Baltų ir Pabaltijo suomių kalbų santykiai

LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, VI LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA RELATIONS BETWEEN THE BALTIC AND BALTIC FINNIC LANGUAGES A. SABALIAUSKAS General Remarks Opinions vary regarding the antiquity of the relations between the Balts and their northern neighbors, the Baltic Finns. One thing, however, is clear: the age of these relations must be measured not in hundreds but in thousands of years. In the opinion of Soviet archaeologists A. Briusov1 and H. Moora2, in the third millennium BCE Finno-Ugric tribes lived in the forest belt of Eastern Europe, which also encompassed the Baltic region; they were the ancestors of the present-day Finno-Ugric peoples. These tribes subsisted mainly on hunting and fishing. They were characterized by pit-and-comb, or comb, pottery. In the second millennium BCE, in the eastern Baltic, alongside the camps of hunters and fishers with their characteristic pit-and-comb pottery, an entirely new type of settlement appeared. Its inhabitants were well acquainted with animal husbandry and agriculture and used corded ware. In addition, these inhabitants were characterized by boat-shaped battle axes. Since this culture is not genetically related to the earlier culture of the eastern Baltic, but is a new and distinctive phenomenon, its appearance is associated with the incursion of a new ethnic element into Finno-Ugric territory. This new ethnic element was most likely the ancestors of the present-day Balts. Other Soviet historians and linguists also share the opinion of A. Briusov and H. Moora.3 Foreign linguists (V. Thomsen, E. N. Setälä, J. Kalima, E. Nieminen, L. Hakulinen) most often, on the basis of purely linguistic arguments, date the contact between the Baltic Finns and the Balts to a considerably more recent period— 1 А. Я. Брюсов, Очерки по истории племен Европейской части СССР в неолитическую эпоху, Москва, 1952, р. 162 tt. 2 Х. А. Моора, Вопросы сложения эстонского народа и некоторых соседних народов в свете данных археологии, «Вопросы этнической истории эстонского народа», Таллин, 1956, р. 49—141. 3 History of the Latvian SSR, vol. I, edited by K. Strazdiņš, J. Zuss, J. Krastiņš, and A. Drīzulis, Riga, 1953, pp. 14—15; History of the Lithuanian SSR, vol. I, editorial board: K. Jablonskis, J. Jurginis, J. Žiugžda (editor-in-chief), Vilnius, 1957, pp. 18—21; P. Ariste, Notes to L. Hakulinen’s book “The Development and Structure of the Finnish Language,” part II, Moscow, 1955, pp. 278—279; The Formation of the Baltic Finnic Languages and the Earliest Period of Their Development, “Questions of the Ethnic History of the Estonian People,” p. 12. 109 earlier times. In their opinion, the ancestors of the Balts and Baltic Finns came into contact in the last centuries BCE and the first centuries CE. K. Būga was inclined to place this date somewhat earlier (“… and the level of culture indicated by words of Lithuanian origin in Finnish is more appropriate to the year one thousand (1000) than to five hundred (500) BCE.”)4 However, these linguists too believe that, among the separate Indo-European branches, the Baltic Finns first came into contact with the Balts. Only after their encounter with the Balts did the Baltic Finns come into contact with the Germanic and Slavic peoples. Furthermore, it should be noted that when relations between the Baltic and Finno-Ugric languages are discussed, what is generally meant is contact between these peoples on the shores of the Baltic Sea, that is, with the western Finnish tribes. However, loans from Baltic languages are also found in the Finno-Ugric languages of the Volga group, for example in Mordvin and Mari. V. Thomsen attempted to explain this fact by suggesting that other Finno-Ugric tribes had lived in ancient times between the Volga and the Baltic Finns and had acted as intermediaries. The Soviet linguist B. Serebrenikov5 put forward the hypothesis that, in the forest belt between the Volga and Klyazma rivers, before the Slavs appeared there, people had lived who spoke an Indo-European language very close to the modern Baltic languages. O. Trubachov and V. Toporov6 likewise propose direct contact between the Baltic languages and the languages of the Volga region. As yet, there is insufficient evidence to confirm the validity of the hypotheses raised here. Nevertheless, they are certainly worthy of attention. First, these hypotheses are supported by traces of Baltic toponymy found in the Middle and Upper Dnieper regions and in the Volga–Oka interfluve. Moreover, the Galindians mentioned in Russian chronicles, who still lived near Moscow in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, would also support these assumptions. Having penetrated the eastern Baltic region, the Balts occupied the less densely populated lands of the Finns. The northern part of the Baltic population apparently gradually merged with the Finnish tribes, which were much more numerous. The southern part of the Baltic population assimilated the Finns, who were presumably less numerous in these areas. The Finnish toponymy of the present-day northern Baltic territories vividly shows that Finns had lived there earlier. In the territory of present-day Lithuania, traces of such toponymy are very slight and, even then, are mostly disputed—for example, the Finnish origin of the name Nemunas, proposed by some linguists, and the like. The territory of Latvia, however, is teeming with place names of Finnish origin. The process of assimilating the Finns lasted for millennia, and in the territory of Latvia it is still continuing today: the Livonians, who once lived in large numbers around the Gulf of Riga and in the basins of the western Daugava and Gauja, are now on the verge of complete assimilation— 4 K. Būga, Rinktiniai raštai, t. II, Vilnius, 1959, p. 83. 5 Б. А. Серебренников, О некоторых следах исчезнувшего индоевропейского языка в центре Европейской части СССР, близкого к балтийским языкам, „Lietuvos TSR Mokslų akademijos darbai“, S. A, 1, Vilnius, 1957, p. 69—71. 6 О. Н. Трубачев, Три литовских этимологии, „Lingua Posnaniensis“, VIII, Poznań, 1960, p. 242; В. Н. Топоров, О. Н. Трубачев, Лингвистический анализ гидронимов Верхнего Поднепровья, Москва, 1962, p. 247—8. 110 tion. Today, only a few hundred people remain who speak this Baltic Finnish language.7 Archaeological evidence shows that the Balts had a somewhat higher level of culture than their northern neighbors. At the time of contact between the Balts and the Finns, the Balts were already engaged in animal husbandry and agriculture. This assertion is supported not only by archaeological but also by linguistic evidence. The Finnish tribes, too, began to learn these pursuits from the Balts. In general, linguistic evidence shows that close, friendly relations existed between the Balts and the Finns. The influence of the Baltic languages on the Baltic Finnish languages is quite pronounced. This influence is particularly evident in the vocabulary of the Baltic Finnish languages. A number of interesting studies have been devoted to examining the lexical connections between these languages. Of particular importance, and still of undiminished value, is the major work published in 1890 by the Danish linguist V. Thomsen, “Relations between the Finnish and Baltic (Lithuanian-Latvian) Languages” (“Beröringer mellem de finske og de baltiske (litauisk-lettiske) Sprog”, Kopenhagen, 1890). The latest achievements in research in this field are summarized in the work of the Finnish linguist J. Kalima, “Baltic Loanwords in the Baltic Finnish Languages” (“Itämerensuomalaisten kielten balttilaiset lainasanat”, Helsinki, 1936). The numerous works of the recently deceased Finnish linguist E. Nieminen should also be mentioned. The Baltic Finnish languages had comparatively less influence on the Balts, particularly on Lithuanian and Old Prussian. Most traces of this influence are observed in Latvian. It is felt in Latvian phonetics and morphology, and especially in its vocabulary. Admittedly, many Baltic Finnish loanwords in Latvian date from more recent times. Some of these loans entered Lithuanian through Latvian dialects, and sometimes through written sources, as we shall see. The fact that the Baltic Finnish languages were more strongly influenced by the Baltic languages than the latter were by the Baltic Finnish languages may perhaps be explained by the somewhat higher level of Baltic culture. However, one must agree with the Estonian academician P. Ariste that the influence of the Finnish languages on the Baltic languages has as yet been very little studied. Some Baltic loanwords in Finnish, which previously raised no doubts, have recently been proposed as Finnish words that entered the Baltic languages. Among the works devoted to elucidating the influence of the Finnish languages on the Baltic languages, the study by the Estonian linguist K. Aben, “Estonian and Livonian Loans in Latvian Vocabulary” (“Eesti ja liivi laenud läti sõnavaras (kultuuriloone uurimus)”, Tartu, 1947 (manuscript), should be mentioned first. There is no consensus as to which Baltic language the first Finnish tribes encountered. Some Finnish linguists believe that the Baltic Finns came into contact with the Proto-Baltic language. E. Nieminen, however, maintains that the Finns encountered a distinct Baltic language, which had already clearly diverged from Proto-Baltic in both phonetic and morphological structure.8 However, this view of E. Nieminen’s 7 П. А. Аристэ, Ливы и ливский язык, „Eesti NSV Teaduste Akadeemia Toimetised, k. VII, Ühiskonnateaduste seeria“, Nr. 1, Tallinn, 1958, p. 38. 8 E. Nieminen, Über einige Eigenschaften der baltischen Sprache, die sich in den ältesten baltischen Lehnwörtern der ostseefinnischen Sprachen abspiegelt, „Sonderabdruck aus den Sitzungsberichten der Finnischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 1956“, Helsinki, 1957, p. 185. 111 This claim contradicts historians’ conclusions, since it is difficult to imagine that in the second millennium BCE the Proto-Baltic language could have split into separate languages. Grammatical features Some similarities in grammatical structure can be observed in the Baltic Finnic and Baltic languages. It is true that such similarities cannot always be explained by interaction between these languages, or by the influence of one language on another. For example, the similarity in the formation of the Finnish and Lithuanian directional locative cases, the so-called illatives, is striking; cf. Finnish maa ‘country, land’: maahan ‘into the country, into the land’, Finnish puu ‘tree’: puuhun ‘into the tree’, Finnish pilli ‘pipe, whistle’: pilliin ‘into the pipe, into the whistle’, Finnish koti ‘house’: kotiin ‘into the house’⁹, alongside Lithuanian laukan, dangun, pilin and so on. However, in both Finnish and Lithuanian, locative cases of this structure arose comparatively recently, and their emergence in each language is to be explained as an independent development¹⁰. It is thought that the Finnish intensifying suffix -pa, -pä (jopa ‘also, even’, vieläpä ‘also, and’, jospa ‘if’, kunpa ‘if’) may have been borrowed from the Baltic languages (Lithuanian bė, bei, Old Prussian bhe)¹¹. Attributive agreement between nouns and adjectives is characteristic of the Baltic Finnic languages; cf. Estonian uus maja ‘new house’, uuele majale, uued majad. As we can see, this feature is also characteristic of the Baltic languages, whereas similar constructions are not used in the other Finno-Ugric languages; cf. Erzya Mordvin odʼ kydo, odʼ kydonenh, odʼ kydot, Hungarian új ház, új háznak, új házak. Attributive agreement between nouns and adjectives in the Baltic Finnic languages may have arisen as an independent result of their development, but neighboring Baltic languages may also have had some influence. Compound Estonian past-tense forms such as olen lugenud, olin lugenud also have counterparts in the Baltic languages; cf. Lithuanian esù skaitęs, buvaũ skaitęs, Latvian esmu lasījis, biju lasījis.¹² Recently, attempts have been made to explain the imperative forms in Lithuanian and Russian with the formant -k as resulting from Finno-Ugric influence¹³. V. Pisani¹⁴ is likewise inclined to explain certain participial constructions in Lithuanian and Latvian as resulting from Finnish influence. Even such features of the Baltic and Slavic languages as the use of the instrumental as the predicate of a compound predicate, and the use of the genitive of the object in the locative— ⁹ Л. Хакулинен, Развитие и структура финского языка, ч. I, Москва, 1953, р. 88. ¹⁰ A. Meijė, Lyginamasis metodas istorinėje kalbotyroje, Vilnius, 1956, p. 92. ¹¹ Л. Хакулинен, Развитие и структура финского языка, ч. I, р. 217. ¹² P. N. Ariste, The Formation of the Baltic Finnic Languages and the Earliest Period of Their Development, p. 12. ¹³ V. N. Toporov, O. N. Trubachev, ibid., p. 249—50. ¹⁴ V. Pisani, Zu einer baltisch-estfinnischen Partizipialkonstruktion, „Rakstu krājums, veltījums akadēmikim profesoram Dr. Jānim Endzelīnam viņa 85 dzīves un 65 darba gadu atcerei“, Rīgā, 1959, p. 215—217. 112 Some linguists consider the use of the accusative after negation-marking transitive verbs and the tendency to combine several suffixes in a single word to be the result of a Finnic-Ugric substrate. Finnic influence is somewhat more pronounced in the grammatical structure of Latvian, especially in those Latvian dialects in which Livonians formerly lived. Naturally, these features borrowed from Finnic are not ancient here and are explained as remnants of a Livonian substrate. The retraction of stress to the first syllable in Latvian is explained as an influence of Livonian. Clearly, this process was very complex and could have begun even without Livonian influence; nevertheless, Livonian probably did have an effect, at least in intensifying this process15. Livonian is thought to have influenced the formation of the Latvian dialect system of intonation. As a result of Livonian influence, masculine forms often displaced feminine forms in Latvian dialects, while the third-person verb form was generalized to the singular and plural forms of both persons, and so on16. B. Serebrenikov17 notes that Livonian influence explains the use of the same Latvian locative form with both directional and locative meaning (mežā dzīvot ‘to live in the forest’, mežā braukt ‘to go to the forest’). Some features of Livonian, unlike those of other Finnic languages, arose under the influence of Latvian. For example, Livonians borrowed some verb prefixes from Latvian, cf. Liv. vöttö ‘to take’; aizvöttö ‘to borrow, take away’ (Lat. ņemt-aizņemt), Liv. tiedō ‘to do’: aptiedō ‘to surround’ (Lat. taisīt-aptaisīt), Liv. kandō ‘to carry, bear’: pakandō ‘to carry out, transport’ (Lat. nest-panest), and so on. A few Latvian suffixes also entered Livonian, cf. Liv. āndig ‘generous, abundant’: āndab ‘he gives’ (Latvian suffix -īgs), Liv. pūdōm ‘cleanliness’: pūdōz ‘clean’ (Lat. -ums), Liv. kovalib ‘mind’: koval ‘intelligent’ (Lat. -ība). Livonian syntax also has some other features characteristic of Latvian18. Latvian prefixes are also found in some South Estonian dialects. For example, Latvian prefixes at-, bez-, iz-, no-, pa- are used in the Leivu dialect of Estonian, which is disappearing in northern Latvian territory; cf. Est. masma ‘to pay’: atmasma ‘to pay back’ (Lat. maksāt: atmaksāt), Est. jema ‘mother’: bezjemada ‘without a mother’ (Lat. māte: bez mātes), Est. pidämä ‘to keep’: ispidämä ‘to retain’ (Lat. turēt: izturēt), Est. laskma ‘to let’: nūlaskanu ‘let down, sagging’ (Lat. laist: nolaidies), Est. jema ‘mother’: pajema ‘stepmother’ (Lat. māte: pamāte), and so on19. 15 J. Endzelīns, Latviešu valodas gramatika, Rīgā, 1951, p. 32. Ibid., pp. 10–11.16 17 Б. А. Серебренников, О некоторых возможных причинах происхождения иллативного значения у латышского локатива, „Rakstu krājums...“, p. 243—246. 18 П. А. Аристэ, Ливы и ливский язык, p. 43. 19 P. Ariste, Indoeuropäische Präfixe in den ostseefinnischen Sprachen, „Studii si cercetari lingvistice omagiu lui Al. Graur cu prilejul implinirii a 60 de ani“, 3, Bucuresti, 1960, p. 338. 8. Kalbotyros klausimai VI. 113 Baltic-language loans in the Baltic Finnic languages The influence of some languages on others is manifested primarily in vocabulary. The linguistic relations between the Baltic and Baltic Finnic languages were also most clearly reflected in vocabulary. In his book “The Structure and Development of the Finnish Language” (“Suomen kielen rakenne ja kehitys”, Helsinki, 1946)20, the Finnish linguist L. Hakulinen presents interesting statistics on the lexical composition of contemporary literary Finnish. Careful analysis has shown that Baltic loanwords make up 1.1% of contemporary literary Finnish; in other words, of every thousand Finnish words, eleven are of Baltic origin. It should be noted that such a percentage of Baltic vocabulary is found in no Indo-European language, despite the fact that the Balts had much more extensive contact with neighboring Indo-European languages. Many words of Baltic origin found in Finnish are also used in contemporary literary Estonian. Although, as mentioned, Baltic loans in the Finnic languages have been studied relatively thoroughly, there are still many controversial issues here as well. In the future, linguistic scholarship will revise more than one conclusion that now seems unquestionable. We shall present the Baltic loanwords identified by the Finnish linguist J. Kalima in his work “Baltic-language loans in the Baltic Finnic languages,” while also citing other literature.21 Finn. ahdas, gen. ahtaan “narrow,” Est. ahas, Est. ahastama “to frighten, oppress,” cf. Lith. ankštas (V. Thomsen, 158—9; J. Kalima, 86; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 5; L. Hakulinen, II, 42). J. Kalima and Y. H. Toivonen state this tentatively.22 Finn. ahingas, gen. ahinkaan “fish spear,” Est. ahingas, gen. ahinga; ahing, gen. ahingi “piercing tool (for fishing),” päeva- ahingid “sunbeams,” cf. Lith. akštinas, akštis (V. Thomsen, 157; J. Kalima, 86; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 5). Finn. aina “always; still,” Est. aina, ainu, ainute “only, merely; wholly,” cf. Old Prussian ainat “always,” Lith. vienàt, Latv. vien (V. Thomsen, 156—7; J. Kalima, 87; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 9; L. Hakulinen, II, 42). J. Kalima and Y. H. Toivonen state this tentatively. Finn. aisa “shaft,” Est. ais, gen. aisa “shaft of a forked pole” may have originated from some Baltic-language word that is now found neither in the modern Baltic languages nor, in general, in Baltic-language written sources (J. Kalima, 87—8; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). 20 А. Хакулинен, Развитие и структура финского языка, ч. II, Москва, 1955, p. 151. 21 Of the Baltic Finnic languages, we give here first only examples from Finnish and Estonian; examples from the other Baltic Finnic languages (Livonian, Karelian, Veps, Votic) are cited only when they are not found in Finnish and Estonian. 22 The works by the authors mentioned here are intended: V. Thomsen, Beröringer mellem de finske og de baltiske (litauisk-lettiske) Sprog, København, 1890; J. Kalima, Itämeren-suomalaisten kielten balttilaiset lainasanat, Helsinki, 1936; Y. H. Toivonen, Suomen kielen etymologinen sanakirja, I—II (II — Y. H. Toivonen, E. Itkonen, A. J. Joki); Helsinki, 1955—1958; А. Хакулинен, Развитие и структура финского языка, ч. II, Москва, 1955; П. А. Аристэ, Примечания к книге А. Хакулинена. 114 Liv. aistai “freckle (on the face),” cf. Lith. änkštara, inkštiras, Latv. ankšteri “maggots, larvae, grubs” (V. Thomsen, 158; J. Kalima, 88). V. Thomsen considers the claim doubtful. Finn. aitta, gen. aitan “storehouse,” Est. ait, gen. aida “granary, storehouse” may derive from a now-unknown Baltic word, which some attempt to connect with Lith. aitvaras (J. Kalima, 88–90; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I. 11). Finn. ajattara, ajattaro, aattara “mythological being,” Est. äijätär “witch, mother of the devil, daughter of Judas,” cf. Lith. aitvaras (J. Kalima, 90). J. Kalima considers the claim doubtful. Finn. ankerias, angerjas, änkeriäs “eel,” Est. angerjas, cf. Lith. ungurys, Old Pruss. angurgis (V. Thomsen, 158; J. Kalima, 90–1; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 19). Finn. ansa “noose, snare, trap, cord,” Est. aas, gen. aasa “stitch, eyelet, noose, loop, handle,” cf. Lith. ąsą, Latv. uosa, Old Pruss. ansis “kettle hook” (V. Thomsen, 159; J. Kalima, 91; L. Hakulinen, II, 41, Y. H. Toivonen, I, 19). Finn. apila, apilas “clover,” cf. Lith. dobilas, Latv. ābuls, Old Pruss. wobilis (V. Thomsen, 156; J. Kalima, 91; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 21; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). J. Kalima, Y. H. Toivonen, and L. Hakulinen consider the claim doubtful. Finn. arta, gen. arran “pole framework for hanging a net, etc.,” cf. Lith. ār̃das, ardai, Latv. ārds, ārdi “drying beams in the heated threshing barn: thick beams fitted above or beside the stove in the room for drying flax, clothes, etc.; the beams in the kitchen or bathhouse, in Livonia also above the threshing-barn stove for smoking meat: the hearth” (V. Thomsen, 159; J. Kalima, 91–2). V. Thomsen considers the claim doubtful. Est. eherus, iherüs “brown trout (Salmo trutta),” cf. Lith. ešerys, Latv. asars, asers (J. Kalima, 92). The claim is considered doubtful. Finn. elki, eljen “disposition, temperament,” eljet, elkeen, elkiä “moody; ill-tempered,” cf. Lith. elgesys, elgtis (J. Kalima, 92–3; L. Hakulinen, II, 42; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 36–7). Y. H. Toivonen considers the claim doubtful. Finn. hako “cut green branch of a conifer, fir, spruce, or juniper brushwood, fallen tree,” Est. hagu “brushwood; panicle, crown of a deciduous tree,” cf. Lith. žagaras, Latv. žāgars, Lith. žaginiai, Latv. žagas “fallen leaves, leafy rods, bath branches,” cf. also Lith. šakā, Latv. sakas “pitchfork, harness collar” (J. Kalima, 93–4; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 50–1). The word’s etymology is considered somewhat doubtful. Finn. haljakka “light blue; pale gray; skirt made of bluish fabric,” halea, halia, haleva “light green; gray, grayish,” Est. haljas, gen. halja “bright, shining, bright green,” cf. Lith. žalias, Latv. zaļš, Old Pruss. saligan (V. Thomsen, 244–6; J. Kalima, 94–5; L. Hakulinen, II, 40; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 51). Finn. halla “night frost,” Est. hall, gen. halla, cf. Lith. šalna, Latv. salna (V. Thomsen, 220–1; J. Kalima, 95; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 51). 115 Finnish hammas, gen. hampaan ‘tooth’, Estonian hammas, gen. hamba, cf. Lithuanian žãmbas, Latvian zuobs ‘tooth’ (V. Thomsen, 246—7; J. Kalima, 95—6; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; P. H. Toivonen, I, 54). Finnish hanhi, gen. hanhen ‘goose’, Estonian hani, cf. Lithuanian žąsis, Latvian zuoss, Old Prussian sansy (V. Thomsen, 247; J. Kalima, 96; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 55). P. Ariste (II, 279) doubts the Baltic etymology of the Finnish word mentioned above. Finnish harakka ‘magpie’, Estonian harakas, harak, cf. Lithuanian šárka, Old Prussian sarke (V. Thomsen, 221; J. Kalima, 96; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 57—8). J. Kalima and L. Hakulinen consider it doubtful. Finnish harja ‘bristle, mane, brush, comb’, Estonian hari, gen. harja ‘brush, hackle, comb, ridge’, cf. Lithuanian šer̃ys, Latvian sars (V. Thomsen, 222; J. Kalima, 97; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 58). Finnish harmaa ‘gray’, Estonian arm, armi ‘gray, light gray, a dog’s name’, cf. Lithuanian šìrmas, Latvian sirmus (V. Thomsen, 223—4; J. Kalima, 97; L. Hakulinen, II, 40; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 59). Finnish hautoo ‘to brood, hatch’, haude ‘to warm’, Estonian haudma ‘to brood, incubate’, hauduma ‘to brood, hatch, mash, scald’, cf. Latvian sautēt ‘to warm, scald; beat’, Lithuanian Samogitian šautas ‘sorrel soup, leaf soup’; Lithuanian šùsti, Latvian sust (J. Kalima, 97—8; L. Hakulinen, II, 42; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 63). The assertions are considered doubtful. Finnish havu, havo ‘conifer branch; tree needle’, cf. Lithuanian žãbas, žãbaras (J. Kalima, 99; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 64). The assertions are considered doubtful. Finnish heimo ‘kin, tribe, relatives’, Estonian håim, gen. hõimu ‘kinship, relative’, cf. Lithuanian šeimà, Latvian saime ‘household; family in the broader sense’, Old Prussian seimins (V. Thomsen, 222; J. Kalima, 99; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 64). Finnish heinä ‘hay, grass, herb’, Estonian hein, cf. Lithuanian šiẽnas, Latvian siens (V. Thomsen, 223; J. Kalima, 99—100; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 64—5). Finnish heitiä, hetiä ‘to flower (of rye, barley)’, hede ‘flower’, hedelmä ‘fruit’, cf. Lithuanian žydėti, žiedas (V. N. Toporov, O. N. Trubačiov, 247). Finnish helle, gen. helteen ‘muggy; heat’, cf. Lithuanian šiltis, šiltas, Latvian silìs (J. Kalima, 100; L. Hakulinen, II, 40; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 67). J. Kalima and L. Hakulinen consider it doubtful. Finnish herhiläinen, hörhiläinen, hörhöläinen ‘wasp, hornet’, Estonian herilane, erilane, cf. Lithuanian širšuõ, širšuolis, Latvian sirsenis, Old Prussian sirsilis (V. Thomsen, 224; J. Kalima, 100; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 70). Finnish herne ‘pea’, Estonian hernes, cf. Lithuanian žirnis, Latvian zirnis, Old Prussian syyne ‘grain’ (V. Thomsen, 251; J. Kalima, 100—1; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, 70). 116 Finn. hihna “strap, leather belt,” Est. ihn, cf. Lith. šikšna, Latv. siksna (V. Thomsen, 223; J. Kalima, 101; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 73). P. Ariste (II, 279) doubts that the Finnish words are Baltic. Finn. hirvi, gen. hirven; hirvus, gen. hirvahan “elk, deer,” Est. hirv, gen. hirve “roe deer,” cf. Old Prussian sirwis “roe deer” (V. Thomsen, 225; J. Kalima, 101—2; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 78). Veps. hähk, gen. hähkän “otter (mink),” cf. Lith. šeškas, Latv. sesks (V. Thomsen, 223; J. Kalima, 102—3). Finn. härkä “ox,” Est. härg, gen. härja, cf. Lith. žirgas, Latv. zirgs “horse,” Old Prussian sirgis “stallion” (V. Thomsen, 249—51; J. Kalima, 103; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 99). Finn. härmä “hoarfrost,” Est. härm, gen. härma, cf. Lith. šarmà, Latv. sarma, serma (V. Thomsen, 221; J. Kalima, 103—4; L. Hakulinen, II, 40; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 99). Finn. irta “loose, free state” has been tentatively connected with Lith. irti, Latv. irt, Lith. ardýti, Latv. ārdīt (V. Thomsen, 174; J. Kalima, 104; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 108). Finn. jäytää “to gnaw, chafe (to rub); to nibble, gnaw (to gnaw, eat)” has been tentatively connected with Lith. ėsti, Latv. ēst, Old Prussian ist (J. Kalima, 201). Finn. jäära, jaara “ram, male sheep,” Est. jäär, jaar, cf. Lith. érdas, Latv. jērs, Old Prussian eristian (V. Thomsen, 169; J. Kalima, 104; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 133). Finn. kaarna “bark, pine bark,” Est. kaarn, gen. kaarna “scrape,” cf. Lith. karnà (J. Kalima, 104—5; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 135). They associate them tentatively. Veps. kabuta “to embrace” is tentatively connected by J. Kalima (105) with Lith. kabinti. Finn. kaikki “all, every,” Est. kõik, gen. kõige “all, whole,” cf. Lith. kiek, kiekvienas, Latv. cik (V. Thomsen, 186—7; J. Kalima, 105; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 141). The connection is proposed tentatively. Finn. kaima “namesake,” Est. kaim, gen. kaimu “relative in name, relative, fellow,” cf. Lith. káimas, kiėmas, Latv. ciems, Old Prussian caymis, Lith. kaimýnas, Old Prussian kaiminan, Latv. cieminš “a guest from the nearby neighborhood; a guest in general” (V. Thomsen, 177; J. Kalima, 105—6; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 142). Finn. kaleva: Kalevanpoika “giant, large, strong man,” Est. Kalevipoeg is tentatively connected with Lith. kálvis (J. Kalima, 106). Finn. kantele, gen. kanteleen “a primitive Finnish zither, equipped with five strings and played with the fingers,” Est. kannel, gen. kandle “harp,” is tentatively connected with Lith. kañklės, Latv. kuokle (V. Thomsen, 178—81; J. Kalima, 106—7; L. Hakulinen, II, 42). Finn. kappale “piece, thing, object,” cf. Lith. gābalas, Latv. gabals (V. Thomsen, 170; J. Kalima, 107; L. Hakulinen, I, 139, II, 42; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 160). P. Ariste (I, 302) argues that the Balts borrowed this word from the Baltic Finns. 117 Votic (vatjalaiset) karissā “to punish”, Est. karistama “to chastise, punish, impress upon”, kari “strict command, impulse, strict discipline”, karima “to tend, guard; to chastise, keep under discipline” is tentatively connected with Lithuanian kāras, Latvian karš (J. Kalima, 107). Finn. karsas, kilm. karsaan “crooked, squinting”, cf. Lithuanian skreĩsas, Latvian šķērs (V. Thomsen, 218; J. Kalima, 108; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 165). They propose the connection with reservations. Finn. karsina is a word used in Finnish dialects in at least ten senses, and in both its phonetic structure and meaning it recalls Lithuanian gardinys, gardas (J. Kalima, 108; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 165). Finn. karsta “wool comb, card” is tentatively connected with Lithuanian karšti, karštuvai (J. Kalima, 108—9; Y. H. Toivonen, 165—6). Finn. karta “sheet iron” is tentatively connected with Lithuanian skārda, Latvian skārde (V. Thomsen, 218; J. Kalima, 110—1; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 166). Veps. karte “in a similar manner, like, by way of” is tentatively connected with Latvian kārta “layer, position, row” (J. Kalima, 201—3). Finn. kartta “trough” is tentatively connected with Lithuanian prākartas “a trough for feeding animals, hollowed out of a round log; a manger”, Old Prussian pracartis “trough” (J. Kalima, 111; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 166). Finn. karva “hair; color”, Est. karv, gen. karva, cf. Lithuanian gaurai, Latvian gauri (V. Thomsen, 171—2; J. Kalima, 111; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 166—7). Finn. karvas, kilm. karpahan “basket, small boat” is tentatively connected with Lithuanian kāibas “basket”, Latvian kārba (J. Kalima, 109—10; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 167). Finn. karve, kilm. karpeen “tree moss, lichen”, Est. karbe, kilm. karpe, cf. Latvian karpitnes “lichens (lichenes)”, kērpes “lichen moss on roofs”, Lithuanian kérpės (V. Thomsen, 186; J. Kalima, 111—2; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 167). Finn. kataja, katava “juniperus”, Est. kadakas, kadak, cf. Lithuanian kadagys, Latvian kadegs, Old Prussian kadegis (V. Thomsen, 176; J. Kalima, 112; L. Hakulinen, I, 108). J. Kalima and L. Hakulinen express reservations. P. Ariste (I, 301) thinks that the Balts must have borrowed this word from the Baltic Finnic languages. Finn. kauha “ladle”, cf. Lithuanian kaušas, Latvian kauss (V. Thomsen, 184—5; J. Kalima, 112—3; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 172). Finn. kaula “neck”, Est. kael, cf. Lithuanian kaklas, Latvian kakls (V. Thomsen, 177; J. Kalima, 113; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 173). Finn. kaunata “to resent someone over something, to hold something against someone”, cf. Latvian kauns “shame, disgrace, ignominy” (J. Kalima, 113). The connection is proposed tentatively. Finn. kekäle “brand, firebrand”, cf. Lithuanian dėgalas (J. Kalima, 113—4; L. Hakulinen, II, 40). They propose the connection with reservations. Finn. kela “reel”, cf. Old Prussian kelan “wheel”, maluna-kelan “mill wheel”, Latvian duceles “two-wheeled cart” (V. Thomsen, 185; J. Kalima, 114; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 179). They propose the connection with reservations. 118 Finn. keli ‘sleigh track’, cf. Lith. kelias, Latv. ceļš (V. Thomsen, 185, J. Kalima, 114; L. Hakulinen, II, 40; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 179). Finn. kelle, gen. kelteen; kelles, gen. kelteen ‘surface slice; lump (piece of a surface [usually of wood]; piece)’, cf. Lith. skiltis (J. Kalima, 114—5; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 179). Y. H. Toivonen suggests this with reservations. Finn. kelta, keltainen ‘yellow’, Est. kõld, kold ‘yellow, yellow color’, cf. Lith. geltà, geltas, Latv. dzeltens (V. Thomsen, 172; J. Kalima, 115; L. Hakulinen, II, 40; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 180). Finn. kerta ‘layer, storey; series, sequence; period; time’, Est. kord, gen. korda, cf. Old Prussian en kėrdan ‘at the time’, prei swaian kerdan ‘in his time’ (V. Thomsen, 185—6; J. Kalima, 115—7; L. Hakulinen, II,42; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 184—5). J. Kalima and L. Hakulinen suggest this with reservations. Liv. kēu ‘mare’ is tentatively connected with Latv. kēve, Lith. kēvė (J. Kalima, 117). Liv. kill ‘green woodpecker’, cf. Latv. dzilna, dzilnis ‘woodpecker (only the larger species of woodpecker)’ (V. Thomsen, 173; J. Kalima, 117). Finn. kina ‘quarrel, strife; bickering; discord; dispute’, kinata ‘to quarrel, argue, tease one another’ is tentatively connected with Lith. ginčas, ginčyti (J. Kalima, 117—8). Finn. kinnas, gen. kintaan ‘mitten’, Est. kinnas, gen. kinda, cf. Latv. cimds (V. Thomsen, 187; J. Kalima, 118; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 195—6). All propose this with reservations. Finn. kirstu ‘box, coffin’, Est. kirst, gen. kirstu, cf. Lith. karštas (J. Kalima, 118; J. H. Toivonen, I, 200). The connection is doubtful. Finn. kirves, gen. kirveen ‘axe’, Est. kirves, gen. kirve ‘axe, hatchet’, cf. Lith. kirvis, Latv. cirvs (V. Thomsen, 189; J. Kalima, 118—9; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, I, 200). Finn. kirvi, kirvinen, kiuru ‘lark’ is tentatively connected with Latv. cīrulis (J. Kalima, 119). Finn. kouko ‘death’, Est. kõu, gen. kõue; kõukene, gen. kõukese ‘old man’, cf. Lith. kaukas ‘house spirit; soul of an unbaptized child; devil’, Latv. kauks ‘goblin’, Old Prussian cawx ‘devil’ (J. Kalima, 119—20; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 226). This is proposed with reservations. Est. kõblas, gen. kõpla ‘mattock, grub hoe’, kõblima ‘to hoe, break up (the earth)’ is tentatively connected with Lith. kablys, Latv. kaplis (J. Kalima, 120). Finn. kuhmu ‘swelling, lump, knot’, Est. kuhm ‘swelling’ is tentatively connected with Latv. kuzma ‘goitre; hump, hunch’ (J. Kalima, 120—1). Est. kukru ‘nape’, Karel. kukkuri is connected with Lith. kukūrai, kukūriai ‘hump, nape’ (J. Kalima, 121). Finn. kulo ‘old grass from the previous year that has remained unmown’, Est. kulu, kulo, cf. Latv. kūla ‘old, dry grass from the previous year; the old hair of animals; the old skin of a snake’, Lith. kūlės, kūlėti (V. Thomsen, 190—1, 263; J. Kalima, 121—2; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 234—5). This is proposed with reservations. 119 Finnish kupo ‘bundle of straw’, Estonian kubu, kubo ‘bundle, lapful’; cf. Lithuanian gubà, Latvian guba (J. Kalima, 122; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 243). J. Kalima makes the claim tentatively. Finnish kurko, kurki ‘an evil spirit, devil, ghost, bear, louse’; cf. Old Prussian curche, curcho ‘the harvest god of the pagan Prussians’ (J. Kalima, 122—3; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 245). Estonian kurb, genitive kurva ‘sad, sorrowful’; cf. Lithuanian skūrbė ‘grief’, skurbstū (J. Kalima, 123). Finnish kurpponen, kurppunen, kurpunen, ‘a kind of shoe made of hairy leather’; cf. Lithuanian kūrpė, Latvian kurpe, Old Prussian kurpe (V. Thomsen, 191—2; J. Kalima, 123; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 246). Estonian kurt, genitive kurdi ‘deaf’; cf. Lithuanian kur̃tas, kur̃čias, Latvian kurls (V. Thomsen, 192; J. Kalima, 123). Finnish kuuro ‘deaf’; cf. Latvian kuorns ‘deaf’ (J. Kalima, 124; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 252). Finnish kypärä, kypäri ‘helmet, high cap, hat’, Estonian kübar, genitive kübara ‘hat, cap’; cf. Lithuanian kepurė, Latvian cepure (V. Thomsen, 185; J. Kalima, 124; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 256). Finnish kytö, kyttö ‘a long stripe of a different color on the back of an ox or horse’; Estonian küüt, genitive küüdu ‘striped; livestock with a white stripe along the back’ is tentatively connected with Lithuanian skiaūtas, skiaūtė ‘patch, piece of cloth’ (K. Būga, Aist. st.23, 70, 94), skiaūtė (J. Kalima, 203). Finnish kyäs, genitive kykään ‘haycock, haystack, hayrick, haystacks’ is tentatively connected with Lithuanian kūgis (J. Kalima, 124; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 258). Finnish käki, genitive käen ‘cuckoo’, Estonian kägi is tentatively connected with Lithuanian gegė, gegutė, Latvian dzeguze, Old Prussian geguse (V. Thomsen, 172; J. Kalima, 124—5; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 259). Finnish kärme, käärme ‘serpent’; cf. Lithuanian kirmis, kīrminas, kirmėlė, Latvian cirmenis (V. Thomsen, 188; J. Kalima, 125; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 265). Estonian kärpima ‘to shear, lop, prune (trees)’; cf. Lithuanian kirpti, Latvian cirpt (J. Kalima, 125—6). Finnish kääppä, genitive kääpän ‘raised mound’, Estonian kääp, kääbas ‘raised mound; burial mound; ghost’; cf. Lithuanian käpas, Latvian kaps (J. Kalima, 126; L. Hakulinen, II, 40; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 265). J. Kalima and Y. H. Toivonen make the claim tentatively. Finnish lahto, genitive lahdon ‘a snare set in the crown of a tree to catch birds’; cf. Lithuanian sląstai, Latvian slasts, slazds (V. Thomsen, 219; J. Kalima, 126—7; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 269). Finnish laiha ‘lean’, Estonian lahi, genitive lahja; cf. Lithuanian liesas, Latvian liess (V. Thomsen, 196; J. Kalima, 127; L. Hakulinen, II, 42; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 269). 23 K. Būga, Aistiški studijai, d. I, Peterburgas, 1908. 120 Finn. laiska, gen. laiskan “lazy,” Est. laisk, cf. Latv. laiks “lazy, sluggish” (V. Thomsen, 193; J. Kalima, 127; L. Hakulinen, II, 42; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 270). Y. H. Toivonen makes the connection tentatively. Finn. laita “order, condition, relationship” is being tentatively connected with Lith. lieta “use, advantage, gain; purpose,” Latv. lieta “thing, object” (V. Thomsen, 196; J. Kalima, 127—8). Finn. laita “side, edge, border, gunwale,” Est. laed “a row of planking on a ship” is being tentatively connected with Latv. laides “the boards attached to the upper edge of a boat hollowed out of a log to make it larger” (V. Thomsen, 193; J. Kalima, 128—9). Y. H. Toivonen considers Latv. laides to have been borrowed from Estonian (Y. H. Toivonen, II, 271). Finn. laiva “ship,” Est. laev “ship, large boat,” cf. Lith. laivas, Latv. laiva (V. Thomsen, 193; J. Kalima, 129; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 271). Y. H. Toivonen states this with reservations. Recently, some researchers have considered the Baltic name for a boat (Lith. laivas, Latv. laiva) a borrowing from Baltic Finnic; cf. p. 133. Finn. laukki “blaze,” Est. lauk, gen. lauga “blaze, white spot on an animal’s forehead, crown (at the front of the hair), an animal with a blaze,” cf. Lith. laukàs “an animal with a white muzzle or white forehead,” Latv. lauks (V. Thomsen, 194; J. Kalima, 129; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 281). Finn. lausua “to express, give expression to something, pronounce, declaim,” Est. lausuda “to recite, chant (speak)” is being tentatively connected with Lith. kláusti, Latv. klaust (J. Kalima, 129—30). Finn. lauta “board, bench, table, sauna bench,” Est. laut, gen. laudu “shelf, board frame (especially on a wall, for placing things on), layer of laths” is being tentatively connected with Lith. plautas “wide sauna bench; side board of a log beehive; board nailed to the side of a boat to keep it from capsizing and water from coming in,” Latv. plauts “wall shelf, shelf,” plaukts “shelf, repository” (V. Thomsen, 209; J. Kalima, 130—1; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 282—3). Finn. lava “framework of boards, bed frame, bunk, bed; sheaf stack; hotbed,” Est. lava “sauna benches” is being tentatively connected with Lith. lóva, Latv. lāva “sauna bench, plank bench in a sauna” (J. Kalima, 131—2). Finn. leuka “chin,” Est. lõug, gen. lõua “chin, jaw” is being tentatively connected with Lith. liukà (J. Kalima, 132). Y. H. Toivonen tentatively derives Finn. leuka from Germ. *fleugō (Y. H. Toivonen, II, 288). E. Nieminen also denies that Finn. leuka is of Baltic origin (E. Nieminen, Eripainos Virittäjästä, 1945, Nr. 1, p. 40—56). Finn. lielo: yölielo “caprimulgus; strix funerea” is being tentatively connected with Lith. lėlìs, lėlỹs “caprimulgus europaeus,” Latv. lēlis “night raven” (J. Kalima, 132—3). Finn. liika “surplus,” liian “too much,” liika luku “uneven number,” Est. liig “too much, excessive, excess,” is connected with Lith. liėkas, 121 Latv. lieks (V. Thomsen, 195—6; J. Kalima, 133; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 292). Finnish lohi, gen. lohen “salmon,” Estonian lõhi, gen. lõhe, cf. Lithuanian lašišà, Latvian lasis, Old Prussian lasasso (V. Thomsen, 194; J. Kalima, 133; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 300). Finnish louhia “to gnaw, break, split,” louhi “large stone, boulder,” louhos “quarry,” cf. Lithuanian láužti, Latvian lauzt (V. Thomsen, 194—5; J. Kalima, 133—4; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 304). He expresses this view hesitantly. Finnish luhta “low-lying meadow, marsh meadow,” Estonian luht, gen. luha “a low-lying streamside meadow that is flooded during high water, also the sedges growing there,” cf. Lithuanian lūkštas “marsh marigold (caltha palustris),” Latvian luksts “an enclosed place, a damp, low-lying meadow” (V. Thomsen, 197; J. Kalima, 134—5; L. Hakulinen, II, 40; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 306). Finnish lunka “the ease with which bark can be peeled from a fresh, growing tree,” cf. Lithuanian lūnkas “peeled bark, bast,” Old Prussian lunkan, Latvian lūks (J. Kalima, 135; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 309—10). Y. H. Toivonen expresses this view hesitantly. Finnish luoma “a tributary of a river, or of one of its branches, intermediate in size between a ditch and a river; an embankment; the bed of a dried-up river... (a side channel, the bed of a dried-up river...)” is tentatively linked with Lithuanian lomā, Latvian lāma (J. Kalima, 135; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 312). Finnish luuta “broom,” Estonian luud, gen. luua, cf. Lithuanian šluota, Latvian sluota (V. Thomsen, 225—6; J. Kalima, 135—6; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 316). Finnish maja “hut, inn, shelter, lodging, accommodation,” Estonian maja “house, hut, dwelling,” cf. Latvian māja “farmstead; dwelling in the broader sense, house, homeland” (V. Thomsen, 198; J. Kalima, 136—7; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 328). Some Latvian māja words are considered of Finnish origin, cf. p. Finnish malka, gen. malan “roof lath,” Estonian malk, gen. malga “stick, stave, cudgel, pole,” cf. Lithuanian mālka, Latvian malka, Old Prussian malko “wood” (V. Thomsen, 198; J. Kalima, 137; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 330). Finnish meri, gen. meren, Estonian meri, gen. mere, cf. Lithuanian mārios, Old Prussian mary “lagoon” (V. Thomsen, 198—9; J. Kalima, 137—8; L. Hakulinen, II, 40; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 341). V. Thomsen advanced this view tentatively. Finnish metu “honey,” Estonian mõdu, cf. Lithuanian medūs, Latvian medus, Old Prussian meddo (V. Thomsen, 200; J. Kalima, 138; Y. H. Toivonen, 343). He expresses this view hesitantly. Finnish morsian, gen. morsiamen “bride,” Estonian mõrs, gen. mõrsi; mõrsja, gen. mõrsja “grown girl; bride,” cf. Lithuanian marti, Latvian mārša, Old Prussian martin, martan “bride” (V. Thomsen, 199—200; J. Kalima, 138; L. Hakulinen, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 348). Finnish muli: mulipää “hornless,” cf. Lithuanian mūlas, šmūlas, Latvian muls “without horns” (V. Thomsen, 226; J. Kalima, 138—9; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 350). 122 Est. mulk, gen. mulgi ‘nickname for the people of Fellin among the Werro Estonians’ is tentatively linked with Lithuanian mulkis (J. Kalima, 139). Finn. mytyri ‘cap, hat’ is tentatively linked with Lithuanian mūturas (J. Kalima, 139; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 356). Finn. mäntä ‘butter churner, whisk’, Est. mänd, gen. männa, cf. Lithuanian mentė, mentūris, Latvian mieturs (V. Thomsen, 200—1; J. Kalima, 139—40; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 359). Finn. märkä ‘wet, pus’, Est. märg, gen. märja ‘wet; dampness, liquid, drink’, cf. Latvian mērka ‘dampness, a completely soaked object’, Lithuanian merkti (V. Thomsen, 201; J. Kalima, 140—1; L. Hakulinen, II, 40; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 360). J. Kalima, L. Hakulinen, and Y. H. Toivonen express reservations. Finn. napa ‘navel’, Est. naba, gen. nāvd ‘navel, hub, pole’, cf. Latvian naba ‘navel; the crosspiece of the plough’s coulter’, Old Prussian nabis ‘navel; hub of a wheel’ (V. Thomsen, 201; J. Kalima, 141; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 365). Y. H. Toivonen expresses reservations. Karelian nautti ‘poor growth (of plants)’ is tentatively linked with Old Prussian nautin ‘not’ (J. Kalima, 141). Finn. nepaa, gen. nepaan ‘a sibling’s child on the father’s side, that is, the children of the father’s brother or sister’, Est. nõbu ‘sibling’s child, cousin’, nõbedused ‘children of brothers’, cf. Old Lithuanian nepuotis, nepotis ‘grandson, nephew’, neptė ‘granddaughter’ (V. Thomsen, 203; J. Kalima, 141; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 373). Finn. niisi, gen. niiden ‘weaving’, Est. niis, gen. niie ‘weaving, clasp’, cf. Lithuanian nýtis, Latvian nīts ‘part of a loom’ (V. Thomsen, 203—4; J. Kalima, 142; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 378). Finn. nukero ‘lower end of the spine’. Liv. nugar: sālganugar ‘the back ridge of animals’ is tentatively linked with Lithuanian nugarà, Latvian mugura (V. Thomsen, 204; J. Kalima, 142; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 396). Finn. nuode, gen. nuoteen ‘sister’s husband, brother-in-law’ is tentatively linked with Latvian znuots ‘son-in-law; brother-in-law’ (V. Thomsen, 251; J. Kalima, 142; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 299—300). Finn. oinas, gen. oin aan, Est. oinas, õinas ‘male sheep, ram’, cf. Lithuanian ávinas, Latvian avns, Old Prussian awins (V. Thomsen, 160; J. Kalima, 142—3; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 422). Finn. olut, gen. oluen ‘beer’, Est. õlut, õlu is tentatively linked with Lithuanian 1 alùs, Latvian alus, Old Prussian alu ‘mead’ (V. Thomsen, 157—8; J. Kalima, 143; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 428). Finn. orsi (orte-), gen. orren ‘rafters, beams, rafter’, Est. õrs, gen. õrre ‘pole’, õre-puu ‘stretcher beam’, cf. Lithuanian ardas ‘young poles on which flax or grain is laid to dry’, Latvian ārds, ārde (J. Kalima, 143—4; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 439). Finn. -pa, -pää, an intensifying particle, Est. -p, -ba is tentatively linked with Latvian -ba (-be, -b) (V. Thomsen, 160—1; J. Kalima, 144; L. Hakulinen, I, 217, II, 42). 123 Finnish paarre, genitive paarteen ‘hem, fold, trimming’ is compared with Latvian bārksts, bārkste, bārsts ‘fringe, fiber; the hem of a garment’ (V. Thomsen, 162; J. Kalima, 144). Finnish pahla, genitive pahlan ‘switch, rod’, Estonian pahi, pahlas ‘spear, pointed stick (for piercing)’ are compared with Lithuanian baslÿs (J. Kalima, 144–5; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 456). Estonian pahr, genitive pahru ‘elk’ is compared with Lithuanian pāršas (J. Kalima, 145). Finnish paimen ‘herdsman’, Estonian paimendama ‘to protect, guard’ are compared with Lithuanian piemuo (V. Thomsen, 208; J. Kalima, 145; L. Hakulinen, II, 41; Y. H. Toivonen, II, 459). Livonian palandaks ‘pigeon (dove)’ is compared with Lithuanian balandis and Latvian baluodis (V. Thomsen, 161; J. Kalima, 145). Finnish panu ‘fire’, compare Old Prussian panno ‘fire’, panustaclan ‘fire steel’ (V. Thomsen, 206; J. Kalima, 146). Finnish parjata, parjaan ‘to revile, blaspheme, slander’ is compared with Lithuanian bārti and Latvian bart (J. Kalima, 146; L. Hakulinen, II, 42). Finnish parta, genitive parran ‘beard’, Estonian pard, genitive parra are compared with Lithuanian barzdā, Latvian bārda, and Old Prussian bordus (V. Thomsen, 162; J. Kalima, 146). Finnish pauna ‘small bag or rucksack carried by a strap slung over the shoulder’, Estonian paun, genitive pauna ‘knapsack, pack (jocularly) stomach’ is linked by J. Kalima (146) to Latvian pauna ‘a small cap; a knapsack; rags; bundle, burden’. V. Thomsen (272) regarded Latvian pauna as a borrowing from the Baltic Finnic languages. Finnish pelu, plural pelut ‘chaff’, compare Lithuanian pėlūs, Latvian pelus, and Old Prussian pelwo (V. Thomsen, 207; J. Kalima, 147). Finnish perkele, genitive perkeleen; perkule ‘devil’, Estonian pergel, põrgel are compared with Lithuanian perkūnas, Latvian pērkūns, pērkuons, and Old Prussian percunis (V. Thomsen, 207; J. Kalima, 147; L. Hakulinen, II, 42). Finnish pirtti, genitive pirtin ‘smokehouse (a hut without a chimney), servants’ room’ is compared with Lithuanian pirtis and Latvian pirts (V. Thomsen, 208; J. Kalima, 148; L. Hakulinen, II, 42). Finnish purje, genitive purjeen ‘sail’, Estonian purje are compared with Lithuanian būrė (V. Thomsen, 163–4; J. Kalima, 148). J. Kalima is doubtful. More recently, there has been a tendency to regard the Baltic term for ‘sail’ as a borrowing from the Baltic Finnic languages; compare p. Finnish puuro, putro ‘porridge, gruel’, Estonian pudr, genitive pudru ‘porridge, cooked gruel’ are compared with Lithuanian putrā and Latvian putra ‘gruel, porridge’ (V. Thomsen, 210; J. Kalima, 148–9; L. Hakulinen, II, 42). Finnish rahna, rahno, rahnu ‘splinter, shard (wood chip, fragment, splinter)’, Estonian rahn, genitive rahnu, rahna ‘unsplit trunk, log, block’ are compared with Lithuanian rąstas (J. Kalima, 149). Finnish rahtu ‘particle (a small part of something)’ is compared with Lithuanian raštas and Latvian raksts (J. Kalima, 149–50). Finnish raita “willow, osier,” Estonian raid, genitive raia “crack willow (Salix fragilis), also other tree-like willows” is tentatively linked with Latvian priede “pine” (J. Kalima, 150). 124 Finnish rako, genitive raon “crack, cleft,” aidan rako “gap in a fence,” Estonian ragu, pragu, cf. Lithuanian spragą, Latvian spraga “an opening in a fence or in the ice, a gap between two buildings” (V. Thomsen, 219; J. Kalima, 150—1). Finnish ranka, ranko “tree trunk; long timber; backbone” is tentatively linked with Lithuanian drąnga “pole, stake” (J. Kalima, 151). Finnish raisu “wild, unruly, unrestrained, willful” is tentatively linked with Lithuanian drąsūs, Latvian druošs (J. Kalima, 151). Finnish rastas, rāstās “thrush,” Estonian räästas, genitive räästa “thrush, also other bird species,” cf. Lithuanian strāzdas, Latvian strazds, Old Prussian tresde (V. Thomsen, 220; J. Kalima, 151; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish rasti “sign, mark” is tentatively linked with Lithuanian rāstas, Latvian raksts (J. Kalima, 151—2). It is noteworthy that Finnish rastikka “the numeral” was already regarded by K. Jaunius as a borrowing from the Baltic languages (K. Būga, Aist. st., 149). Finnish rata, genitive radan “track,” Estonian rada, genitive raja, raa “stripe, row, footpath, rope ladder (on a mast), track” is tentatively linked with Latvian pusra- tā, uz pusrata “halfway, roughly halfway” (J. Kalima, 152). Finnish ratas, genitive rattaan “wheel,” rattaat “wheels, wagon,” Estonian ratas, genitive ratta “wheel, roller,” cf. Lithuanian rātas, Latvian rats (V. Thomsen, 211; J. Kalima, 152; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish reisi, reite- “thigh,” Estonian reiz, genitive reie, cf. Lithuanian rietas, Latvian rieta “leg” (V. Thomsen, 212; J. Kalima, 152—3; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish reki, genitive reen “sleigh,” Estonian regi, genitive ree, cf. Lithuanian rōgės, Latvian ragavas (V. Thomsen, 211, J. Kalima, 153). Finnish rentiä, rennin “to wade,” Estonian rändama “to travel, go on pilgrimage, wander about, walk around,” cf. Lithuanian bristi, Latvian brist (J. Kalima, 153—4). Finnish reuna “edge, rim,” cf. Lithuanian briaunà (J. Kalima, 154). K. Būga also regarded Finnish reuna as a Balticism (Aist. st., 41—2). Finnish rieska “fresh, unleavened; sweet milk; unleavened, freshly baked barley bread,” Estonian röōsk, genitive röōsa “sweet (not soured); young, tender, innocent (especially of witchcraft),” cf. Lithuanian prēskas (V. Thomsen, 209—10; J. Kalima, 154—5; L. Hakulinen, II, 42). Finnish rihma “band, cord, thread,” Estonian rihm, genitive rihma; rehm, genitive rehma “harness” is tentatively linked with Lithuanian rišimas, ryšys (V. Thomsen, 212; J. Kalima, 155—6). Finnish riita “woodpile” is tentatively linked with Lithuanian sritis “a neatly stacked pile of firewood” (K. Būga, Aist. st., 30; J. Kalima, 156). Finnish rouhia, rouhata “to pound, crush, squeeze,” Estonian rōhuma “to press, squeeze, push,” rōhwe “crumpled, crumbled material; old, crumpled straw,” cf. Latvian krausēt “to pound, thresh the tips off barley grains,” Lithuanian krausýti “to pound, crush” (J. Kalima, 156). Finnish routa, gen. roudan “hard-frozen ground, frozen dung; ground frost,” routakuu “December,” cf. Lithuanian grúodas (V. Thomsen, 173—4; J. Kalima, 157; L. Hakulinen, II, 40). 125 Finnish rujo “crippled, deformed, misshapen, suffering, infirm, disabled,” Estonian ruju, rudu “weak, faint” are tentatively connected with Latvian krūja “plumpsack, cripple” (J. Kalima, 157). Finnish ruopas “heap of stones” is tentatively connected with Latvian drupas “ruins” (J. Kalima, 157—8). Finnish ruskea “brown,” Estonian ruske “bright yellow, reddish brown” are tentatively connected with Latvian ruskans, rūsgans “reddish, brownish, red-brown,” Lithuanian rùdas, rùsvas (J. Kalima, 158). Finnish sakara, sakari “projection, horn, tip” are tentatively connected with Lithuanian siāgaras (J. Kalima, 203). Finnish salo “wooded island, wooded region, large uninhabited forest,” Estonian salu “marsh island, hill in a marsh,” cf. Lithuanian salà, Latvian sala “island, islet; elevation in a marsh” (V. Thomsen, 214; J. Kalima, 158; L. Hakulinen, II, 40). Finnish sammas, sampas “boundary stone, lapis terminalis (boundary marker),” Estonian sammas “column, post, pillar, tool for clamping boards for planing” are tentatively connected with Lithuanian žambas “corner, angle,” žambis, žambris “plough, wooden ard” (J. Kalima, 158—9). Finnish sapu “tail (without hair),” Estonian saba, gen. sava “tail, train, drag, appendage, end, exit” are tentatively connected with Lithuanian stãbas “post, column; idol, apoplexy,” stãbaras “dry tree branch,” Latvian stabs “post, column, pillar, pillory” (J. Kalima, 159—60). Finnish seinä “wall,” Estonian sein, gen. seina, cf. Lithuanian siena, Latvian siena (V. Thomsen, 217; J. Kalima, 160; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish seiväs “fence post, fence stake,” Estonian teivas, saibas, cf. Lithuanian stiebas (V. Thomsen, 219—20; J. Kalima, 160; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish seura “society, retinue,” seuralainen “member of a society, companion,” seurakunta “congregation,” seurata “to follow, accompany,” Estonian sõber, gen. sõbra “friend, beloved, patron, customer,” cf. Lithuanian sėbras, Latvian sėbrs (V. Thomsen, 215—6; J. Kalima, 160—1; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish siemen “seed,” Estonian seeme, gen. seeme, seemne “seed, sowing,” cf. Lithuanian sėmens, sėmenys, Old Prussian semen (V. Thomsen, 216; J. Kalima, 161—2; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish sii “a wall beam supporting the roof structure and projecting beyond the wall surface of the house,” cf. Lithuanian sijà, Latvian sija (E. Nieminen, cf. pp. 177—82). Finnish silta “bridge, footbridge, landing stage; floor,” Estonian sild, gen. silla “bridge, corduroy road, maintained road,” cf. Lithuanian tiltas, Latvian tilts (V. Thomsen, 232; J. Kalima, 162; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish sisär, sisär “sister,” Estonian sõzar, sõhar “sister; sister’s daughter,” cf. Lithuanian sesuõ (V. Thomsen, 217; J. Kalima, 162—3). J. Kalima makes the claim hesitantly. Finnish suova “acervus foeni coniformis in pratis” (“a conical haystack in meadows”), with considerable reservations, is tentatively connected with Lithuanian stógas, Old Prussian stogis (J. Kalima, 204). 126 Finnish taivas “sky,” Estonian taevas, dialectal tǝeva, cf. Lithuanian dievas, Latvian dievs, Old Prussian deywis, deiwas, deiws (V. Thomsen, 166—7; J. Kalima, 163; L. Hakulinen, II, 40). Finnish takiaien (tǝkkiaien, tahkiaien) “burdock,” Estonian takijas, takjas, takis, takaia, tagijas, tagi, cf. Lithuanian dagỹs, Latvian dadzis (V. Thomsen, 165; J. Kalima, 163—4; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish talkoo, plural talkoot; talkoos, talkos “communal feast for all the helpers (at harvest, etc.),” Estonian talgu, plural talgud “harvest feast,” cf. Lithuanian talkà, Latvian talka (V. Thomsen, 226—7; J. Kalima, 164; L. Hakulinen, II, 42). Finnish tapa, dialectal tavan “custom, habit, manner,” tavallinen “ordinary,” Estonian taba, dialectal tava “habit, custom, usage, manner,” cf. Lithuanian dabà “nature, quality, character,” Latvian daba (V. Thomsen, 164—5; J. Kalima, 164—5; L. Hakulinen, II, 42). Finnish tarha “enclosed place, cattle yard, yard around the moon,” puutarha “garden,” Estonian tara, tahr “pen, enclosure, yard around the moon, around the sun,” cf. Lithuanian daržas, Latvian dārzs (V. Thomsen, 166; J. Kalima, 165; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish tarista “to tell, chat,” tarina “tale, fable,” cf. Lithuanian tãrti, Old Prussian tãrin “voice, speech” (V. Thomsen, 228; J. Kalima, 165—6). V. Tomsenas stated this hesitantly. Finnish tarpa, dialectal tarvan “poking pole,” tarpo, dialectal tarvон, Estonian tarbu, dialectal tarbu “fishermen’s poking pole” is tentatively connected with Latvian dalba, dalbs “the trunk of a tree; a fishing pole for driving fish; a pole for pushing, rowing, and holding boats” (J. Kalima, 166). Finnish tarvas “some kind of deer-like animal,” Estonian tauras, tõuras “reindeer,” cf. Lithuanian taūras, Old Prussian tauris “aurochs” (V. Thomsen, 228—30; J. Kalima, 166—7). Finnish taula “tinder,” Estonian tael, tagel, cf. Latvian dagla, degla “birch fungus, birch polypore, and the tinder prepared from it,” Lithuanian dėglas, dãglas “black-and-white (of pigs)” (V. Thomsen, 165; J. Kalima, 167; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish teiri (teire-, teiri-), teeri, teer “black grouse,” Estonian tetre, tedre is connected with Lithuanian tėtervinas, Latvian tetēris, Old Prussian tatarwis “black grouse” (V. Thomsen, 231—2; J. Kalima, 167—8). Finnish temmata, tempaan “to tear, pluck,” Estonian tõmbama “to pull” is tentatively connected with Lithuanian tėmpti, Latvian tiepties (V. Thomsen, 231; J. Kalima, 168; L. Hakulinen, II, 42). Finnish terve “tar,” Estonian tõrv, dialectal tõrva, cf. Lithuanian dervà, Latvian darva (V. Thomsen, 166; J. Kalima, 168—9; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish tiine, dialectal tiineen “pregnant,” Estonian tiine, dialectal tiine is tentatively connected with Lithuanian dieni “about to give birth, to calve (of animals)” (J. Kalima, 169; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish toe, dialectal tokeen “dam, fence in the water for fishing gear,” Estonian tõge, dialectal tõke; tõke, dialectal tõkke “support, icebreaker (at the side of a 127 (bridge), fish weir”; cf. Lithuanian tākišas “salmon weirs in rivers,” Latvian tacis, tace “fish weir,” Old Prussian takes “weir (at a mill)” (V. Thomsen, 226; J. Kalima, 169—70; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish torvi, genitive torven “herdsman’s horn, hunting horn, forest horn; tube,” Estonian tõrv, genitive tõrve “speaking trumpet, wooden herdsman’s horn”; cf. Lithuanian taurė, Latvian taure (V. Thomsen, 230—1; J. Kalima, 170; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Estonian tõug, genitive tõu “group, party, lineage, clan, race, kind” is tentatively compared with Lithuanian daũg, Latvian daũdz (J. Kalima, 170). Finnish tuhat (tuhante-), genitive tuhannen “thousand,” Estonian tuhat, genitive tuhande; cf. Lithuanian tūkstantis, Latvian tūkstuots (V. Thomsen, 232—3; J. Kalima, 170—1; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish tuohi, genitive tuohen “birch bark,” Estonian tohi, genitive tohe, tohu; cf. Lithuanian tõsi, Latvian tāsis (V. Thomsen, 232; J. Kalima, 171). Finnish tuulas, genitive tuulahan, tuulaksen “spearing fish by torchlight; fish spear,” tuulastaa, tuulostaa “to spear with a fish spear (by torchlight)”; cf. Lithuanian dūlis, Latvian dūlajs (V. Thomsen, 168; J. Kalima, 171—2; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish tuura “ice pick,” Estonian tuur, genitive tuura, tuure “crowbar with a wooden handle, harpoon, spear, ice pick,” tuurama “to break open with a crowbar” is tentatively compared with Lithuanian durà “an iron implement with a wooden handle for breaking up harrows,” Latvian dūre, dūris “the fist; an ice axe, the crowbar” (V. Thomsen, 168—9; J. Kalima, 172—3). Finnish tyhjä “empty,” Estonian tühi, genitive tühja; cf. Lithuanian tuščias, Latvian tukšs (V. Thomsen, 233; J. Kalima, 173; L. Hakulinen, II, 42). Finnish tytär, genitive tyttären “daughter,” Estonian tütar, genitive tütre; tüdrar, tüter; Estonian tüdruk “girl, maiden; maid, servant” is connected with Lithuanian duktė, Old Prussian duckti (V. Thomsen, 167—8; J. Kalima, 173—4; L. Hakulinen, II, 42). Estonian uba, genitive oa “bean, vetch, broad bean”; cf. Lithuanian pupà, Latvian pupa (V. Thomsen, 210; J. Kalima, 174). Finnish vaaja “wedge, peg, stake,” Estonian vai, genitive vaiu; vaiga; cf. Lithuanian vãgis, Latvian vedzis (V. Thomsen, 235; J. Kalima, 174; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish vaha “wax,” Estonian vaha; cf. Lithuanian vãškas “wax,” Latvian vasks (V. Thomsen, 238; J. Kalima, 175; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Estonian vaidlema, vaielda “to contradict, dispute, fight, wrestle, strive, long for,” vaidlemata “indisputable, uncontested,” vaidlus “dispute, argument” is tentatively compared with Lithuanian vaidas, Latvian vaids (J. Kalima, 175—6). Finnish vaikku, genitive vaikun “strength, energy, fitness, wealth (strength, energy, courage; self-confidence)”; cf. Lithuanian viekas, veikti (J. Kalima, 176). Finnish vako, genitive vaon “furrow,” Estonian vago, vagu; cf. Lithuanian vagà, Latvian vaga (V. Thomsen, 235; J. Kalima, 176—7; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish vannas “ploughshare,” Estonian vannas, genitive vanda “shovel-shaped piece of wood to which the plough iron is attached; ship’s stem”; cf. Old Prussian wagnis “coulter (part of a plough)” (J. Kalima, 177; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). 128 Finnish vapsahainen, vapsiainen, vaapsahainen, vaaksahainen “wasp,” Estonian vapsik, vapsikas “wasp”; compare Lithuanian vapsà, vapsvà, Old Prussian wobse (V. Thomsen, 236—7; J. Kalima, 177; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish varsi, varte-, genitive varren “shaft, stem, handle; stalk, trunk, torso; physique, growth,” Estonian vars, genitive varre “stalk, stem” is tentatively linked with Lithuanian vārpstis, vārpstė “an old spinning implement: the spindle of a spinning wheel on which the distaff is placed; the iron on which the upper millstone rests; a rod on which the heddles revolve,” Latvian varpsta, vārpsta “spindle, driving wood on a hand mill” (V. Thomsen, 237—8; J. Kalima, 177—8). Finnish vielä “still,” Estonian veel; compare Lithuanian vėl, vėliai, Latvian vēl “still; nevertheless” (V. Thomsen, 240; J. Kalima, 178; L. Hakulinen, II, 42). Finnish vihvilä, vihviläs, vihviläinen “rush,” compare Lithuanian viksvà (V. Thomsen, 242; J. Kalima, 178; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish villa “wool,” Estonian vill “felt,” compare Lithuanian vilna, Latvian vilna, villa, Old Prussian wilna, wilnis “wool” (V. Thomsen, 242; J. Kalima, 178; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish vinka, genitive vingan; vinkke, genitive vinkkeen “chain, kettle hook,” tentatively linked with Lithuanian vingis (J. Kalima, 178—9). Finnish virpi (virpe-), virpu “branch, twig, switch, rod, vine,” Estonian virb, genitive virvi, compare Lithuanian vīrbas, vīrbalas, Latvian virbs (V. Thomsen, 242—3; J. Kalima, 179; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish virsi, genitive virren (virte-) “hymn, hymnal song, song,” compare Old Prussian wīrds “word,” Lithuanian vārdaş, Latvian vārds “word; first name” (J. Kalima, 180; L. Hakulinen, II, 42). Finnish virve, genitive virveen “band, ribbon, fluttering strip (ribbon, band, tie),” compare Lithuanian vīrvė, Latvian virve “cord, rope” (V. Thomsen, 244; J. Kalima, 180). Finnish vuohi, genitive vuohen “goat,” Estonian voho, vohu, compare Lithuanian ožys, Latvian āzis, Old Prussian wosee “goat” (V. Thomsen, 205; J. Kalima, 181; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish vuonna, vuonna “lamb, little lamb,” Estonian vuun is tentatively linked with corresponding Baltic proto-forms (J. Kalima, 181—2; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). Finnish vuota, genitive vuodan “a flayed, raw hide from cattle or a horse,” compare Lithuanian óda, Latvian āda (V. Thomsen, 205; J. Kalima, 183; L. Hakulinen, I, 102, II, 41). Livonian vāgal “burbot,” compare Lithuanian vėgėlė, Latvian vēdzele (V. Thomsen, 238; J. Kalima, 183). Estonian vähi, genitive vähi; vähk, genitive vähi “crayfish,” compare Lithuanian vėžys, Latvian vēzis (V. Thomsen, 241; J. Kalima, 183). Finnish väive, väiveen; vääve, vääveen “animal louse,” Estonian väiv, genitive väivi, väi, genitive väie “small animal louse, head louse, cow louse,” compare Lithuanian vievesà (V. Thomsen, 241; J. Kalima, 183). V. Thomsen expressed doubt. Finnish ätelä “aftermath,” Estonian hädal, genitive hädala, compare Lithuanian atòlas, Latvian atāls, Old Prussian attolis (V. Thomsen, 159—60; J. Kalima, 183—4). 9. Kalbotyros klausimai VI. 129 Finn. äes, gen. äkeen “harrow,” Est. äes, gen. äkke, äe, cf. Lith. akėčios, Latv. ecēšas, Pruss. aketes (V. Thomsen, 169; J. Kalima, 184; L. Hakulinen, II, 41). It is particularly difficult to determine with certainty whether a given Baltic loanword is authentic, because here we are dealing with very long periods of time. Moreover, the Baltic and Baltic-Finnic languages are very different in structure, and a word that passes from one language into another is subject to the rules of the new language over such a long period and changes so much that it becomes impossible to recognize directly. As we have seen, the Baltic origin of some words in the Finnic languages is attested only by Prussian examples. Undoubtedly, the Baltic-Finnic languages also contain words borrowed from the Baltic languages that disappeared from the Baltic languages themselves over thousands of years. Baltic loanwords in the Baltic-Finnic languages have become so thoroughly “Finnicized” that in everyday use no difference at all is felt between them and words of ancient Finnic-Ugric origin. New compound words are formed from these loanwords, their meanings change, and new semantic variants arise. For example, alongside Finnish paimen “shepherd,” there is now also paimentaa “to herd,” paimentaminen “herding, pasturing,” paimenkoira “sheepdog,” paimenpilli “shepherd’s pipe,” paimenpoika “little shepherd,” paimentolainen “nomad,” elää paimentolaisena “to wander,” and alongside Finnish tytär “daughter,” tyttö “girl” has arisen on Finnish soil; alongside Finnish käki “cuckoo,” käetä “to intend, promise” has also arisen, and so on. Most Baltic loanwords in the Baltic-Finnic languages exist on exactly the same footing as, for instance, some beer, book, city or any other loanword in Lithuanian. It is interesting to note that some Baltic loanwords from the Baltic-Finnic languages entered Russian dialects. Here they are: Russian гина, игна, хигна “reindeer-team trace strap,” cf. Finnish hihna “strap, leather belt,” Lithuanian šikšna (M. Vasmer, I, 267).24 Russian гирвас, ирвас “male reindeer in its second year of life,” cf. Finnish hirvas “elk, deer,” Prussian sirwis “roe deer” (M. Vasmer, I, 270). Russian корбачч “bast shoes, shoes made of birch bark,” cf. Finnish kurpunen, plural kurpuset “a kind of calcei made of hairy hide, shoes made of untanned leather,” Lithuanian kùrpė (M. Vasmer, I, 623). Russian лох “a lean salmon after spawning in rivers,” cf. Finnish lohi “salmon,” Lithuanian lašis (M. Vasmer, II, 62). Russian лухта “bay, inlet; a shallow, grassy place in a lake,” cf. Finnish luhta “low-lying meadow, marsh meadow,” Lithuanian lùkštas “marsh marigold (caltha palustris)” (M. Vasmer, II, 72). Russian песка, решка “unleavened flatbread made of flour and pounded spruce bark,” cf. Finnish rieska “fresh, unleavened; sweet milk; unleavened, freshly baked barley bread,” Lithuanian prėskas (M. Vasmer, II, 514). 24 M. Vasmer, Russisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, vol. I—III, Heidelberg, 1953—1958. 130 Rus. pobga “unevenly frozen, damp soil,” pobra, pobka, cf. Finnish routa “hard-frozen soil, frozen excrement; ground frost,” Lithuanian grúodas (M. Vasmer, II, 526). Rus. себра “communal work, workers’ cooperative,” сября, cf. Finnish seura “society, retinue,” Lithuanian sėbras (M. Vasmer, II, 599). The words mentioned are most often found in northwestern Russian dialects. Baltic-Finnic loans in the Baltic languages In his work, V. Thomsen lists 180 words that entered the Baltic languages from Baltic-Finnic. This figure also includes words whose Finnish origin he doubts, and they are sometimes included in both lists: loans to the Balts and Baltic loans into Finnish. K. Aben has already counted about 500 Estonian and Livonian loans in Latvian. It should be noted that most of these are words found in Latvian dialects, especially those dialects that are in direct contact with Estonian and Livonian. We shall try to list only those words that are widely used in literary Latvian, as well as those that mostly entered Lithuanian dialects through Latvian: . Latv. allaž “usually, always,” cf. Est. alati, Liv. ales (V. Thomsen, 252; EM, I, 68; K. Aben, 18).25 Latv. aši, ašas, ašavas “horsetail, rush,” Lithuanian asiūkliai, asiai, cf. Est. osja, Finnish hosia (V. Thomsen, 253; EM, I, 361; K. Aben, 21). V. Thomsen and J. Endzelīns doubt the Finnish origin of the aforementioned Baltic-language words. Latv. buoža, b. iet. “to perish, go bad,” cf. Liv. puoi “ground, soil,” Est. põhi, dialectal põhja (V. Thomsen, 253; EM, I, 361; K. Aben, 21). It seems to us that the Lithuanian word buo-jis “swamp, quagmire” may also be of Finnish origin (LKŽd., I, 955).26 Latv. bura “sail,” Lithuanian būrė, cf. Est. purje, Finnish purje (K. Aben, 21; E. Nieminen, KZ, 72, 129).27 V. Thomsen thought that the Baltic-Finnic peoples had borrowed this word from the Balts. However, E. Nieminen’s work indicates that the reverse direction is more convincing. Latv. duole, duõla “a cow without horns,” cf. Est. tohl “the soft inner substance of horns and hooves” (V. Thomsen, 253; K. Aben, 24; V. Thomsen expressed doubts). If this etymology of the Latvian word is correct, then Lithuanian duõlas “hornless, without horns” (LKŽd, II, 612), duõlis “a hornless animal” (LKŽd., II, 613) would also be words of Finnish origin. Latv. jauda “means, physical strength,” cf. Liv. joud “strength, means,” Est. jõud, Finnish joutaa “to have means, have time” (V. Thomsen, 254, EM, II, 97; K. Aben, 27). 25 K. Aben, Eesti ja liivi laenud läti sõnavaras, Tartu, 1947 (manuscript); EM = K. Mühlenbacha Latviešu valodas vārdnīca, Vols. I—IV, ed., supp., continued by J. Endzelīns, Riga, 1923—1932. 26 LKŽd. = Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, I—V, I—II ed. J. Balčikonis, III—V responsible ed. K. Ulvydas, Vilnius, 1941—1959. 27 KZ = Journal of Comparative Linguistic Research in the Field of Indo-European Languages. 131 Lat. juoma “the depth between two landbanks, a depth between shallows”; compare Liv. juom “deeper water between sandbanks,” Est. joom (V. Thomsen, 255; EM, II, 126; K. Aben, 30). Lat. juonis “a while, a pull”; compare Liv. juoń “a run-up, an onset, movement,” Est. joon (V. Thomsen, 255; EM, II, 127, K. Aben, 30). Lat. kadikis “juniper”; compare Liv. gadag, Est. kadakas, Finn. kataja (K. Aben, 33; П. Аристэ, I, 301). If this Latvian word etymology is correct, then Lith. kadagys and Old Prussian kadegis would also be words of Finnish origin. V. Thomsen (176), by contrast, claimed that the Baltic Finns borrowed the name of this plant from the Balts. Lat. kaija “the storm gull”; compare Liv. kajag, Est. kajakas, Finn. kaija (V. Thomsen, 255–6; EM, II, 132; K. Aben, 34). This Finnish word also entered Lithuanian from Latvian; compare kaja “a bird of the goose family; brent goose (Branta bernicla)” (LKŽd., V, 85). A variant of the aforementioned word, kaiva, also arose in Latvian (probably from *kaia < kaija, EM, II, 136), and this too entered Lithuanian; compare kaiva “a bird of the gull family; herring gull (Larus argentatus)” (LKŽd., V, 84). Lat. kaite “damage, fault, defect,” kaitēt “to damage”; compare Liv. kait “to damage,” Est. kahju (V. Thomsen, 256; K. Aben, 34–5; both make the suggestion tentatively). If Lat. kaitēt were of Finnish origin, then Lith. kaitėti (LKŽd., V, 78–9), which is most widespread in Samogitia, would be of the same origin. Around Šakyna, the word kaitē “deficiency, flaw,” borrowed from Latvian, is also used.28 Lat. kāzas “wedding”; compare Liv. kozgond (V. Thomsen, 257; EM, II, 206; K. Aben, 40). From Latvian, this word also entered the writings of S. Daukantas—as kozas. Lat. ķeksis “hook; crutch, stilt”; compare Liv. ķekš, Finn. keksi (V. Thomsen, 258; EM, II, 361; K. Aben, 53). Through Latvian, this word also entered Lithuanian: keksis, kėkšis “a pole with an iron hook; stilts” (LKŽd., V, 500, 501). Lat. ķesele “bag, small sack”; compare Est. kessel “a net sack for carrying fish, a small sack or basket” (V. Thomsen, 260; EM, II, 370; K. Aben, 57–8). Lithuanians also borrowed this word from Latvian: keselys, kėselė. In the dialects it is used with quite varied meanings: “a net bag attached to a pole for catching crayfish; a barrel-shaped basket woven from rods for carrying fodder; a collapsible child’s cot made of slats and cloth; frames placed on a sledge to make it wider, etc.” (LKŽd., V, 635, 636). Lat. ķīla “pledge, security”; compare Liv. kī'l, Est. kihl (V. Thomsen, 261; EM, II, 388; K. Aben, 61–2). Lat. ķilda “dispute, quarrel, altercation”; compare Liv. kildo “splinter,” kildo nust “to raise splinters, start a quarrel” (EM, II, 380; K. Aben, 61). Through Latvian 28 The words used in Šakyna and other dialects along the Latvian border were reported to the author mostly by A. Jonaitytė. 132 This Finnish word probably also entered Lithuanian; cf. kildā “feast, banquet; great trouble, difficult condition” (LKŽd., V, 774). Lat. ķipis, ķipa “a small vessel for scooping,” cf. Est. kipp “small scooping vessel,” Finn. kippo (V. Thomsen, 261; K. Aben, 64; V. Tomsenas states this tentatively). If the Latvian word’s origin is correctly identified, then Lithuanian ķipis, ķipė “a small wooden vessel with a handle; a wooden vessel, wider at the bottom, with a lid” (LKŽd., V, 827f) are also Finnish words that entered Lithuanian via Latvian. Lat. ķiris “a small water gull,” cf. Liv. ķir, Est. tiir (V. Thomsen, 261—2, EM, II, 389; K. Aben, 67). Lithuanian ķiras is probably also related to these words (LKŽd., V, 830). Lat. kukainis “the insect; the domestic animal,” cf. Liv. kukki “beetle” (V. Thomsen, 263; EM, II, 301; K. Aben, 46—7). Lat. laiva “boat, barge; ship,” cf. Liv. lōja “ship, large boat,” Finn. laiva (K. Aben, 70; G. Must, KZ, 69, 179—84). V. Tomsenas (193) and K. Būga (RRš.,29 I, 309—11) considered Lithuanian laivas and Latvian laiva Baltic words. In their view, the Baltic Finns borrowed these words from the Balts. Recently, however, both būrė and laivas have tended to be regarded as words of Finnish origin. It is true that Finn. laiva also lacks a reliable etymology. G. Must argues that Finn. laiva derives from Germanic, cf. the runic inscription form *hlaiwa “coffin,” Gothic hlaiw. He supports the semantic development of these words by noting that the ancient Germanic peoples apparently used to bury and cremate their dead in ships. Lat. ļaunāt “to sing a wedding song,” cf. Liv. loul “to sing, sing a wedding song,” Est. laulma “to sing” (V. Thomsen, 264; EM, II, 428; K. Aben, 70). Lat. laungas “noon, midday meal, afternoon snack,” cf. Liv. lōnag “southeast,” Est. lõuna “noon, south, southeast” (V. Thomsen, 265; EM, II, 429; K. Aben, 72—3). This word probably also entered Lithuanian via Latvian—laūngas “afternoon snack, midday meal.” The word is most commonly used along the Latvian border and in Samogitian dialects. The occasional forms laūngis, laūnadžis “southeast wind” are also of Latvian origin, cf. Lat. launadzis “the south wind” (EM, II, 429). Lat. ļipa, ļipe “a short, thin little tail; a landing net; a flap on a cap,” cf. Est. lipp “flag, pennant, long ribbon,” Finn. lippu (V. Thomsen, 266; EM, II, 540—1; K. Aben, 84). The word lipà “short little tail, narrow strip of land” also occurs in some Lithuanian dialects along the Latvian border (Viekšniai, Šakyna, Daunorava, Žagarė), where it undoubtedly entered from Latvian. Lat. luga “act, time, drama,” cf. Est. lugu “story, tale, song, musical piece” (V. Thomsen, 266; EM, II, 510; K. Aben, 82—3). Lat. luoma, luoms “catch; layer; row; mast,” cf. Liv. luoma “a fishing haul, catch,” Est. loom “haul of fish, encirclement; time” (V. Thomsen, 267—8; EM, II, 526; K. Aben, 81—2). V. Tomsenas unjustifiably assigned Lithuanian lūomas “character, status, relationship” to this group; it has an entirely different etymology. 29 K. Būga, Rinktiniai raštai, t. I, Vilnius, 1958. 133 Lat. māja “the farm household; the house; the homeland,” cf. Liv. mōi “quarters,” Est. maja “house,” Finn. maja “inn, quarters” (K. Aben, 87–8). V. Thomsen (198) argued that the Baltic Finns borrowed these words from the Balts, but this is rather difficult to believe (cf. also EM, II, 578). Lat. maksa “payment,” maksāt “to pay,” cf. Liv. maks “payment,” Est. maks, Finn. maksu (V. Thomsen, 269; EM, II, 555; K. Aben, 86). The words makšoti, makšėti “to pay,” also found in some Lithuanian dialects, were borrowed from Latvian. Lat. muiža “the estate of the nobility, now also of the bourgeoisie; manor,” cf. Liv. moiz, Est. mõiz, Finn. moisio (V. Thomsen, 270; EM, II, 662; K. Aben, 90–1). In J. Endzelīns’s view, the source of the Latvian word may also have been Rus. мыза “estate.” However, Rus. мыза was itself borrowed from Baltic Finnic (M. Vasmer, II, 183). Lithuanian muižė “manor,” found in some Lithuanian dialects nearer to Latvia, was also borrowed from Latvian. Lat. nūja “the cudgel, stick,” cf. Liv. nuj “stick, cudgel,” Est. nui, Finn. nuija (V. Thomsen, 271; EM, II, 754; K. Aben, 98–9). Via Latvian, this Finnish word also entered some Lithuanian dialects in the Baltic region — nūja “club, stick.” Lat. nuka, nuka, nuks, nuks “a large, wedge-shaped piece of bread,” cf. Liv. nukā “thick piece of bread,” Est. nukk (V. Thomsen, 271; EM, II, 753; K. Aben, 98). Some Lithuanian dialects in the Baltic region also borrowed this word from Latvian — niūka “thick slice of bread” (Šakyna, Žagarė). Lat. paijāt “to stroke, caress,” cf. Liv. paij “to stroke,” Est. paiuma (V. Thomsen, 272; EM, III, 34; K. Aben, 101). Lat. pērtikis “the macaque, the monkey,” cf. Est. pärdik “joker, fool, juggler, monkey” (EM, III, 210; K. Aben, 108–9). Lat. pestīl “to loosen, release; redeem,” cf. Liv. päst “to loosen, free, redeem,” Finn. päästää (V. Thomsen, 272–3; EM, III, 203; K. Aben, 108). Lat. pīlādzis “the rowan tree (Sorbus aucuparia),” cf. Liv. pīlag, Est. pihlakas, Finn. pihlaja (V. Thomsen, 273; EM, III, 231; K. Aben, 110–1). Lat. puika “the lad, the boy,” cf. Est. poeg, Liv. puoga, Finn. poika (V. Thomsen, 273–4; EM, III, 403; K. Aben, 114). Via Latvian, this Finnish word also entered some Lithuanian dialects — pūika (Šakyna, Daugėliškis, Dūkštas, Daunorava). Lat. puisis “the lad, the boy, the bachelor; an (unmarried) farmhand or a married farmhand whose wife has not taken on any duties,” cf. Liv. pois “boy, lad; farmhand” (V. Thomsen, 273; EM, III, 403; K. Aben, 114–5). Via Latvian, this word also entered some Lithuanian dialects — pūišis “farmhand” (Šakyna). Lat. puķe “the flower,” cf. Liv. putk (V. Thomsen, 274; EM, III, 406; K. Aben, 115; V. Thomsen stated this with reservations). Via Latvian, this word entered Lithuanian dialects in the Baltic region — pūkė (Šakyna, Žagarė). Lat. pulka, pūlkis “the peg, stopper, wooden nail, drawbar pin,” cf. Liv. pūlkka, Est. pulk (V. Thomsen, 274; EM, III, 409; K. Aben, 134 115—6). The word pūlkis ‘an object used to plug or stop something up’ is used in the Lithuanian dialects of the Palatvio region (Šakyna). This is undoubtedly a Finnish word, borrowed via Latvian. Lat. rija ‘the grain-drying kiln’, cf. Liv. rī, Est. riha, rehi, Finn. riihi (V. Thomsen, 276; EM, III, 523; K. Aben, 124). The word (rija) is also used quite widely with the same meaning in Samogitian and other Lithuanian dialects of the Palatvio region. Lat. sams and Lith. šāmas have been tentatively derived from Finn. sampi ‘sturgeon’, Mari šamba ‘burbot’ (V. N. Toporov, O. N. Trubačiov, 247). Lat. seķis ‘a piebald horse’, cf. Liv. sek ‘piebald’ (EM, III, 815; K. Aben, 136). Lith. šėkis ‘a mottled horse’ was most likely borrowed from Latvian as well (Šakyna, Žagarė, Daunorava). Lat. selga ‘the high seas; a low-lying, damp, and fertile place’, cf. Liv. sälga ‘back; open sea’, Est. mere selg ‘the high seas’ (V. Thomsen, 278—9; EM, III, 816; K. Aben, 131, 137). Lat. sēne ‘mushroom’, cf. Liv. sēn, Est. seen (V. Thomsen, 279; EM, III, 827; K. Aben, 137). Lat. suga ‘sex, race, kind, family’, cf. Liv. sug, Est. sugu, Finn. suku (V. Thomsen, 279; EM, III, 1115; K. Aben, 141). Lat. sulainis ‘servant, attendant’, cf. Liv. sulli, Est. sulane, Finn. sulha ‘bridegroom’ (V. Thomsen, 280; EM, III, 1119; K. Aben, 142). Lat. šķirsts ‘box, chest, drawer, coffin’, cf. Est. kirst, Liv. kirst, Finn. kirstu (V. Thomsen, 280; EM, IV, 45; K. Aben, 143). Lat. tērauds ‘steel’, cf. Liv. tērōda (V. Thomsen, 281—2; EM, IV, 172; K. Aben, 148—9). Lat. tullis ‘oarlock, rowlock’, cf. Liv. tol’ (EM, IV, 259; K. Aben, 154—5). In a similar sense, this word occurs in Lithuanian dialects of the Palatvio region—tūlis ‘axe poll; scythe heel, tang’ (Žagarė). Lat. vagaris ‘chief supervisor of estate work’, cf. Liv. vagar (V. Thomsen, 283—4; EM, IV, 432; K. Aben, 164). Lithuanian dialects of the Palatvio region also borrowed vàgorius ‘overseer’ via Latvian (Šakyna). Lat. vai ‘interrogative particle with the meaning of Latin -ne and Russian ли, or “perhaps, also”’, cf. Liv. voi (V. Thomsen, 287—8; EM, IV, 433; K. Aben, 165). Lat. vajaga ir ‘is necessary’, cf. Liv. vajāg ‘need; necessary’ (V. Thomsen, 284; EM, IV, 445; K. Aben, 162—3). Lat. veseris ‘blacksmith’s hammer’, cf. Est. vasar (V. Thomsen, 286; EM, IV, 544; K. Aben, 170). Lat. zaimuot ‘blaspheme, curse, despise’, cf. Liv. soim ‘scold, revile, blaspheme’ (V. Thomsen, 277; EM, IV, 681; K. Aben, 175). Lith. žāimoti ‘tangle, entangle’, žāimotis ‘show off, joke around, grimace, behave frivolously’ are probably of the same origin. Vilnius 135 RELATIONS BETWEEN THE BALTIC AND FINNIC LANGUAGES А. САБАЛЯУСКАС Abstract The article provides an overview of the study of relations between the Baltic and Finnic languages. First, various similarities in grammatical structure are pointed out: 1) locatives with directional meaning (Finn. maa — maahan: Lith. laukas — laukan); 2) Finn. suffixes -ра, -pä: Lith. be, bei, Old Prussian bhe; 3) agreement of attributive adjectives with nouns (Est. uus maja, uuele majale, uued majad); 4) compound past-tense forms (Est. olen lugenud, olin lugenud); 5) the imperative in -к; 6) some participial constructions; 7) the tendency for numerous suffixes to cluster in a single word; 8) the use of the instrumental case as the nominal part of the predicate; 9) the use of the genitive instead of the accusative after negation; 10) some features of Latvian grammatical structure are explained by the influence of Livonian (the shift of stress to the first syllable; in some Latvian dialects, the development of an intonational system; the use of masculine forms instead of feminine ones; the generalization of the third-person verb form for all persons in the singular and plural); 11) some Latvian prefixes and suffixes have entered Livonian; 12) Latvian prefixes are also sometimes found in Estonian dialects. The greater part of the article is devoted to a dictionary of Baltic borrowings in the Finnic languages. In compiling the dictionary, the works of V. Thomsen, J. Kalima, Y. H. Toivonen, and L. Hakulinen were used chiefly. The dictionary of Finnic borrowings in the Baltic languages is compiled primarily on the basis of the works of V. Thomsen and K. Aben. In this part of the article, the author points out a number of Finnic borrowings that entered Lithuanian dialects through Latvian (buojis, duõlas, kaija, kãiva, kaitė, kozas, kēksis, kēkšis, keselỹs, kėselė, kildà, kipė, kipis, kìras, laũnagas, laũnagis, laũnadzis, lipà, maksėti, maksóti, muižė, nùja, niùka, pùika, puišis, pùkė, pùikis, rijà, šėkis, tūlis, vãgorius, žaimoti, žaimotis).