DISKRIMINACIJA lietuvių kalboje ir kultūroje

IRENA SMETONIENĖ Vilnius University, Institute of Applied Linguistics, Department of Lithuanian Language ORCID id: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5165-8078 RESEARCH AREAS: rhetoric, stylistics, theory and history of norms, cultural linguistics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.35321/bkalba.2024.97.02 DISCRIMINATION IN THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE KEYWORDS: discrimination, restriction, restriction of rights, belittling, humiliation, bullying, discord, language. ABSTRACT Following the methodology of the Lublin School of Ethnolinguistics, the article examines what the concept of discrimination means to Lithuanians. The study is based on Lithuanian lexicographic data, material from various texts, and the results of a young people’s survey. It aims to identify what Lithuanians think when they use the lexeme discrimination in speech or writing, and what new shades of meaning emerge in context. Based on data from all three levels, a cognitive definition of the concept is provided in the synthetic analysis. ABSTRACT Following the methodology of the Lublin School of Ethnolinguistics, the article focuses on the concept of discrimination, examining it in terms of what it means to Lithuanians. The study is based on Lithuanian lexicographic data, material from various texts, and the results of a young people’s survey. The aim is to identify what Lithuanians think when they use the lexeme discrimination in speech or writing and what new shades of meaning emerge in the context. Based on data from all three levels, a cognitive definition of the concept is provided in the synthetic analysis. INTRODUCTION Discrimination is a multifaceted problem that can be examined from several perspectives: external and internal; negative and positive; overt and concealed; institutional and structural; direct and indirect; or specific forms of discrimination (gender, IRENA SMETONIENĖ. Diskriminacija lietuvių kalboje ir kultūroje 33 race, nationality, citizenship, language, origin, social status, faith, beliefs or views, age, sexual orientation, disability, ethnicity, or religion). Research on the phenomenon of discrimination, encompassing both questions of how discrimination is perceived and how it is recognized, is a rapidly expanding field of research in Lithuania. This research interests scholars in various fields and is often interdisciplinary in nature, bringing together the efforts of legal scholars, sociologists, psychologists, and other researchers to understand the characteristics and prevalence of discrimination in society (Janušauskienė 2019). Researchers themselves acknowledge that the meanings of terms used in research are subjectively interpreted by each respondent. There is no clear, universal content; moreover, it may differ because of the concepts used in everyday language and the social meanings assigned to particular categories in society (Beresnevičiūtė, Leončikas 2009: 336). It should be noted that, from a linguistic perspective, discrimination has not been examined, so this article is the first attempt to find out what the concept actually means to people, what associations it evokes when they hear the word, and why they choose to use this particular word. The word discrimination derives from Latin and means ‘separation’. As stated in the “Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia” (VLEe), it is used in several contexts and is therefore defined in different ways. In one case, discrimination is associated with individuals (internal discrimination); in another, with a particular state and its citizens (external discrimination). In the first case, discrimination is the restriction or deprivation of rights of a certain category of persons on the grounds of sex, race, skin colour, nationality, language, religious or political beliefs, property status, or other characteristics. This type of discrimination is called negative discrimination. It is most often described as the restriction of the rights of an individual or group of individuals (a change in their legal status) without objectively justifiable grounds. Extreme forms of negative discrimination (apartheid, genocide) are considered international crimes under international law. The principle of non-discrimination is enshrined in the 1950 European Convention on Human Rights (Lithuania ratified it in 1995) and the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (ratified by Lithuania in 1994). Negative discrimination is a common phenomenon in authoritarian and totalitarian states. The term positive discrimination is also used to indicate that legal norms are applied differentially to individuals or groups with the same characteristics in order to achieve positive goals of significance to society. Positive discrimination increases the legal protection of individuals or groups unable to secure their own rights (persons with disabilities, children, national minorities). 34 BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97 In another case, discrimination also refers to the application of measures by which one or more states restrict the rights of another state, its representatives, and legal and natural persons. A state that is discriminated against usually seeks to protect its sovereignty and ensure respect for the rights and legitimate interests guaranteed by international law by influencing another state or group of states to end discriminatory practices and unfriendly actions (VLEe). The “Encyclopedic Dictionary of Political Science” (PMEŽ) states that discrimination may be overt or concealed. For example, the discrimination against women in many Middle Eastern states is overt. Concealed discrimination is more difficult to recognize. Unequal levels of education, earnings, political representation, and living standards, as well as the number of people convicted of crimes, are usually used as indicators of concealed discrimination. Discrimination against women in the labour market is still evident: their average wages worldwide, including in wealthy Western democracies, are considerably lower than men’s. Its scale and nature often depend on the traditions and culture of society, as well as on the period. During the Soviet era in Lithuania, discrimination was prevalent against those who opposed the Soviet regime—in other words, those who did not conform to the principles of Soviet ideology, such as believers. Since the restoration of independence, the main debates in Lithuanian society have concerned specific forms of discrimination: discrimination on the grounds of gender and sexual orientation, disability, age, and social status. Alongside terms denoting discrimination, the words persecution, harassment, hate crimes are also used. The concept of discrimination is changing and expanding. The Equal Opportunities Act adopted in 2008 supplemented the grounds for discrimination defined up to that point (sex, age, race, ethnicity, faith, beliefs or religion, and sexual orientation) with new ones—nationality, language, and social status. In 2008, the European Commission adopted a proposal for a directive providing protection from discrimination on the grounds of age, disability, sexual orientation, and religion or belief outside the workplace (Beresnevičiūtė, Leončikas 2009: 335). In popular usage and public discourse in Lithuania, the term discrimination is neither clear nor established; it is sometimes used vaguely to refer to any presumed manifestations of unfair treatment and intolerance. Intolerant remarks directed at a group in public discourse are sometimes called discrimination, although in legal terms they would be classified as incitement to intolerance (ibid., 336). For example, some scholars include mobbing under discrimination. It is argued that mobbing and discrimination have many points of contact, since mobbing refers to dis- IRENA SMETONIENĖ. Diskriminacija lietuvių kalboje ir kultūroje 35 a discriminatory relationship in the work environment. A person experiencing mobbing also experiences discrimination, and highlighting the discriminatory aspect broadens the concept of mobbing (Vveinhardt 2012). According to the 2022 report of the Office of the Equal Opportunities Ombudsperson, among the personal identity characteristics on the basis of which people may have encountered discrimination, the most prominent were sex (22 percent of all inquiries), disability (21 percent), and age (7 percent). When inquiries and complaints concerning possible discrimination on the grounds of race, nationality, citizenship, language, origin, and ethnic affiliation are added together, their number reaches 10 percent. On December 10, 2020, the Minister of Social Security and Labour approved the 2021–2023 Action Plan for the Promotion of Non-Discrimination. Thus, considerable efforts are being made to prevent discrimination, both by government institutions and by various organizations. This article was prepared on the basis of material from the project “Analysis of the Concepts DEMOCRACY, PATRIOTISM, TOLERANCE and Their Antonyms and Synonyms,” funded by the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language. The aim of the article is to investigate what the concept discrimination means in Lithuanian language and culture, following the methodology of the Lublin School of Ethnolinguistics. The objectives are: 1) to examine Lithuanian lexicographic source data from this perspective; 2) to discuss the results of a student survey—how young people imagine the meaning of this concept; 3) to describe the meaning and shades of meaning of the concept under study in various texts; 4) to define the concept’s cognitive definition. The study applies the cognitive definition method as understood by the founders of the Lublin School of Ethnolinguistics. 1. DISCRIMINATION IN LEXICOGRAPHIC SOURCES In the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language” (LKŽe), at the time this article was written, the lexical meaning of the word under analysis is ‘restriction of someone’s rights, deprivation of equal rights’; it is noted that this is an international word, and only one example is given, though not from living speech: Racial discrimination. In the “Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian” (DLKŽ8e), it is defined as ‘restriction or deprivation of rights’, and the same example is provided. The “Dictionary of International Words” (TŽŽ) gives three meanings: 1) ‘reduction or deprivation of the rights of a certain category of persons on the basis of some characteristics’; 2) ‘the obstruction by one state of another state, its organizations, or representatives in exercising their rights and maintaining relations on an equal footing with other states’; 3) ‘dis- 36 BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97 crimination, an organism’s ability to perceive separately two identical stimuli acting simultaneously on adjacent points’. The “Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian” (BLKŽ) follows the meaning description in LKŽe and DLKŽ8e: ‘restriction or deprivation of the rights of a certain category of persons on the basis of some characteristics’: Racial [sexual, political] discrimination. Discrimination against young people at work. At the seminar, we discussed discrimination on the basis of age. A comparison with the “Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia” and the “Encyclopedic Dictionary of Political Science” shows that LKŽe, DLKŽ8e, and BLKŽ probably refer to internal discrimination. The meaning is too general to be understood otherwise. The examples in BLKŽ specify somewhat that discrimination may be not only racial but also sexual, may occur on the basis of age, and may take place at work. TŽŽ not only shows that discrimination can be internal and external, but also provides a definition of the word as used in the natural sciences, not only in the social sciences. The aim of this article is not to compare how discrimination was defined in earlier dictionaries, but it is worth noting that in the 2001 edition of Valerija Vaitkevičiūtė’s “Dictionary of International Words,” discrimination is defined somewhat differently: 1. ‘reduction or deprivation of the rights of individuals or a category of persons on the basis of racial characteristics, language, religious or political beliefs, national or social affiliation, property status, or place of birth’; 2. ‘measures by which a state or union of states reduces the rights of a state, its representatives, or citizens’; 3. colloq. ‘oppression, unequal treatment of people’; 4. econ. p r i c e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n – ‘setting different prices for identical products for different consumer groups’. Here, the first and second meanings are the same as in VLEe, but a colloquial meaning is also given, which remains relevant today. The fourth meaning is taken from another area of life—economics. This suggests that when explaining the word discrimination, it is necessary to take context into account; different meanings should be reflected in surveys and texts. The verb to discriminate does not add to or expand the meaning. LKŽe does not include this verb; DLKŽ8e defines the action as ‘to discriminate against someone’, while BLKŽ gives ‘to deny (someone) equal rights, treat differently, apply discrimination’: To discriminate against women. This order discriminates against the rights of private horse breeders. The employee was discriminated against because of religion. The examples show that discrimination can occur not only on religious or age-related grounds or at work (as stated in the examples of discrimination), but that women and animal breeders also experience this phenomenon, and people may be discriminated against on the basis of religion. TŽŽ defines the verb much more abstractly than the noun: ‘to apply discrimination against someone, deny equal rights; distinguish, treat differently'. IRENA SMETONIENĖ. Diskriminacija lietuvių kalboje ir kultūroje 37 ‘to treat [someone] worse than others’. The definition shows that, in stating the meaning of the verb, there is no longer any mention of the narrow third meaning of discrimination, used only in a particular field. To summarize the brief analysis of systematic data, some dictionaries choose to present the objects of discrimination through examples (BLKŽ), while others choose the most general meaning (DLKŽ8e); therefore, a comprehensive study is very useful, as it will bring out what a person thinks when using the word discrimination and what it encompasses. 2. DISCRIMINATION – YOUNG PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES For the study, it does not matter whether students experience discrimination or have been discriminated against; the aim of this survey was to find out how discrimination is described by VU students enrolled in 2022–2023 in the faculties of Philology, Philosophy, History, Communication, Medicine, Mathematics, Physics, Law, and Natural Sciences. According to the methodology, the survey must be conducted in person, not online, so that the first response can emerge; therefore, the faculties and higher education institution were selected where the article’s author herself teaches. Respondents were asked the one question specified in the methodology – What is discrimination to me? A total of 105 students answered the question. After the collected material was processed according to the methodology of the Lublin School of Ethnolinguistics, the most prominent descriptors were found to be restriction, limitation, or violation of rights (36%), different treatment of individuals (15%), belittlement (9%), humiliation (8%), contempt (8%), oppression (5%), exclusion (5%), a negative, unfavorable attitude (4%), hatred (4%), and rejection (4%). Descriptors not exceeding the 4% threshold were intolerance, expression of a negative impact, inappropriate behavior, different treatment, ignoring, psychological violence, inequality; racism, anger, nonsense were each mentioned once. As can be seen, the concept of discrimination is most often associated by respondents with the restriction, limitation, or violation of a person’s rights: Discrimination is a violation of human rights. A person can be discriminated against on the grounds of age, sex, race, disability, etc. In one questionnaire, these three aspects are discussed in relation to where discrimination occurs and what its consequences are: In Lithuania, we often encounter discrimination in employment relationships, when an employer discriminates against employees of the same rank, education, and qualifications; for example, a woman performing the same job function and having the same education is paid 38 BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97 a lower salary than a man. Most cases of discrimination occur in the banking system, where women earn 40 percent less than men. Lithuania lags behind in the international arena in the context of human rights when it comes to legalizing same-sex marriage or civil partnerships. Homosexual people are discriminated against and do not have the same rights as heterosexual people. Without the possibility of legalizing their marriages, this part of society has less social protection and fewer guarantees than people of traditional orientation. One may approve or disapprove of homosexual relationships, but in legal terms this social group is discriminated against, thereby violating the European Convention on Human Rights; the result is lost cases at the European Court of Human Rights. Thus, most students understand discrimination as it is presented in VLEₑ, when internal discrimination is discussed. The other descriptors are related in one way or another to the most prominent one, since different treatment of individuals is also connected with restricting or limiting rights: different treatment of individuals on the basis of their race, nationality, sex, sexual orientation, and other distinguishing characteristics that set them apart from others, in accordance with international and national legal instruments. Some responses do not speak abstractly, but refer to discrimination occurring in a particular society: individuals classified into social groups according to specific criteria are treated differently and unequally compared with others living in that society who do not belong to the group; this differentiation takes the form of creating conditions under which the rights of discriminated persons are restricted or violated, and fewer opportunities are provided. There are many criteria for forming such groups—sex, race, age, nationality, political or religious views and other beliefs, sexual orientation, social status, and so on—and their existence depends both on state policy and the activities of the legislature, as well as on the awareness of society and its individual members and on entrenched stereotypes. In this case, attention is drawn to the fact that people within the same society are discriminated against, and that this depends not only on the actions of the authorities but also on the lack of awareness among members of that society. Related to this descriptor is also the understanding of discrimination as a negative, unfavorable attitude toward a person because of their race, sex, religion, nationality, age, and other characteristics. As can be seen from the descriptors, some respondents describe discrimination as if from the perspective of the person discriminated against, because that person feels belittled, humiliated, despised, and oppressed: these are actions in which a person is oppressed, belittled, or otherwise deprived of opportunities in various activities because of certain physiological or other characteristics; I understand discrimination as the oppression of a particular group of people or an individual and the deprivation of certain opportuni- IRENA SMETONIENĖ. Diskriminacija lietuvių kalboje ir kultūroje 39 deprivation of opportunities. Discriminated people face difficulties in developing and making use of opportunities; the devaluation of a certain group of people on the basis of certain characteristics; this manifests itself in the devaluation and humiliation of a certain group of people, or of a person belonging to a certain group, and in making them feel inferior to others; it is the degradation of a person’s dignity because of their origin, sexual orientation, or other personal characteristics. Students note that the person who is discriminated against is always singled out from others: singling out people from one group in contrast to people from another group. A group may be distinguished on the basis of various criteria: race (African Americans, Balkan peoples, Europeans, Asians, etc.), age (young people, the elderly), sex (women, men), and so on. One questionnaire states that people who do not fit in with others and stand out in some way are singled out: Singling out other people, showing that they are not like “everyone else” and portraying them as not fitting in within certain spheres or society. More than one questionnaire notes that discrimination is driven by differences that divide society and compel its members to support one position or another: To me, discrimination is associated with certain differences. Whatever the basis of discrimination may be, it always arises from certain clearly visible differences: black – white, woman – man, edible – inedible, and so on. This problem is very acute throughout the world, in every country, on various grounds – race, sex, ethnic group, skin color, political group, and so on. This construct, if it can be called that, divides society into certain parts and compels people to take a particular position. However, in the students’ view, differences between people themselves are natural; discrimination begins when the rights and opportunities of those singled out are restricted: Since human diversity is great, people are naturally categorized according to their nationality, race, skin color, citizenship, beliefs, views, religion, sexual orientation, language, and other grounds. Categorization itself is not considered discrimination, because it is a natural phenomenon. However, cases in which, on the basis of such groups of people, some are humiliated in certain circumstances and given fewer rights and opportunities to participate in public, political, cultural, social, scientific, and other activities—these are already acts of discrimination. Four percent of respondents believe that the words hatred, rejection best describe discrimination: a person is rejected by others, seems unacceptable to them or is valued less because of race, religion, political views on certain issues, language, or nationality; hatred expressed in words and actions; it is humiliation, injustice; it is deliberate hatred, much more widespread than we think. An extreme manifestation of discrimination was also mentioned—racism: to me, discrimination is associated with racism; it is its ugliest form. 40 BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97 Positive discrimination was also mentioned several times in the responses: in a positive sense, it means that privileges are granted to a certain group of people; positive discrimination is possible, motivated by noble aims and intended to serve the public interest by protecting a more vulnerable and sensitive segment of society—for example, concessions for certain social groups (discounts on city public transport for students and pensioners). However, this topic of discrimination is not explored further. It is worth noting that none of the responses discusses external discrimination, even though it remains relevant today. Most likely, young people today think primarily about themselves, their place in society, and their relationships with other members of society; moreover, articles about problems of internal discrimination constantly appear in the media, so it is not so easy to break out of this social bubble. Incidentally, Lithuanian dictionaries, with the exception of TTŽ, also do not discuss external discrimination. Young people understand discrimination very broadly, from restrictions on rights to hatred; in other words, they include in the concept what is not characteristic of the meanings of the lexeme given in lexicographic sources. However, as mentioned in the introduction, this understanding of the concept is characteristic of our society—discrimination is everything that is contrary to tolerance. 3. DISCRIMINATION IN MEDIA TEXTS According to the methodology, this kind of study consists of three parts: systemic data, a survey, and various texts (S–A–T). Text analysis usually takes up the largest share and begins with a discussion of folklore data, followed by the compilation of a corpus of texts from individual discourses. Unfortunately, when studying social concepts, there is no such variety of texts, so the corpus was compiled by searching media (online news portals) using keywords. A total of 231 occurrences of the concept were collected, and selected non-repeating instances were discussed. Once the selected examples are assembled, it is clear that they can be presented according to profiles that will form the basis of the cognitive definition. 3.1. Restriction, limitation, violation, and exclusion of rights This understanding of the concept is recorded in lexicographic sources and in young people’s responses. This conceptual content is also corroborated by media examples, although here it is best to distinguish between forms of restriction: IRENA SMETONIENĖ. Diskriminacija lietuvių kalboje ir kultūroje 41 3.1.1. Age-based discrimination Discrimination against people on the grounds of age is a universal problem that manifests itself in various forms (direct discrimination, indirect discrimination, harassment / insults, violence) and in almost all spheres of life (Mikulionienė 2008: 11). Age discrimination is distinctive in that there is no single defined age group that is discriminated against on the basis of age: people of various age groups may experience violations of their rights on the grounds of age (1, 2, 4, 5), although this most often happens to older people (1, 3): 1. It is clear that discrimination can affect people of any age, but society recognizes the risk that an employer’s actions—or, conversely, inaction—may pose serious challenges for older employees. (https://www.mlaikas.lt/naujiena/aktualijos/dauguma-gyventoju-mano-kad-vyresniu-zmoniu-diskriminacija-yra-paplitusi-problema) 2. Only people under the age of 50 could book online the apartments in Palanga owned by the company. (https://www.lrytas.lt/verslas/rinkos-pulsas/2021/11/17/news/garsioji-palangos-sachmatine-po-padidinamuoju-stiklu-gavo-ispejima-del-klientu-diskriminacijos-21426713) 3. As we shall see later, older drivers will be the most discriminated against. (https://www.delfi.lt/pilietis/autoriai/prabilo-apie-viena-vairuotojo-pazymejimo-galiojimo-detale-tai-akivaizdi-diskriminacija-93541091) 4. The Office of the Equal Opportunities Ombudsperson announces that it has determined that the Šilutė District Municipal Council discriminates against students over the age of 36. (https://www.lrytas.lt/lietuvosdiena/svietimas/2023/09/11/news/diskriminacija-del-amziaus-silutes-rajone-ribojamos-vyresniu-studentu-galimybes-gauti-parama-28350110) 5. Equal Opportunities Ombudsperson Birutė Sabatauskaitė warned the public institution „Tarptautinis maratonas“ about its discrimination against runners over the age of 29. (https://www.lrytas.lt/sportas/startai/2023/07/17/news/diskriminacija-vilniaus-pusmaratonyje-begti-5-km-galejo-tik-jaunimas-27718071) There are numerous cases in which children experience discrimination, but such examples will be discussed when analyzing bullying at school or discrimination against students on social or disability-related grounds. 3.1.2. Disability-based discrimination Discrimination on the grounds of disability affects society as a whole, including children and adults from all social strata. The examples show that discrimination is experienced by people with mobility (6) and visual (7) disabilities, as well as by people with hearing impairments (9). Recently, there has been increasingly vocal discussion of people with mental disabilities and their place in society (8). As mentioned, children with any kind of disability also experience discrimination (10): 42 BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97 6. The Equal Opportunities Ombudsperson, Birutė Sabatauskaitė, found that people with mobility disabilities are discriminated against in this way – they are not provided with the conditions needed to shop with dignity. (https://www.anyksta.lt/zmonems-su-negalia-neprieinama-dalis-parduotuviu-diskriminacija-nustatyta-maximoje/) 7. A troubling conclusion was reached: bank card readers with touchscreens discriminate against people with visual disabilities. (https://tv.lrytas.lt/zinios/lietuvos-diena/2023/03/12/news/priimta-nerima-kelianti-isvada-banko-korteliu-skaitytuvai-lieciamuoju-ekranu-diskriminuoja-asmenis-su-regos-negalia-26400008?) 8. People with mental illnesses are one of the most discriminated-against groups in Lithuania. (https://www.lrytas.lt/sveikata/medicinos-zinios/2021/04/29/news/psichikos-liga-lietuvoje-socialine-bei-institucine-diskriminacija-19194745) 9. The Vilnius branch of SEB bank did not consider the candidacy of a woman with a hearing disability for a position and discriminated against her on the grounds of disability. (https://www.lrytas.lt/verslas/mano-pinigai/2020/06/17/news/bankas-sulauke-sprendimo-ji-pripazino-diskriminavus-neprigirdincia-moteri-15306269) 10. G. Nausėda urges faster elimination of discrimination against pupils with special needsdiscrimination. (https://www.alfa.lt/straipsnis/50420112/g-nauseda-ragina-greiciau-naikinti-moksleiviu-su-specialiais-poreikiais-diskriminacija/) People with disabilities live in different environments. Their self-confidence depends on various circumstances, such as their experiences in the family, kindergarten, school or special school they attended, as well as their leisure interests, friends, and so on (Valentinavičius 2010). People with disabilities are condemned to social exclusion; they are confined to, or restricted to, minimal education, excluded from the labour market, and find themselves in a vicious circle (Okunevičiūtė-Neverauskienė 2011). 3.1.3. Gender-based discrimination When discussing gender-based discrimination, the greatest attention is paid to women’s problems. They earn less (11), and there are cases in which even at academic events or in everyday life they are humiliated and not treated as equals (13). However, discrimination based on sex can be experienced not only by women; men also feel discriminated against (12), especially when it comes to deciding who will live with a child after a divorce—this customary right has, in a way, become a preference for women (14). 11. Although women earn less – discrimination they do not see: they claim that the problem lies deeper. (https://www.lrytas.lt/verslas/mano-pinigai/2023/02/19/news/nors-moterys-uzdirba-maziau-diskriminacijos-nemato-tikina-kad-problema-slypi-giliau-26007834) 12. Liberal member of parliament Eugenijus Gentvilas does not like the fact that 14 women and one man will work on the National Family Council. This is obvious discrimination. (https:// IRENA SMETONIENĖ. Diskriminacija lietuvių kalboje ir kultūroje 43 www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/gentvilas-apie-vyru-trukuma-nacionalineje-seimos-taryboje-tai-akivaizdi-diskriminacija.d?id=84377851) 13. V. Gabrieliūtė noted that there are also situations in which, at events, sex becomes a basis for discrimination or even harassment. It is probably difficult to notice, too, that male scientists are often addressed as “Professor,” whereas equally qualified female scientists are addressed simply by their first names, often even in diminutive form. (https://www.lrytas.lt/lietuvos-diena/kriminalai/2023/12/27/news/girto-lietuvio-mercedes-benz-lenkijos-greit-kelyje-rezesi-i-druskos-barstytuvo-gala-29766425) 14. The unseen side of the conflict: men feel discriminated against during divorce. (https://www.lrytas.lt/lietuvosdiena/aktualijos/2017/09/29/news/nematoma-konflikto-puse-vyrai-skyrybose-jauciasi-diskriminuojami-2752184) When discussing sex, it is necessary to distinguish between two concepts: sex and gender. Sex is biological sex, meaning that a person is born with certain biological traits, whereas gender is social gender, which takes shape in a social context (when a person begins behaving as a woman or a man). Today, homosexual, bisexual, and transgender people face this latter type of discrimination at work, at home, in schools, and in many other institutions (15, 16, 17). 15. Discrimination and violence against LGBT people “remain high”; public negative statements also play a role. (https://www.lrt.lt/naujienos/pasaulyje/6/1178489/diskriminacija-ir-smurtas-pries-lgbt-tebera-dideli-itakos-turi-ir-viesi-neigiami-pasisakymai) 16. Nevertheless, discrimination based on sexual orientation is extremely widespread not only in Lithuania, but also in many other countries around the world. LGBT+ people still face hostility, intolerance, and hatred. (https://www.ziniuradijas.lt/laidos/eura-net-plius/skaitmenine-karta-kaip-lietuvoje-jauciasi-lgbt-jaunimas?soundtrack=1) 17. Homosexual children in Lithuanian schools still feel unsafe: can we create a supportive environment? (https://www.delfi.lt/multimedija/zvelk-giliau/homoseksualus-vaikai-lietuvos-mokyklose-vis-dar-jauciasi-nesaugiai-ar-sugabesime-sukurti-patikima-aplinka-95041659) 3.1.4. Discrimination on the basis of social status It is stated that complaints of discrimination on the basis of social status rank second in number after complaints of gender discrimination (Oku-nevičiūtė-Neverauskienė 2011). People who are single feel discriminated against (18); there is still a divide and unequal opportunities between rural and urban residents (19); and discrimination against families with children elicits a particularly strong reaction. It is harder for them to rent housing (20) or gain access to certain entertainment venues (21), catering establishments (22), and events (23). This could be regarded as discrimination against children, but in this case it is the parents, usually mothers, who suffer, while children become an obstacle, unwanted subjects. Thus, this type of discrimination also affects more than one segment of society: as we can see, it is experienced by everyone from single people to families with children. 44 BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97 18. In my opinion, this is a kind of discrimination against single peoplediscrimination, since the rental prices for single rooms are only barely cheaper. (https://www.delfi.lt/paieska/#gsc.tab=0&gsc.q=diskriminacija&gsc.sort=date) 19. Ended discrimination against rural childrendiscrimination. (https://sekunde.lt/leidinys/sekunde/nutrauke-kaimo-vaiku-diskriminacija/) 20. For example, [they state] that they do not want families with children. Or, even more explicitly, they say that they do not rent to families with children at all. This is already discrimination. (https://m.kauno.diena.lt/naujienos/lietuva/salies-pulsas/lygiu-galimybiu-kontrolierius-atsisakymas-isnuomoti-busta-su-mazais-vaikais-jau-yra-diskriminacija-1112623) 21. The Equal Opportunities Ombudsperson, Birutė Sabatauskaitė, found that the administration of the Klaipėda swimming pool discriminated against a mother and her children on the basis of family status. (https://www.lrytas.lt/verslas/mano-pinigai/2023/10/30/news/apsilankymas-baseine-moteriai-su-vaikais-virto-nusivylimu-patyre-diskriminacija-28936923) 22. A Vilnius woman who was refused entry to a restaurant with her young children is outraged, and the Office found that this was discrimination. (https://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/ne-juokais-suerzino-viena-griezta-taisykle-tevai-su-mazais-vaikais-buvo-isprasyti-is-populiaraus-restorano.d?id=94744447) 23. According to the Office, the fair’s website stated that guests invited to a private event held before the fair could bring children, but only if they were not very young. “This situation can be regarded as discrimination not only on the basis of age, but also on the basis of family status (which is a component of social status). (https://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/lygiu-galimybiu-kontroliere-isreiksdami-mazameciu-nepageidavima-renginyje-organizatoriai-juos-diskriminavo.d?id=92300651) 3.1.5. Discrimination on the basis of profession In some life situations, representatives of certain professions feel discriminated against: lawyers (24), because they have not been given equal opportunities to get vaccinated; people in certain professions are afraid to see psychiatrists because they may face sanctions at work (25); legal acts reveal discrimination against certain groups of people—in this case, motorcyclists (26); and scholarly articles also mention pet owners and farmers. 24. As judges and prosecutors are vaccinated against COVID-19 as a priority, lawyers who are not afforded the same opportunity are indignant about the double standards and discrimination. (https://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/teisejams-skiepijantis-nuo-covid-19-to-nesulaukiantys-advokatai-piktinasi-diskriminacija.d?id=87060305) 25. Discrimination can be de facto or de jure. That is, laws may discriminate; for example, in Lithuania there are lists of professions—if someone in one of those professions goes to a psychiatrist, they would be foolish, because it could come back to haunt them. (https://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/d-puras-sakydami-kad-psichikos-ligonai-visada-agresyvus-patys-nusisnekame.d?id=74770580) 26. Liberal MP Gintaras Vaičekauskas promises to register amendments to the laws before the end of the spring session, seeking to repeal the discrimination against motorcyclists in the Administrative IRENA SMETONIENĖ. Diskriminacija lietuvių kalboje ir kultūroje 45 Offences Code.discrimination. (https://www.lrytas.lt/lietuvosdiena/aktualijos/2019/05/10/news/bus-siekiama-panaikinti-motociklininkus-diskriminuojancias-istatymu-nuostatas-10286505) 3.1.6. Discrimination on the basis of language When amendments to the Equal Opportunities Act came into force in 2008, it became possible to apply the law in cases of discrimination on the basis of language. The study results show that almost 7% of respondents had experienced discrimination or harassment because of language (Okunevičiūtė-Neverauskienė 2011). Complaints of this kind increased after the war began in Ukraine; Russian-speaking residents of Lithuania have complained about this type of discrimination (27): 27. As soon as Russia’s war against Ukraine began, we received quite a few reports concerning the possible refusal to provide services and discrimination in the provision of goods and services to Russian-speaking individuals, regardless of their nationality, including Ukrainians, Russians, and Belarusians who had come to certain places. (https://www.lrytas.lt/lietuvosdiena/aktualijos/2022/04/01/news/prasidejus-karui-ukrainoje-pasipyle-rusakalbiu-skundai-del-diskriminacijos-lietuvoje-22919757) 3.1.7. Discrimination on the basis of nationality and race Discrimination on the grounds of race and ethnic origin may be experienced directly, when one person is treated less favourably than another person is, has been, or could be treated in a similar situation, because of their race or ethnic affiliation. Indirect discrimination of this kind occurs when apparently impartial conditions, criteria, or practices may place people of a particular race or ethnic affiliation at a disadvantage. As the examples show, today this is most closely associated with migrants (28, 29): 28. The international non-governmental organisation Médecins Sans Frontières condemned Lithuania’s treatment of migrants who had entered the country illegally and were awaiting a decision on their asylum applications, calling it “systemic discrimination”: (https://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/medikai-be-sienu-smerkia-sistemine-diskriminacija-migrantu-centruose-lietuvoje.d?id=91105905) 29. The report notes that asylum seekers and migrants in Lithuania experienced uncertainty and fear about the future, and faced discrimination, dehumanisation, degrading treatment, and violence. (https://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/ka-lietuvoje-terejo-istverti-migrantai-grotos-ir-izeidinejamai-tik-ledkalnio-virsune.d?id=92187085) 3.1.8. Discrimination on political grounds Competition is also present in the political sphere. Here, some parties or coalitions feel discriminated against by others (30): 46 BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97 30. We see that the committees are ignored and discriminated against in relation to the election campaign. We want to show the obvious divide between parties and committees, as parties use double standards with the help of the CEC. (https://www.lrytas.lt/lietuvos-diena/aktualijos/2019/01/22/news/vilniaus-visuomeniniai-rinkimu-komitetai-skundziasi-del-diskriminacijos-8959475) 3.2. Discrimination, = bullying, rejection, and humiliation at school This form of discrimination merits closer discussion because, first, it is a very serious problem with painful consequences and, second, children understand discrimination much more broadly than dictionaries define it. Their understanding correlates with students’ responses, since they include both bullying and humiliation (31), as well as mockery of health conditions (32), and much more, under discrimination. Students feel rejected because of their parents’ financial circumstances (32, 33), nationality (34), and sexual orientation (35). 31. The most painful and pressing discrimination is at school. Over twelve years, everyone here has experienced discrimination at least once, or has mocked another student. (http://www.universitetozurnalistas.kf.vu.lt/2010/10/diskriminacija-mokykloje---negydoma-liga/) 32. It has been established that discrimination on the basis of a child’s financial circumstances or health conditions is widespread in schools. (https://www.15min.lt/naujiena/aktualu/lietuva/tyrimas-mokykloje-vis-labiau-ryskeja-diskriminacija-56-115776?utm_medium=copied) 33. The gap between wealthy and less affluent pupils is widening in schools. As a result, pupils from poorer families are increasingly discriminated against, and feel increasingly worse while at school. (https://www.lrytas.lt/lietuvosdiena/aktualijos/2010/09/15/news/moksleiviu-apklausa-turtingiems-mokiniams-mokytojai-raso-geresnius-pazymius-5635619) 34. Approximately 40 percent of the surveyed pupils at Lithuanian secondary schools acknowledged that they had encountered discrimination based on nationality at their school in one way or another. (https://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/education/su-diskriminacija-del-tautybes-yra-susidure-40-proc-mokiniu.d?id=44284615) 35. Discrimination based on sexual orientation at school is something that the artist Marius Samavičius, who experienced it, dared to speak about publicly only a decade later. (https://www.lrytas.lt/lietuvosdiena/svietimas/2021/07/04/news/diskriminacija-del-savo-orientacijos-patyres-marius-po-10-metu-ryzosi-parasyti-laiska-ji-iskaudinusai-mokytojai-19931082) As research shows, children include in the meaning of the concept everything that hurts them: when people mock their family or appearance, envy something, how they treat those who dress unattractively or unfashionably or come from the countryside, those who are overweight, do poorly at school, fail to maintain hygiene, and those who are IRENA SMETONIENĖ. Diskriminacija lietuvių kalboje ir kultūroje 47 different from everyone else. Students not only suffer at the hands of other students, but also feel teachers exerting their power (they can give orders, punish, disregard others’ opinions, impose their will and views on students, assess students not only on the basis of their abilities and knowledge but also their personalities, and judge students according to subjective criteria), as well as teachers’ prejudiced negative attitudes toward certain students—those who are quieter, poorer, or express an opinion different from the teacher’s (Jonynienė 2008)—and they include all this in their answers to the question of whether they experience discrimination at school. 3.3. Discrimination = as a source of discord The word discrimination regularly becomes a tool for fomenting discord between Poles and Lithuanians in the Vilnius region. This is related to some politicians’ desire to score points during elections or officials’ efforts to play the victim and thereby obtain additional funds. Hatred flared up again following a report prepared on the initiative of the “Wspolnota Polska” Association, in cooperation with the Union of Poles in Lithuania and the Association of Teachers of Polish Schools in Lithuania, as well as V. Tomaševskis’s complaint to the ECHR. The politician claims to be discriminated against on the grounds of nationality (36), while the Polish Union and the teachers’ association that contributed to the report complain of discrimination in all areas (37). Lithuanians disagree with such complaints and offer counterexamples, arguing that in the Vilnius region it is not Poles but Lithuanians who are discriminated against, because the latter’s needs are ignored (38), and it is not Polish but Lithuanian schools that are being weakened (39); moreover, a peaceful youth camp in Dieveniškės was branded fascist, and, to make matters worse, V. Tomaševskis urges Lithuanians to integrate into the Polish community (40). The whole situation brings to mind the saying “he beats you, then cries foul.” Such mutual accusations of discrimination lead to discord and provide an excellent opportunity for hostile forces to destabilize the situation. 36. V. Tomaševskis felt discriminated against on the grounds of nationality: he appealed to the ECHR and recalled A. Valinskas’s words. (https://www.lrytas.lt/lietuvosdiena/kriminalai/2023/12/27/news/girto-lietuvio-mercedes-benz-lenkijos-greitkelyje-rezesi-i-druskos-barstytuvo-gala-29766425) 37. The situation of the Polish minority in Lithuania is of great concern. The Polish minority is discriminated against in education; efforts to establish Polish as a language that may be used in public spaces as an auxiliary language have been fruitless; Polish names cannot be written with Polish characters in official documents; and the use of Polish place names on street signs is prohibited. These are just a few examples illustrating the extent of violations of the rights of the Polish minority in Lithuania. (https://www.tv3.lt/naujiena/lietuva/wspolnota-polska-lenkai-lietuvoje-diskriminuojami-svietimo-identiteto-ir-turtiniais-aspektais-atnaujinta-11-30-n578349) 48 BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97 38. Recalling the issue of discrimination recently being escalated in the public sphereon the basis of ethnicity, G. Kazėnas maintained that the real discrimination can be seen specifically in the Vilnius District, where the needs of Lithuanians are ignored. (https://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/prabilo-kiti-vilniaus-r-politikai-cia-iskylancios-problemos-yra-tiesiogine-diskriminacija-tautiniu-pagrindu.d?id=83337053) 39. Lithuanian schools in Vilnius County complain of discrimination. The district authorities took away some of their funding and gave it to Polish schools. (https://www.tv3.lt/naujiena/lietuva/salcininkuose-lietuviskos-mokyklos-skundziasi-diskriminacija-n192453) 40. The camp held in Dieveniškės was denounced as fascist and as promoting discord among nations. Some newspapers even managed to write that the camp had called for reprisals against people of other nationalities. Meanwhile, Valdemaras Tomaševskis loudly declares that it is Lithuanians, not Poles, who must integrate in the Vilnius region. I think it would be very fitting to conclude by saying that the real discriminators are not those who are loudly denounced and called such, but those who merely blame others for everything. (https://www.15min.lt/ikrauk/naujiena/svarbu/nuomone-tai-kas-kursto-tautine-nesantaika-nuo-traukos-515-256711?utm_medium=copied) CONCLUSIONS The study revealed that: 1. Lithuanian lexicographic sources (LKŽe, DLKŽ8e and BLKŽ) discuss internal discrimination; this is evident only in the youth survey and media texts, which means that, at the time of the study, external discrimination was absent from people’s consciousness or was not relevant. Dictionaries of international words provide more meanings; the first correspond to those in the “Encyclopedia of Lithuania” and the “Encyclopedic Dictionary of Political Science.” Thus, they include meanings of both internal and external discrimination. In addition, TŽŽ shows that the concept under study is expanding from the political and social spheres into other fields (biology, economics) and is spreading in colloquial speech. 2. Young people understand discrimination very broadly: from the restriction of rights to hatred. This means that they include in the concept things that are not characteristic of the meanings of the lexeme given in lexicographic sources; however, as noted in the introduction, this understanding of the concept is characteristic of our society—discrimination is everything that is contrary to tolerance. 3. Contemporary media discuss specific restrictions of rights, which are highlighted in VLEe and Vaitkevičiūtė’s dictionary: on the basis of age, disability, gender, social status, profession, language, nationality, race, and political views. Whatever the specific form of discrimination, they are united by a common idea—it is a restriction, limitation, or rejection. It can be argued that discrimination is becoming a fashionable word and is difficult to explain without context— IRENA SMETONIENĖ. Diskriminacija lietuvių kalboje ir kultūroje 49 because, for example, children’s understanding of this concept corresponds to young people’s answers but is even broader: it includes bullying and humiliation experienced in the school environment (of both pupils and teachers), mocking people’s health disorders, and children feeling rejected because of their parents’ financial status, nationality, sexual orientation, etc. 4. As noted in the introduction, scholars argue that there is no clear, universal content to the concept of discrimination; it depends on the researcher, the material, and a person’s individual understanding. Based on the S-A-T analysis, it can be argued that today, for Lithuanians, discrimination is: – the restriction, limitation, or violation of someone’s rights; – the unequal treatment of individuals; – the belittling, humiliation, disparagement, oppression, hatred, rejection, and bullying of individuals; – a cause of discord. ŠALTINIAI BLKŽ – Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, vyr. red. D. Liutkevičienė, Vilnius: Lietuvos kalbos institutas, 2013–2023. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/bendrines-lietuviu-kalbos-zodynas/ [žiūrėta 2023-03-15]. DLKŽ8e – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas (internetinis), vyr. red. S. Keinys, 8-as patais ir papild. leid., Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2021. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/dabartines-lietuviu-kalbos-zodynas/. LKŽe – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas, 1–20 (1941–2002), red. kolegija G. Naktinienė, J. Paulauskas, R. Petrokienė, V. Vitkauskas, J. Zabarskaitė, vyr. red. G. Naktinienė, e. variantas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2008 (atnaujinta versija, 2018). Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/lietuviu-kalbos-zodynas. PMEŽ – Politikos mokslų enciklopedinis žodynas, ats. red. A. Jankauskas, Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla, 2007. TŽŽ – Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, redaktorių taryba A. Kaulakienė, S. Keinys, B. Kurkulis, V. Račiūnaitė, V. Žalkauskas, Vilnius: Alma littera, 2013. Vaitkevičiūtė Valerija, 2001: Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, Vilnius: Žodynas. VLEe – Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (elektroninis variantas), Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos centras. Prieiga internete: https://www.vle.lt/ [žiūrėta 2023-04-06]. alfa.lt anyksta.lt delfi.lt lrytas.lt lrt.lt 50 BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97 m.kaunodiena.lt mlaikas.lt sekunde.lt tv3.lt universitetozurnalistas.kf.vu.lt zinuradijas.lt 15min.lt LITERATŪRA Beresnevičiūtė Vida, Leončikas Tadas 2009: Diskriminacijos suvokimas Lietuvos visuomenėje. – Filosofija. Sociologija 20(4), 335–343. Janušauskienė Diana 2019: Diskriminacijos suvokimas ir požiūris į lygių galimybių principo užtikrinimą Lietuvoje. – Filosofija. Sociologija 30(2), 100–107. Jonynienė Živilė 2008: Vaiko teisių įgyvendinimas: mokyklos demokratėjimo rodiklis. – Socialinis darbas 8(2), 51–64. Mikūlionienė Sarmitė 2008: Diskriminacija dėl amžiaus: samprata, raiškos formos ir sritys. – Socialinis darbas 7(1), 11–18. Okunevičiūtė-Neverauskienė Laima 2011: Diskriminacijos apraiškos: aktuali būklė bei tendencijos antidiskriminacijos srityje Lietuvoje. – Filosofija. Sociologija 22(2), 115–128. Valentinavičius Vytautas (sud.) 2010: Diskriminacija aukštajame moksle: lengva teoriškai, sudėtinga įgyvendinti. Vilnius. Vveinhardt Jolita 2012: Identification of the reliability of methodological characteristics of quality in the diagnostic instrument for mobbing as discrimination in employee relations on purpose to improve the climate in Lithuanian organizations. – Transformations in business and economics 11(2), 218–232. Gauta 2024-04-14 Priimta 2024-05-27 IRENA SMETONIENĖ DISCRIMINATION IN THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE S u m m a r y The word discrimination comes from Latin and means ‘distinction’. It is used in several contexts and is defined differently. In one case, it refers to individuals (in- IRENA SMETONIENĖ. Diskriminacija lietuvių kalboje ir kultūroje 51 ternal discrimination) and in another to a particular state and its citizens (external discrimination). In popular usage and public discourse in Lithuania, the term dis-crimination is not clear and well-established, and is sometimes used indefinitely to refer to any manifestation of perceived unfair treatment and intolerance. Some Lithuanian dictionaries (the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian Language, BLKŽ) choose to give examples of the objects of discrimination, while others use the most general meaning (the Academic Dictionary of Lithuanian, DLKŽ). Young people have a very broad understanding of discrimination, ranging from the restriction of rights to hatred, which means that they include in the concept what is not typical of the lexicographic meanings of the lexeme, and this understanding of the concept is typical of our society – discrimination is everything that is against tolerance. The analysis of media texts has highlighted the main profiles of the concept: restriction, limitation, violation, rejection; bullying, humiliation; discord. It should be noted that children’s understanding of discrimination is much broader than that provided in the dictionaries. The content of the concept includes everything that hurts them: when their family or appearance is mocked, when they are envied, how children who dress poorly and unfashionably, or who hail from rural areas, or are overweight, or struggle academically, or lack hygiene, or are different from their peers, are treated. Students not only endure mistreatment from their peers but also perceive a display of authority from their teachers. Researchers argue that there is no clear, universal definition of discrimination; rather, it depends on the researcher, the material, and the individual’s personal perception. Based on the analysis, it can be concluded that discrimination in Lithuania today includes: – restriction, limitation, and violation of someone’s rights. – differential treatment of individuals. – undermining, humiliation, contempt, oppression, hatred, rejection, and bullying. – the basis for discord. KEYWORDS: discrimination, restriction, limitation of rights, belittling, humiliation, bullying, discord, language. IRENA SMETONIENĖ Vilniaus universitetas Lietuvių kalbos katedra Universiteto g. 5, Vilnius [email protected] 52 BENDRINĖ KALBA | 97 IRENA SMETONIENĖ DISKRIMINACIJA LIETUVIŲ KALBOJE IR KULTŪROJE S a n t r a u k a Žodis diskriminacija yra kilęs iš lotynų kalbos ir reiškia ‘atskyrimas’. Jis vartojamas keliuose kontekstuose, todėl apibrėžiamas skirtingai. Vienu atveju tai susiję su asmenimis (vidinė diskriminacija), kitu – su tam tikra valstybe ir jos piliečiais (išorinė diskriminacija). Lietuvoje populiariojoje vartosenoje ir viešajame diskurse diskriminacijos terminas nėra aiškus ir nusistovėjęs, kartais vartojamas neapibrėžtai, siekiant įvardyti bet kokias numanomo neteisingo elgesio ir netolerancijos apraiškas. Vieni lietuviški žodynai renkasi per pavyzdžius pateikti diskriminacijos objektus (BLKŽ), kiti renkasi bendriausią reikšmę (DLKŽ₈ₑ). Jaunimas diskriminaciją supranta labai plačiai: nuo teisių suvaržymo iki neapykantos, vadinasi, į sąvoką įtraukia ir tai, kas nebūdinga leksikografiniuose šaltiniuose pateiktoms leksemos reikšmėms, toks sąvokos supratimas būdingas mūsų visuomenei – diskriminacija yra viskas, kas priešinga tolerancijai. Medijų tekstų analizė išryškino pagrindinius sąvokos profilius: suvaržymas, apribojimas, pažeidimas, atstūmimas; patyčios, žeminimas; nesantaika. Atkreiptinas dėmesys, kad diskriminaciją vaikai supranta daug plačiau, negu teikia žodynai. Į sąvokos turinį vaikai įtraukia viską, dėl ko jiems skauda: kai šaipomasi iš šeimos, išvaizdos, ko nors pavydima, kaip elgiamasi su tais, kurie negražiai ir nemadingai rengiasi ar yra iš kaimo, kurie yra apkūnūs, kurie blogai mokosi, nesilaiko higienos, su tais, kurie yra kitokie nei visi. Mokiniai ne tik kenčia nuo kitų mokinių, bet ir jaučia mokytojų galios demonstravimą. Mokslininkai teigia, kad nėra aiškaus, universalaus diskriminacijos sąvokos turinio, ji priklauso nuo tyrėjo, medžiagos ir žmogaus asmeninio suvokimo. Remiantis atlikta analize, galima teigti, kad šiandien diskriminacija lietuviams yra: – kieno nors teisių apribojimas, suvaržymas, pažeidimas; – asmenų skirtingas vertinimas; – asmenų menkinimas, žeminimas, niekinimas, engimas, neapykanta, atstūmimas, patyčios; – nesantaikos pagrindas. ESMINIAI ŽODŽIAI: diskriminacija, suvaržymas, teisių apribojimas, menkinimas, žeminimas, patyčios, nesantaika. IRENA SMETONIENĖ Vilniaus universitetas Lietuvių kalbos katedra Universiteto g. 5, Vilnius [email protected] IRENA SMETONIENĖ. Diskriminacija lietuvių kalboje ir kultūroje 53