by semantic relations in the same way as the Lithuanian person, so the Lithuanian language dictionary does not have to copy the microstructure of the English language dictionary. DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo ypatumai | 17 BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 The same, of course, applies to other cases of regular polysemy (semantic construction) – the names of a container and the quantity contained in it (plastic bucket – bucket of potatoes), a color and the things that contain it (red color – red scarf). Cf. the above 6 article of the bottle from BŽ and the article of the bottle (the deminutive sem of the latter is not significant in this case) from LKŽe: buteliùkas sm. (2) 1. half-bottle (vodka): Put the bottle on the table and squeal Ēr. How much we drank – three in one bottle Pnd. <…> LKŽe It is clear that in the latter the sems of the vessel and the quantity contained in it are not separated at all – neither as separate meanings nor as need-meanings. After all, it is obvious that you can put a dish on the table, and when talking about a bottle drunk by three, the important thing was the amount of intoxicant drunk, and not the fact that it was drunk from one dish (and, by the way, not necessarily from one, it can also be said when thinking about drinking from separate glasses or the like). Summarizing what has been said about the meanings of words and the needs of the latter, as well as about relational definitions, the question arises: to what extent does the breakdown of the dictionary article into separate lexems and the presentation of the latter information individually affect the perception of (a) the semantic structure of the whole word and (b) its relationships with co-root words? A part (not often – the majority) of the common root words in printed dictionaries often appear next to each other (see figure 1): 6 In Russian, Apresian distinguished 39 types of regular polysemy of nouns. Some of them are on the “border of monosemy of truth” and the words belonging to them are not always considered polysemy in the dictionaries (but in at least one of these words the dictionaries see either different meanings or shades of meaning) (Апресян 1995: 200–203). For example, the names of plants and food products made from them and the names of (Tropiniuose miškuose juodieji pipirai tarsi apyniai ar lianos auga ant ilgų stiebų – malti juodieji pipirai), medžių their wood (cedar seedlings – cedar furniture), the names of animals and their furs (fox cubs (spacious – lapės kepurė), gyvūnų ir jų mėsos pavadinimai (dėsli višta – ir vėl pietums višta?), medžiagų ir jų gaminių pavadinimai (kasti gipsą – ar galima vairuoti su gipsu (sulaužytas pirštas)?), talpų ir jų turinio pavadinimai audience – audience applauded standing) and so on. DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo ypatumai | 18 BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 1 PAV. DŽ4 fragmentas These are non-prepositional words of the same constructive nest (prepositional derivatives of the same root are scattered throughout the alphabetical dictionary and are found next to other derivatives of the same preposition). Having before your eyes such a nest of word formation, even if incomplete, it is easier to connect its members by semantic links, to notice shifts in semantic development, perhaps to better understand the definition of one or another lexem, especially if it is not perfect for one reason or another. Of course, this applies to general dictionaries. It has been mentioned that in terminology, especially in electronic terminology, the presentation of meanings in separate articles is justified in order to better indicate the relationships between concepts and the elements of the terms articles that identify them. 2. PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF LEXICOGRAFY Since the study of the microstructure of dictionary articles was aimed not only to deepen the peculiarities of the presentation of semantic information in the explanatory dictionary, but also to support the scientific and theoretical character of dictionary writing, in conclusion, I would like to return to the definition of lexicography. This term is defined in dictionaries in various ways, for example: "a branch of science that includes the practice DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo and theory of dictionaries" (Interlex); „language sector, which peculiarities | 19 BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 engaged in the creation of dictionaries; Theory and practice of dictionaries“ (MLVV), 1) словарное дело, составление словарей; 2) раздел языкознания, изучающий теорию и Dictionaries (National Institute of Statistics); „department of applied linguistics dealing with the theory and practice of dictionaries“ (ISWDJP) etc. Many English dictionaries define 7 lexicography without directly mentioning its theoretical side, but in one way or another (e.g., by comparing it with other branches of linguistics, etc.) the theoretical nature of lexicography is reflected in its definition. „the editing or making of a dictionary“; 2. „the apibrėžtyse ar pateikiamuose šio žodžio vartosenos pavyzdžiuose vis dėlto atsispindi, dictionaries“: Although these two categories – grammar and lexicography – are organically principles and practices of dictionary making“ (MV); „the practice of compiling excellent on the theory and practise of lexicography <…> (EOLD); „the act, process, art, or related and interwoven, they will be treated separately for maximal clarity; Winchester is processes that are involved in the production of a lexical collection, or would he, having work of writing, compiling, or editing a dictionary or dictionaries“ (WNWCD) ir kt. insufficient knowledge of lexicography and other branches of linguistics, see here problems of non-systematics, accuracy and reliability of information presentation, etc.? Is the place of information in the microstructure of the dictionary, the lexicographic technique (fonts, abbreviations, special characters, the order of data presentation, etc.) just a dictionaries practice? Based on numerous examples from various dictionaries, it is shown that even these seemingly quite formal aspects of the presentation of semantic and constructive information in the explanatory dictionary can be related by feedback to lexical semantics or word formation studies and their results. The place of information in the microstructure of the dictionary, the order of data presentation and other aspects of the lexicography technique are important not only for the practical work of the dictionary writer, and lexicography is not only the practice of preparing dictionaries, but also a certain system of cognitive results, 8 theory, i.e. science. “It is impossible to strictly separate the theory and practice of lexicography <…>” (Jakaitienė 2005: 7, cf. 7 The dictionaries cited also give another meaning of the word, for example, “a set of printed dictionaries, dictionary-type works” (Interleksis), “совокупность печатных трудов словарного типа, словарная литература” (НСИС), “a set of dictionary-type works; žodyninė literatūra“ (LKŽe), „a set of dictionaries (e.g. in a country, language)“ (LLVV, MLVV), „ogół słowników danego języka, kraju, okresu“ (ISWDJP). 8 This view has been held or is held by a multitude of different lexicographic traditions (Russian, German, partly Chinese, etc.), as well as by various Danish, South African dictionaries, the Czech-American lexicographer L. Zgusta (1992) and others (Tarp 2012: 322). Atkins, Rundell 2008: 4) who consider dictionary writing to be a trade, a profession, an art, but not a science: "A theory is a system of ideas put together by a group of people who forward to explain phenomena that are not otherwise explainable. A science has a theory, a craft does not. All natural phenomena need a theory, but how can there be a theory of the production of artefacts? There are interested in the study of the language and the language as a whole. DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo characteristics | 20 BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 Tik pasitelkus leksinę semantiką, žodžių darybą, logiką galima spręsti tokius lexicography, already as a practical activity, tasks. In addition to these and other fields of išmanymo žodynai gal ir gali būti, kaip neretai mėgstama sakyti, sudaromi (plg. kaip linguistics, telephone books or alphabetical, inventory lists of something), but certainly not written, created, which in principle should be done in order to present a scientifically informaciją. „<…> leksikografiją, be jokios abejonės, lemia ne tik visuomenės poreikiai, analyzed and systematized but also language research” (Jakaitienė 2005: 10). IŠVADOS Four aspects of the presentation of semantic information in interpreted dictionaries are examined – the general interpretation of lexems in the article of a polysemantic word, the relationship of adjective and lexical semantics in the interpretation of words, relational definitions, the allocation of necessary meanings (shades of meaning) and their presentation in the dictionary article. It is obvious that they are important and should be kept in mind when creating systematic or qualitative dictionaries of the future – both electronic and traditional, printed. 2. In dictionaries, there are articles of multi-meaning words, in which the general, more abstract part of semantic information is put before the interpretation of the first lexem, i.e., it applies to all lexems. However, often even in one and the same dictionary this is not done systematically. Sometimes, when interpreting the meaning of words, the information is also provided in this way. 3. Presentation of verb semantics can help to better understand heading words (especially new words) lexical meanings. Perhaps in the case of polysemantic words this could be done in a similar way – by placing the adverbial meaning before all the lexical meanings of the polysemantic word. 4.Sitetic definitions, formulated as if they were a continuation of previously said things, are a fairly common phenomenon in traditional dictionaries. However, such definitions should be avoided, and should not appear at all in electronic dictionaries, where each lexicon is often presented separately from the other meanings of the same word. 5) The allocation of the necessary meanings (shades of meaning), both when comparing different dictionaries and when evaluating the microstructure of one of them, is also not systematic. Lexicography is about all a craft, the craft of preparing dictionaries, as well as an art, as Landau (2001) says. It may be becoming more scientific, but it has not become a science.“ (Béjoint 2010: 381); „Lexicography has no theoretical foundations, and even the best lexicographers, when pressed, can never explain what they are doing, or why“ (Wierzbicka 1985: 5). DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo ypatumai | 21 BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 pasiremti neabejotinai vieną at kitą poreikšmį iliustruojančiais vartosenos pavyzdžiais, the principle of systemicity is respected. However, often cases of regular polysemy in the same dictionary can and should be presented more uniformly. 6. Leksikologijos, žodžių darybos, leksinės semantikos moksliškumu abejoti retam and lexicography, based on their and other branches of linguistics statements, applying their metodus tiek teoriniu, tiek praktiniu aspektais, sekanti įvairių kalbotyros sričių tyrimų innovations and (as far as possible) taking into account their results, for some reason, especially in the assessments of scientific officials, constantly oscillates on the border of recognition as science and its denial. However, the practical and theoretical aspects of lexicography are closely interconnected as connecting vessels, drawing on each other's results and promoting progress. Lexicography is not just a profession or craft, it is a branch of linguistics that in fact “is responsible for all linguistics, because dictionaries can be used to judge the general level of language science in a country” (Jakaitienė 2005: 10). ŠALTINIAI BŽ – Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žody nas. Vyr. red. D. Liutkevičienė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: http://bkz.lki.lt/ (žiūrėta 2017 m. birželio – spalio mėn.). DŽ4 – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. S. Keinys. 4-as leidimas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2000. DŽ6 – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. S. Keinys. 6-as (3-ias elektroninis) leidimas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2006. DŽ7i – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. S. Keinys. 7-as pataisytas ir papildytas leidimas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2012; elektroninis variantas, 2015 (atnaujinta versija, 2017). Prieiga internete: http://lkiis.lki.lt/dabartinis. EOLD – English Oxford Living Dictionaries. Prieiga internete: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/ (žiūrėta 2017 08 15). Interleksis – Kompiuterinis tarptautinių žodžių žodynas „Interleksis“, Vilnius: Alma littera, Fotonija, 2008. ISWDJP – Internetowy słownik wyrazów i definicji języka polskiego online Definicja.NET. Prieiga internete: http://definicja.net (žiūrėta 2017 08 18). DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo ypatumai | 22 BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 LKŽe 2008 – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 1–20 (elektroninis variantas). Vyr. red. G. Naktinienė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: www.lkz.lt (žiūrėta 2017 m. balandžio–spalio mėn.). LLVV – Latviešu literārās valodas vārdnīca, 1–8. Rīga: Zinātne, 1972–1996. Prieiga internete: http://tezaurs.lv/llvv/ (žiūrėta 2017 09 23). MW – Merriam-Webster.com. Prieiga internete: https://www.merriam-webster.com/ (žiūrėta 2017 06 15). MLVV – Mūsdienu latviešu valodas vārdnīca. Prieiga internete: http://www.tezaurs.lv/mlvv (žiūrėta 2017 09 23). TŽŽ 2001: Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. Ats. red. A. Kinderys, Vilnius: Alma Littera. TŽŽ 2013: Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. Red. D. Svetikienė, Vilnius: Alma Littera. WNWCD – Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 4th edition. Prieiga internete: http://www.yourdictionary.com/ (žiūrėta 2017 06 15). НСИС – Захаренко Е. Н., Комарова Л. Н., Нечаева И. В. Новый словарь иностранных слов: 25 000 слов и словосочетаний. Мocква: Азбуковник, 2003. Prieiga internete: http://slovari.ru/default.aspx?s=0&p=232 (žiūrėta 2017 09 30). LITTERACY Atkins B. T. S., Rundell M. 2008: The Oxford Guide to Practical Lexicography, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Babickienė Z. 1985: Presentation of regular derivative meanings in Lithuanian and Russian explanatory dictionaries. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 24, 223–235. Babickienė Z. 2012: Semantic changes of abstract verbs. – Santalka: Journal of Educational Psychology 20(1), 18–25. Béjoint H. 2010: The Lexicography of English, Oxford: Oxford University Press. DLKG 2006: Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian Language. Red. V. Embrace. Fuertes-Olivera P., Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Bergenholtz H. (Eds.) 2011: e-Lexicography: The Internet, Leidybos institutas. Digital Initiatives and Lexicography, London, New York: Continuum. Granger S., Paquot M. (Eds.) 2012: Electronic Lexicography, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jakaitienė E. 2005: Leksikografija, Vilnius: Mokslo ir ekciklopedijų leidybos institutas. DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo ypatumai | 23 BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 Kniūkšta P. 1976: Priesaga -inis adjectives (Action, meanings, grammatical synonyms), Vilnius: Mokslas. LKG 1965: Lithuanian Grammar 1. Man. red. K. Ulvydas, Vilnius: Mintis. Murmulaitytė D. 2014: Systematic definitions of adverbs -iklis. – Common Language 87, 1–17. Access on the Internet: http://www.bendrinekalba.lt/Straipsniai/87/Murmulaityte_BK_87_straipsnis.pdf. Tarp S. 2011: Reflections on the Academic Status of Lexicography. – Lexikos 20 (AFRILEX-reeks/series 20: 2010), 450–465. Accessed online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271292019_Reflections_on_the_Academ ic_Status_of_Lexicography (accessed 2017 10 27). Tarp S. 2012: Do We Need a (New) Theory of Lexicography? – Lexikos 22 (AFRILEXreeks/series 22: 2012), 321–332. Accessed online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271292019_Reflections_on_the_Academ ic_Status_of_Lexicography (accessed 2017 10 27). Umbrasas A. 2008: Atnaujinti „Terminų žodynų rengimo bendrieji reikalavimai“. – Terminologija 15, 216–225. Urbutis V. 2009: Žodžių darybos teorija , 2-as leidimas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų Wierzbicka A. 1985: Lexicography and conceptual analysis, Ann Arbor: Karoma. Zgusta L. 1992: The Czech–Chinese Dictionary and the Theory of Lexicography. – International Journal of Lexicography 5(2), 85–128. Apresyan Yu. 1995: Lexical semantics: synonymous means of language. Второе исправленное и дополненное издание. – Ю. Д. Апресян. Избранны е труды 1, Москва:: Школа „Языки русской культуры“. Гринев-Гриневич C. 2008: Лексикография и терминоведение. – Terminologija 15, 30–42. Įteikta 2017 10 30 Adopted on 20 December 2017 DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ. Aiškinamojo žodyno mikrostruktūra: semantinės informacijos pateikimo characteristics | 24 BENDRINĖ KALBA 90 (2017) www.bendrinekalba.lt ISSN 2351-7204 MICROSTRUCTURE OF EXPLANATORY DICTIONARY: THE PECULIARITIES OF PRESENTING SEMANTIC INFORMATION Summary The goal of this article is to analise several cases of semantic data presentation in explanatory dictionaries in order to show that lexicography is not just a practical and applied discipline. The article also aims at explaining how semantic information in dictionaries is provided, how derivational and lexical meanings are correlating with each other, how the semantic relationships are reflected by the manner of presenting the chosen data, what it says to the linguist and to an ordinary dictionary user. Several aspects are reviewed in the article: the general explanation of lexemes in a polysemic word entry, the relationship between derivational and lexical semantics of words, bound definitions, submeaning (shades of meaning) distinctions and their presentation in a dictionary entry. It also analyses how the structure of a dictionary entry reflects the semantic structure of a word, the hierarchy of its meanings, their relationship, what additional information a dictionary user can get by only studying lexeme arrangement in the entry. On the basis of extensive examples from various dictionaries, it is shown that even the formal aspects on semantic and derivational information presentation in the explanatory dictionary could be related to feedback on lexical semantics or word formation research and their results. The place of information in the microstructure of a dictionary entry, data presentation order, and etc., aspects of lexicographic technique are important not only for the practical work of a lexicographer; and lexicography is not only dictionary-making practice, but also a certain system of result recognition, i.e. a science. Translation by L. Inčiuraitė-Noreikienė KEYWORDS: lexicography, explanatory dictionary, microstructure of a dictionary, semantics, lexical meaning, derivational meaning. DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius, Lithuania [email protected]