Climate action from a gender perspective: A systematic review of the impact of climate policies on inequality

Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 112 (2024) 103511 A ailable online 15 Ma ch 2024 2214-6296/© 2024 The Au ho (s). Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC-ND license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by- nc-nd/4.0/). O iginal esea ch a icle Clima e ac ion om a gende pe spec i e: A sys ema ic e iew o he impac o clima e policies on inequali y E. Alonso-Epelde a , b , * , X. Ga cía-Mu os a , c , M. Gonz´ alez-Eguino a , b , c a Basque Cen e o Clima e Change (BC3), Edi icio Sede 1-1, Pa que Cien í ico de UPV/EHU, Ba io Sa iena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain b Uni e sidad del País Vasco (UPV/EHU), Ba io Sa iena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain c Ike basque, Basque Founda ion o Science, Bilbao, Spain ARTICLE INFO Keywo ds: Clima e policy Ene gy policy Impac assessmen Gende analysis Gende mains eaming In e sec ionali y ABSTRACT In 1992 he Uni ed Na ions commi ed o p omo ing a gende pe spec i e in all en i onmen al and de elopmen p og ams and o es ablishing mechanisms o assessing he impac o en i onmen al policies on women. How- e e , 30 yea s la e mos coun ies acknowledge ha hey ha e no in eg a ed ha pe spec i e in o policy as- sessmen s. This pape p o ides he i s sys ema ic li e a u e e iew (based on he PRISMA app oach) o he impac s o clima e policies on inequali y om a gende pe spec i e. The esul s show ha al hough his is an eme ging esea ch a ea, he numbe o wo ks is s ill e y low: we ind only 29 pape s, mos o hem w i en in he las 4 yea s. The e is also a clea lack o quan i a i e analysis; and only 5 s udies p o ide an ex an e impac assessmen . A mo e in dep h-analysis shows ha he exis ing analyses o en use gende me ely as an addi ional explana o y a iable, bu key aspec s o a eal gende -o ien ed analysis such as powe ela ions, in e sec ionali y and gende mains eaming a e missing. The gende pe spec i e is ypically mo e absen in s udies led by men. I science wan s o con ibu e o he gene a ion o knowledge ha is use ul o ackling some o he g ea es challenges o he 21s cen u y, such as he ansi ion o a socioeconomic model ha is mo e espec ul wi h he ecological limi s o he plane and gende equali y, i is impo an o expand knowledge in his a ea bu also o econnec wi h eminis heo y. 1. In oduc ion Since he 1970s he e has been a deba e abou wha a e he links be ween gende 1 and en i onmen al issues. This deba e began o ake shape in a con ex o en i onmen al awa eness a e he publica ion o “The limi s o g ow h”, a epo commissioned by he Club o Rome, in which he women’s igh s mo emen inc eased i s p esence in he de- ba es on de elopmen and s udies on he ole o women in de elopmen eme ged. Resea ch o da e shows ha clima e change a ec s women mo e se e ely e en hough hei consump ion pa e ns mean ha hey ha e con ibu ed o a lesse ex en o he inc ease in g eenhouse gas emissions [1]. Along hese same lines, Muje e [2] highligh s ha “women and he poo a e disp opo iona ely a ec ed by clima e change due o cul u al no ms and hei dependence on na u al esou ces; o hei esponsibili y o wa e , uel, ood pu chases, and home ca e; o hei g ea e exposu e o isk in c ises and se e e clima ic e en s; o he p edominan p esence o low echnology in ag icul u e; and o hei lack o esou ces and powe ”. In ac , women a e mo e dependen on domes ic ene gy, since hey spend mo e ime on ca e asks wi hin hei homes, and on access o public anspo , due o lowe le els o p i a e ehicle owne ship [3,4,5]. In addi ion, hey a e mo e likely o su e om ene gy po e y and ha e mo e di icul ies in in es ing in mo e sus ainable al e na i es, such as enewable ene gy o ene gy e iciency, due o hei lowe income [6]. Likewise, acco ding o Ma kkanen & Ange -K aa i [7], he g oups mos exposed o he nega i e impac s o clima e change, including women, a e also he ulne able o he nega i e e ec s o badly designed clima e policies. A he same ime, he li e a u e indica es ha , al hough hey can gene a e ad e se seconda y e ec s in a di e en way be ween men and women, clima e policies also ha e he po en ial o d i e social and economic bene i s ha con ibu e o po e y educ ion and p o ide oppo uni ies o add ess economic, heal h and gende inequali ies * Co esponding au ho a : Edi icio Sede 1-1, Pa que Cien í ico de UPV/EHU, Ba io Sa iena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain. E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (E. Alonso-Epelde). 1 Appendix B concep ualizes his and o he common e ms in gende s udies. Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/e ss h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.e ss.2024.103511 Recei ed 23 Ma ch 2023; Recei ed in e ised o m 22 Feb ua y 2024; Accep ed 2 Ma ch 2024 Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 112 (2024) 103511 2 [7,8,9,10]. Fo example, ene gy policy analysis has ecognized he isks ha women ace in e ms o ene gy po e y, especially in u al and low- income households [11,12], bu also he ac ha well-designed policies can bene i hem. Impac analyses ha include he gende dimension can he e o e con ibu e o he de elopmen o inclusi e clima e policies ha keep exis ing inequali ies om being exace ba ed [13,14,15,16,17,18]. A in e na ional le el, he Uni ed Na ions has played a undamen al ole in including he gende dimension in en i onmen al policies. The i s ime ha gende pe spec i e was in eg a ed in he p omo ion o sus ainable de elopmen was in 1992 a he Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on En i onmen and De elopmen , also known as he Ea h Summi , whe e i was decided ha all en i onmen al and de elopmen policies and p og ams should include a gende pe spec i e. In 1995, du ing he Fou h Wo ld Con e ence on Women in Beijing, he gende - en i onmen -sus ainable de elopmen nexus was de ined. Since gende dynamics play a key ole in he access o and con ol o na u al esou ces and in he goods and se ices de i ed om hem [19], en i- onmen al issues we e iden i ied as one o he 12 c i ical a eas o women. Thus, a he con e ence “A ea K o Women and he En i on- men ” iden i ied he ollowing s a egic objec i es 2 : “K.1) In ol e women ac i ely in en i onmen al decision-making a all le els; K.2) In eg a e gende conce ns and pe spec i es in policies and p og ams o sus ainable de elopmen ; and K.3) S eng hen o es ablish mechanisms a he na ional, egional and in e na ional le els o assess he impac o de elopmen and en i onmen al policies on women”. A Eu opean le el, nume ous calls ha e also been made o in eg a e gende mains eaming in o all legisla ion, policies, and ins umen s ela ed o clima e ac ion. The Eu opean Pa liamen has been playing a leading ole in his a ea since 2011, ha ing p oduced se e al esolu ions add essing clima e change om a gende pe spec i e. In i s Resolu ion o Sep embe 29, 2011 on he de elopmen o a common EU posi ion be o e he Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on Sus ainable De elopmen (Rio +20) [20], A icle 19 emphasizes ha an in eg a ed app oach should be discussed o add ess mul iple challenges including clima e change, gende equali y o ene gy supply. Also, in i s Resolu ion o Ap il 20, 2012 he Eu opean Pa liamen [21] u ges he EU Commission and all Membe S a es (MS) o collec gende -disagg ega ed da a in he plan- ning, implemen a ion, and assessmen o clima e policies in o de o assess and add ess he di e en impac s o clima e change o each gende , so ha empowe ing policies ha p o ec women can be de el- oped. Tha same yea , gi en ha he gende pe spec i e was s ill no well in eg a ed in o sus ainable de elopmen policies and p og ams, he EU Pa liamen again called on he EU Commission and all MS in a Resolu ion da ed Sep embe 11 [22] o es ablish mechanisms o gende mains eaming in en i onmen al policy a all le els. The Eu opean Pa liamen ’s epo on women and clima e change [23] also called on he Commission and he Eu opean Council o mains eam gende in all phases o clima e policy o ensu e ha clima e ac ion does no inc ease gende inequali ies. Howe e , despi e he demands o he EU Pa liamen and he UN, he gende dimension o en i onmen al policies has no been add essed in dep h in he in e na ional and Eu opean policy un il ela i ely ecen ly. In e na ional and EU de elopmen policies ha e in eg a ed gende equali y and en i onmen al sus ainabili y issues in pa allel p ocesses [24], bu no in an in eg a i e o comp ehensi e way. Fo all hese easons, he e is a need o unde s and wha he main impac s o di e en clima e policies on gende a e, and o de e mine whe he he e is su icien e idence o unde s and he s a e o he a in his a ea, bo h in he academic and poli ical amewo k. This pape ies o ill ha gap by p o iding he i s sys ema ic e iew o he exis ing li e a u e on he impac s o clima e policies on inequali y om a gende pe spec i e. 3 The aim o he s udy is o p o ide an analysis o he s a e o he a on his a ea, and o y o unde s and he gaps and ba ie s o he e ec i e inclusion o gende mains eaming 4 in en i onmen al policy assessmen s. The pape is s uc u ed as ollows: Sec ion 2 desc ibes he me hods used o ca y ou he academic li e a u e e iew, Sec ion 3 se s ou he esul s and discusses he indings, and Sec ion 4 p esen s he conclusions and lis s ecommenda ions o u he esea ch. 2. Me hodology This s udy p o ides a sys ema ic li e a u e e iew based on he P e e ed Repo ing I ems o Sys ema ic Re iews and Me a-Analyses (PRISMA) app oach [25]. A sys ema ic e iew o li e a u e is a spe- ci ic me hod o analyzing he exis ing li e a u e on a speci ic opic unde p ede ined eligibili y c i e ia [26,27]. Al hough his me hodology was o iginally de eloped in heal h sciences, i has ecen ly also been used in social sciences and clima e policy esea ch [28,29,30,31,32,33]. The PRISMA app oach is cha ac e ized by i s sys ema iza ion, anspa ency, and ep oducibili y [27]. I is based on p e-es ablished guidelines o acili a e he unde s anding o he e iew p ocedu es. The use o his o mal me hodology enables c edible and mo e obus in o ma ion o be p o ided on opics o in e es o esea che s, poli i- cians, and he gene al public. In addi ion, his me hod has been equen ly complemen ed in he li e a u e and in ou a icle wi h ech- niques such as snowball sampling o include addi ional a icles and o ind ou i any ele an a icles had been missed [34,35]. Fig. 1 shows he 4 phases o he me hodology, i.e. he iden i ica ion, sc eening, eligibili y, and inclusion phases, wi h he esul s o ou analysis. We used di e en inclusion c i e ia o iden i y po en ial pape s o assessmen . To co e as much li e a u e as possible we sea ched o pape s in English and Spanish on Scopus and he Web o Science, he wo main scien i ic ci a ion da abases, which con ain o e 169 million e- co ds. 5 We se 1992 as he i s yea o esea ch, gi en ha he 1992 UN Con e ence i s es ablished he need o include a gende pe spec i e in he p omo ion o sus ainable de elopmen . Ou goal is o de e mine he main impac s o di e en clima e policies om a gende pe spec i e, so we sea ched o all pape s ocused on he socioeconomic impac s o clima e policies ha ake gende - ela ed aspec s in o accoun . Since he ocus o he s udy is clima e policies, he s udy adop s he IPCC de ini- ion, which de ines clima e policies as hose ha a e p oposed by a go e nmen (some imes in collabo a ion wi h di e en poli ical o economic agen s) o accele a e mi iga ion and adap a ion ac ions o clima e change. Examples o clima e policies a e suppo mechanisms o enewable ene gy supplies, ca bon o ene gy axes, uel e iciency s anda ds o au omobiles, e c. The 6 inclusion c i e ia used we e he ollowing: 2 h ps://www.un.o g/womenwa ch/daw/beijing/pla o m/en i on. h m#objec 1 3 We unde s and gende pe spec i e as he concep ual ool ha makes i possible o iden i y, ques ion, and alue he opp ession, inequali y, and exclusion o women when looking a any social phenomenon, policy o p ocess, as well as he ac ions ha mus be aken o ac on gende ac o s and c ea e he condi ions o ad ance owa ds a socie y ee o disc imina ion agains women and wi h equal oppo uni ies o all. 4 Gende mains eaming can be de ined as a delibe a e, sys ema ic app oach ha enables a gende pe spec i e o be ac o ed in o analyses, p ocedu es, and policies. 5 Web o Science and Scopus E. Alonso-Epelde e al. Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 112 (2024) 103511 3 1. Pape s mus be published in English o Spanish. 6 2. Pape s mus be published in he da abases Scopus o Web o Science (WOS). 3. Pape s mus ha e been published be ween 1992 and Ma ch 2022. 4. The ull ex o he pape mus be a ailable online. 5. The pape mus ocus on he socioeconomic impac s o clima e pol- icy, ha is, i mus s udy o analyze he p os and cons o a speci ic clima e policy o a whole communi y. Those pape s whose main ocus is no he one men ioned abo e a e excluded. 6. Gende - ela ed aspec s mus be aken in o accoun . Those pape s ha only men ion women o ein o ce gende s e eo ypes 7 a e excluded. Due o he di e en concep s used in he ields o clima e policy and gende , o gene a e he desi ed esul s, and o y o co e almos all he ele an li e a u e, he sea ch syn ax was designed o include e ms ha a e o en used as synonyms. In addi ion, o iden i y pape s on he assessmen o he impac o clima e policies on inequali y om a gende pe spec i e, we se 4 hemes o he sea ch keywo ds: impac s, policy, inequali y, and gende . Table 1 shows he sea ch e ms applied o he i les, abs ac s and keywo ds in bo h da abases ela ed o hese ou a eas. Following p io es s wi h mo e es ic i e sea ch e ms, his was he se o keywo ds ha p o ided us wi h he mos esul s and enabled us o ensu e ha we we e iden i ying as much o he li e a u e as possible. In ac , we conduc ed an ini ial e iew wi h mo e es ic i e sea ch e ms, bu a e 4 il e ing phases only 8 pape s eached he inclusion phase, so we decided o b oaden he e ms o y o iden i y mo e pape s. When we expanded he sea ch e ms, some il e s we e included in he sea ch o y o na ow down he opic. In ac , pape s on medicine, psychology, and nu sing we e excluded in Scopus and hose ca ego ized unde “Heal h Ca e Science Se ices” and “Psychology” in he Web o Science because hey include s udies ha we e no ela ed wi h he objec i e o he pape . Du ing he iden i ica ion phase a o al o 1.931 po en ial pape s we e iden i ied in Scopus and WOS. Once duplica es we e emo ed, 1620 pape s we e sc eened, assessing each i le, abs ac , and keywo ds o iden i y hose ele an o he esea ch objec i es. A his s age 1532 pape s we e excluded because hey did no i he opic comple ely. The mos common easons o exclusion we e he ollowing: 1. The pape is no ela ed o he ield o clima e change. In ac , many belong o o he esea ch disciplines and speci ically o he a ea o medicine. 2. The pape is no ela ed o he esea ch objec i e: Fig. 1. PRISMA 4 phase low diag am. Table 1 Sea ch e ms used in he s udy. Topic Sea ch e ms Impac s “impac *” OR “e ec *” OR “assessmen ” OR “analysis” Policy a “clima e policy*” OR “ene gy policy*” OR “en i onmen al policy*” OR “mi iga ion” OR “adap a ion” Inequali y “inequali y*” OR “equali y*” OR “equi y” OR “economic*” OR “socioeconomic*” OR “dis ibu ional” Gende “gende ” OR “gende mains eaming” OR “gende pe spec i e” OR “gende dimension” OR “women*” OR “gi l*” a To b oaden he esul s o he li e a u e e iew and p e en ele an pape s om being le ou , some exp essions ha a e o en used as synonyms in he li e a u e a e included in he sea ch e ms, o example, “en i onmen al policy” o “ene gy policy”. 6 A icles in Spanish a e also included because since he au ho s unde s and bo h languages, i is conside ed a good way o b oaden he ange o analysis and he di e si y o knowledge. 7 Acco ding o he OHCHR (O ice o he High Commissione o Human Righ s o he Uni ed Na ions), a gende s e eo ype e e s o a widesp ead opinion o p ejudice abou a ibu es o cha ac e is ics ha men and women possess o should possess o abou he social oles ha bo h pe o m o should play. His o ically hey ha e been ha m ul o women because hey ha e limi ed hei abili y o de elop hei pe sonal acul ies, pu sue a p o essional ca ee o make decisions abou hei li es and i al p ojec s. E. Alonso-Epelde e al. Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 112 (2024) 103511 4 a. The pape analyzes he impac s, ulne abili ies o isks o clima e change, no o clima e policy. b. The pape analyzes p e e ences, pe cep ion o willingness o pay o some clima e policies, no he objec i e impac s o he policies. c. The pape deals wi h he pa icipa ion o women in decision- making o p ojec s. d. The pape sugges s in eg a ing he gende pe spec i e in o clima e policies bu does no go in o he impac s implemen ing hem. As a esul , 88 pape s we e examined in he eligibili y phase, wo o which had o be excluded because he ull ex was no a ailable online. A e eading he ull pape s, we excluded 22 because hey did no mee he inclusion c i e ia (speci ically c i e ia 5 and 6). In an e o o iden i y mo e pape s ha migh ha e been le ou , a snowballing echnique [36] was applied using he Inci e ul pla o m. 8 The Pape Disco e y ool p o ided by he pla o m enabled us o iden i y simila o ela ed i ems o hose iden i ied in he p e ious phase. Using his ool ano he 1000 pape s we e iden i ied and assessed, again using he PRISMA me hodology. A e his p ocess, 5 mo e pape s we e selec ed as mee ing he a o emen ioned inclusion c i e ia. Two o he pape s iden- i ied in he p e ious e iew men ioned abo e (wi h mo e es ic i e sea ch e ms, which was ex ended due o he limi ed numbe o pape s iden i ied) we e also included. A he end o he p ocess 29 pape s ha me all he p e-de ined in- clusion c i e ia we e iden i ied and included in he s udy. Once he se- lec ion was comple ed, an in-dep h analysis o he pape s was ca ied ou using a o m p e iously designed o ex ac he in o ma ion o in- e es (see Table 2). This o m was designed o analyze how he gende pe spec i e is in eg a ed in o he analyses and wha esea ch gaps exis . Finally, we iden i ied a limi a ion o ou li e a u e e iew: The s udy only ocuses on academic publica ions. G ey li e a u e was excluded om he sea ch because i equi es ime-consuming manual sea ching. Howe e , in u u e esea ch i may be in e es ing o also include insigh s om wo k ca ied ou by in e na ional bodies, NGOs, and ci il socie y o ganiza ions (which a e also an impo an sou ce o knowledge) o inc ease he numbe o s udies analyzed. Indeed, he e a e also some s udies and epo s ha ha e been de eloped by such o ganiza ions [37,38]. 3. Resul s and discussion 3.1. Main esul s and discussion Fig. 2 shows he numbe o pape s iden i ied published pe yea om 1992. Ou esul s clea ly indica e ha his esea ch a ea is ela i ely new in scien i ic li e a u e. Al hough ou sea ch da es back o 1992, all he pape s included we e published a e 2009 and mos a e om he las 3 yea s (2019–2021) and he i s 3 mon hs o 2022.The e is also a g owing in e es in gende analysis in ecen yea s, as shown by he ac ha we ind an inc ease in e e y yea om 2018 onwa ds in he numbe o pape s ha include gende in clima e policy assessmen s. No all he pape s included in he li e a u e e iew can be said o in eg a e a gende pe spec i e: many o hem ea gende no as a social o cul u al cons uc bu a he as an analy ical ca ego y [39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48]. The e o e, al hough he e is a g owing in e es in including gende in esea ch, he lack o a gende pe spec i e could lead o misin e p e a ion and misguided ecommen- da ions o imp o ing clima e policies. In addi ion, i seems o be a opic ha spa ks mo e in e es among emale esea che s: in 69 % o he pa- pe s ound he i s au ho is emale (see Fig. 3). I should also be no ed ha mos o he ew pape s whose i s au ho is a man do no in eg a e a gende pe spec i e. In ac , he only one ha does so is he pape by Saue & S ieß [49]. Fig. 3 shows di e en a iables ha help o iden i y di e en pa hs in he selec ed li e a u e and o unde s and he s a e o he a o he li e a u e on clima e policy analysis om a gende pe spec i e. The e is a g ea e end owa ds mi iga ion s udies, since 66 % o he pape s s udy mi iga ion measu es, 17 % adap a ion measu es, and 17 % bo h Table 2 Da a ex ac ion o m. Va iable Label Ti le Ti le o pape Au ho s Au ho s o pape Gende o he i s au ho Female Male Yea Yea o publica ion o pape Type o s udy Li e a u e e iew Case s udy O he Me hods Quan i a i e Quali a i e Mixed Assessmen Ex an e: p io assessmen o e ec s Ex pos : assessmen a e wa d o e ec s Bo h: Ex an e and ex pos NA: No applicable Clima e policy a ea Mi iga ion Adap a ion Mi iga ion and adap a ion Loca ion A ica Asia Eu ope No h Ame ica Sou h Ame ica Wo ld: he s udy has a uni e sal ocus Income Le el (Wo ld Bank classi ica ion 2022) Low Lowe -middle Uppe -middle High In e sec ionali y Yes: in e sec ionali y is men ioned o aken in o accoun No: in e sec ionali y is no men ioned o aken in o accoun Class/Income Yes: class/income is men ioned o aken in o accoun No: class/income is no men ioned o aken in o accoun Race/E hnici y Yes: ace/e hnici y is men ioned o aken in o accoun No: ace/e hnici y is no men ioned o aken in o accoun Age Yes: age is men ioned o aken in o accoun No: age is no men ioned o aken in o accoun Sexual o ien a ion/iden i y Yes: sexual o ien a ion/iden i y is men ioned o aken in o accoun No: sexual o ien a ion/iden i y is no men ioned o aken in o accoun Educa ion/Occupa ion Yes: educa ion/p o ession is men ioned o aken in o accoun No: educa ion/p o ession is no men ioned o aken in o accoun Func ional di e si y Yes: unc ional di e si y is men ioned o aken in o accoun No: unc ional di e si y is no men ioned o aken in o accoun Powe ela ions Yes: powe ela ions a e men ioned o aken in o accoun No: powe ela ions a e no men ioned o aken in o accoun Mains eaming Yes: gende mains eaming is poin ed ou as necessa y o imp o ing gende equali y No: gende mains eaming is no men ioned Deg ee o in eg a ion o gende in he analysis a Low Medium High a See Table A1 o de ailed c i e ia o cha ac e izing he deg ee o gende in eg a ion. 8 h ps://inci e ul.xyz/ E. Alonso-Epelde e al. Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 112 (2024) 103511 5 mi iga ion and adap a ion measu es. Al hough in gene al he e is mo e li e a u e on clima e policies in ol ing adap a ion, such s udies end o be mo e ocused on ulne abili y o pe cep ion analysis because adap- a ion goals a e mo e quali a i e. Mo eo e , B yan e al. [50] iden i y he lack o s a capaci y on gende and he lack o unding o suppo gende in eg a ion o socio-cul u al cons ain s as he key ba ie s o he e ec i e inclusion o gende in adap a ion policies. This may explain why he e is less esea ch on he opic. Ou esul s also show a lack o a ie y in he ypes o s udy iden i ied. 31 % o he pape s a e li e a u e e iews and 66 % a e case s udies. In addi ion, one o he eigh pape s included is a desc ip i e s udy ha includes bo h a b ie e iew o he li e a u e and wo case s udies o explain how a gende impac assessmen ool has been adap ed and how i can be used o be e include gende aspec s in clima e policy ad ice [49]. In addi ion, mos o he pape s use quali a i e me hods (55 %) and mixed me hods (24 %) ha combine quali a i e and quan i a i e ech- niques in hei analyses. The lack o quan i a i e analysis in analyzing he socioeconomic impac s o clima e policies wi h a gende pe spec i e is wo h highligh ing, since hese a e necessa y o complemen he in- o ma ion collec ed in quali a i e s udies. This u he con i ms wha has been iden i ied in he li e a u e as one o he sho comings o his kind o analysis: he sca ci y o and need o app op ia e me hodologies o gende -sensi i e clima e policy assessmen and sex-disagg ega ed da a [51,52,53,54,55,56,57]. 55 % o he pape s included assess policies o s a egies o mi iga- ion and adap a ion o clima e change a e hey ha e been imple- men ed, i.e. hey gi e an ex-pos assessmen o policies. Only 5 o he case s udies analyzed (17 %) p o ide an ex-an e assessmen . Ex-pos analysis is essen ial in assessing he e ec i eness o policies al eady implemen ed and iden i ying a eas o imp o emen , bu i is also essen ial o ca y ou ex-an e impac analysis o iden i y and a oid po- en ial ad e se e ec s o policies be o e implemen ing hem and o in oduce di ec policy ecommenda ions. Thus, gende impac assess- men s a e essen ial in designing inclusi e clima e policies ha do no exace ba e exis ing inequali ies. His o ically, bo h in he design o pol- icies and in he design o esea ch, gende has no been conside ed. Bu in ecen decades, e o s ha e begun o be made o include he gende pe spec i e in all phases o he p ocess (including he design phase) in bo h a eas. Howe e , he exis ing disconnec ion be ween bo h science and poli ics means ha he po en ial o include gende in bo h a eas is being limi ed ( o deepen his e lec ion, see Sec ion 3.2.7). In his sense, he pape by Saue & S ieß [49] is o pa icula in e es , as hey de elop a ool ha pe mi s such analysis. Thei impac assess- men is ca ied ou in wo s eps. Fi s , a ele ance es is used o examine whe he o no a clima e policy has gende equali y impac s. I i has signi ican gende equali y impac s, hen he main assessmen is ca ied ou . Thus, he pape iden i ies 6 gende dimensions (ca e economy and ca e wo k, employmen , con igu a ion o public in as uc u es, ins i- u ionalized a ionali ies, pa icipa ion in decision-making, and physical in eg i y) and a se en h ans e sal dimension (symbolic o de ) o be analyzed du ing gende impac assessmen s. These a e conside ed as he co e a eas o social s uc u ing h ough which hie a chical gende e- la ions a e es ablished, main ained, and ep oduced [58]. This ool iden i ies he key issues o be add essed and he igh ques ions o be asked. Bu he app oach is quali a i e and somewha subjec i e, so i s e ec i eness depends on he app oach o he pe son applying i . In o he wo ds, he me e use o he ool does no gua an ee he quali y o he analysis. Ra he , he knowledge and ision o gende expe s a e equi ed o ca y ou an e ec i e gende impac assessmen . In ac , as he au ho s hemsel es indica e, o a oid he ool being i ialized i 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 (ll ma ch) Fig. 2. Numbe o pape s published pe yea om 1992. Fig. 3. Va iables analyzed in he li e a u e e iew. E. Alonso-Epelde e al. Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 112 (2024) 103511 6 should be used “unde he auspices o gende expe s and wi h s ong delibe a i e elemen s, including he pa icipa ion and consul a ion o women and gende associa ions commi ed o clima e policy”. In addi- ion, i should be no ed ha his ool is designed o be applied in high income coun ies. I would be in e es ing o eplica e hei s udy o c ea e a simila ool ha can be applied in he con ex o Low and Middle Income Coun ies 9 (LMIC). Howe e , he e a e ew s udies (12 %) ocused on high income coun ies 10 [43,44,46,49,60]. 60 % o he li e a u e e iewed ocuses on low o lowe -middle income coun ies, analyzing he socioeconomic implica ions o he di e en mi iga ion and adap a ion s a egies o clima e change in his con ex . 12 % e e o uppe -middle income coun ies and he emaining 17 % o he pape s d aw no dis inc ion be ween coun ies, since hey ha e a uni e sal ocus. This endency o ocus analyses o clima e change and gende almos exclusi ely on LMIC has been poin ed ou as a sho coming in esea ch ha seeks o be gende -sensi i e (as also highligh ed by Feens a & ¨ Oze ol [61], Mac- G ego [62] o Lahi i-Du [63]). We ha e also sough o cha ac e ize he deg ee o in eg a ion o he in e sec ionali y app oach in he analyses. In e sec ionali y is de ined as “ he phenomenon whe eby each indi idual su e s opp ession o holds p i ileges based on hei belonging o mul iple social ca ego ies, which a e cons uc ed and dynamic” [64,65,66,67,68]. Mos pape s do no ake an in e sec ional app oach and ew o hose ha do so men ion he concep o in e sec ionali y. Fig. 4 shows he concep s iden i ied as p esen and absen in he analysis. The socioeconomic ca ego ies mos widely in eg a ed in o he analyses in he pape s analyzed a e he ollowing: class/income (93 %), educa ion/p o ession (72 %), age (59 %), and ace/e hnici y (45 %). Howe e , he e is a lack o a en ion o ce ain ca ego ies associa ed wi h g oups which a e in a si ua ion o disc imina ion, such as sexual o ien a ion/iden i y and unc ional di e si y ( ound in only 10 % o he pape s). This bias may be ela ed o a lack o da a o hese ca ego ies when seconda y da a is used, bu his da a gap could be co ec ed when p ima y da a is gene a ed h ough speci ic su eys, in e iews o ocus g oups. These echniques a e used in he pape s analyzed, bu none o hem di ec ly ask pa icipan s abou hese ele an cha ac e is ics. In his sense, i is wo h highligh ing he eno mous concep ual e o made by Saue & S ieß [49] o in eg a e he LGTBIQ+pe spec i e in o hei gende impac assessmen , al hough ha e o does no show up in he case s udies ha hey p esen . Addi ionally, in mos pape s hese social ca ego ies a e included as explana o y a iables ha in e ac wi h gende inequali y, which is insu icien om an in e sec ionali y iew- poin since a mo e complex app oach is needed o add ess he sys em ha c ea es powe di e en ials [67,69,70]. In ac , al hough 41 % o he pape s conside ed implici ly o explici ly men ion o acknowledge he exis ence o powe ela ions ha place women a a disad an age o men, none o hem look in dep h a he causes and consequences o gende inequali y (see Fig. 5). Acco ding o B e he on [71], his endency o s udy women a he han gende ela ions and powe dynamics may be a consequence o he way in which gende was in oduced on o he global en i onmen al policy agenda (see Sec ion 3.2.2. o b oaden he discussion). In addi ion, al hough he ecommenda ion o include a gende pe spec i e in all phases o clima e policy has been con inually epea ed by in e na ional and na ional o ganiza ions since 1992, he concep o gende mains eaming ha e no ye pene a ed deeply in o academia in his a ea. Gende mains eaming can be de ined as a delibe a e, sys- ema ic app oach ha enables a gende pe spec i e o be ac o ed in o analyses, p ocedu es, and policies [69]. I s aim is o “make isible gende ed aspec s o he assump ions o policy-make s and di e en ia ed ou comes o policy and policy-making o men and women” [72]. Only i e o he pape s analyzed explici ly indica e gende mains eaming as necessa y o enable e icien and inclusi e mi iga ion and adap a ion s a egies [49,60,61,73,74]. In o he pape s, gende mains eaming is no di ec ly men ioned bu i is implici ly p esen in he ollowing ideas: 1) he lack o a gende pe spec i e in esponses o clima e change is c i icized [75]; 2) he need o de elop policies o ini ia i es in an in- clusi e manne o a oid exace ba ing exis ing inequali ies is s essed [7]; and 3) he e is a ecommenda ion o he ene gy ansi ion esea ch communi y o place g ea e emphasis on gende and social equi y con- side a ions in hei wo k o acili a e p ocesses ha pe mi he de el- opmen o inclusi e ins i u ional a angemen s o a jus ansi ion [76]. Finally, a e an exhaus i e e iew o he pape s, he deg ee o in eg a ion o gende in he analyzes has been cha ac e ized (see Table A1 o mo e de ails on he cha ac e iza ion c i e ia and Sec ion 3.2. o an in-dep h analysis o gende inclusi eness). Table 3 shows how in almos hal o he pape s (48 %) he deg ee o gende in eg a ion is low, which indica es ha hey do no include a gende pe spec i e in hei analyses. Rega ding he gende o he i s au ho , i is men who in eg a e he gende pe spec i e o a lesse ex en in hei s udies, wi h he deg ee o gende in eg a ion being low in 67 % o he cases. Like- wise, i should be no ed ha he deg ee o gende in eg a ion is mos ly low in s udies ocused on mi iga ion policies (63 %) o in hose loca ed in bo h he Global No h (60 %) and he Global Sou h (53 %). Only 31 % o he pape s ac ually include he gende pe spec i e in hei analysis (high in eg a ion deg ee). In his sense, i should be no ed ha i is mainly women who include o a e ying o include a gende pe spec i e in hei esea ch: 35 % o he s udies whose p incipal au ho is a woman ha e a high deg ee o in eg a ion, while 25 % ha e a me- dium deg ee. The pe cen age o s udies wi h a high deg ee o in eg a ion is highe in hose ha s udy adap a ion policies (40 %) o mi iga ion and adap a ion policies oge he (40 %). I is also impo an o highligh ha s udies wi h a global ocus end o e ec i ely in eg a e he gende pe spec i e in mos s udies (71 %). 3.2. In-dep h analysis and discussion om a gende pe spec i e 3.2.1. Lack o gende pe spec i e As men ioned abo e, he pape s analyzed show a lack o e ec i e in eg a ion o he gende pe spec i e. In mos o hem gende is used as an addi ional explana o y a iable a he han being ecognized as a social o cul u al cons uc . In hese pape s he concep s o sex and gende a e con used, because i he dis inc ion be ween men and women is based on biological sex and no on he ecogni ion o a sys em ha gene a es inequali ies ha pu s women in a si ua ion o in e io i y me ely by din o being women hen we a e no alking abou gende bu abou sex. I should be no ed ha his esea ch a ea has spa ked mo e in e es among emale esea che s (in 69 % o he pape s he i s au ho is a woman) and ha he ailu e o ac o in he gende pe spec i e is mo e no able in pape s led by men, al hough i is also an issue in hose led by women. A clea example o pe sis en and ocen ism and sexism in academia a e hose pape s in which women a e only men ioned in ph ases ha pe pe ua e and ein o ce adi ional gende oles, such as: “Women may also ha e mo e ime a ailable o do household cho es like kni ing and c a ing.” [77]. This is p ecisely he opposi e o including 9 We e e o income when ca ego izing coun ies o simpli y he analysis and a oid he use o dicho omous e ms (such as “de eloped” e sus “de eloping” coun ies) ha ha e hei o igins in acism and colonialism. In ac , e en some e ms ha we e o iginally in oduced wi hou a conno a ion o hie a chy and wi h he aim o c i ically poin ing ou social, economic and poli ical gaps and inequali ies (such as he “Global No h” e sus he “Global Sou h”) ended up c ea ing a alse hie a chy and di ision among na ions based on access o weal h and poli ical powe [59]. 10 The classi ica ion ha e e s o he income le el o he coun ies in which he pape s a e ocus is based on he ca ego iza ion made by he Wo ld Bank in 2022 (h ps://blogs.wo ldbank.o g/openda a/new-wo ld-bank-g oup-coun y-classi ica ions-income-le el- y24). Likewise, he “Wo ld” ca ego y is added o e e o hose pape s whose ocus is uni e sal, ha is, pape s ha do no ocus on he analysis o he impac o a speci ic measu e applied in a speci ic coun y. E. Alonso-Epelde e al. Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 112 (2024) 103511 7 he gende pe spec i e in he analyses. 3.2.2. Gende ela ions and powe dynamics Along hese same lines, he pape s analyzed a ely include gende ela ions and powe dynamics in hei na a i es. Mos o hem do no e en acknowledge he exis ence o powe ela ions and none looks in dep h in o he causes and consequences o gende ed powe dynamics. This lack o analysis o powe ela ions and gende oles may be closely ela ed o he dominan discou ses ega ding he links be ween clima e change (o he en i onmen ) and gende . In ac , he ma e ial mani es- a ions o clima e change a e being shaped by sociocul u al no ms and discou ses. 11 Thus, in he discou ses ha ha e concep ualized he links be ween women and he en i onmen , bo h in he agenda o global en i onmen al poli ics and in esea ch on gende and clima e change, women all in o h ee b oad ca ego ies (women as “sa io s”, “ ic ims” and “ he p oblem”) and B e he on [71] explains how each o hese pe cep ions has di e en poli ical implica ions. Fi s , he no ion o “women as sa io s” holds ha women ha e a special sensi i i y and esponsibili y o he na u al wo ld as a esul o sha ing opp ession and exploi a ion wi h he en i onmen and hei ep oduc i e and ca e oles. 12 In p ac ice, his discou se and he policies de i ed om i ha e placed women, once again, in a si ua ion o sub- o dina ion in which hei wo k is no inancially ewa ded. Second, he no ion o “women as ic ims” is closely ela ed o he exis ing links be ween po e y and en i onmen al impac s, especially in hose con- ex s in which women’s well-being and su i al s em om hei links o he en i onmen ( o example in sou he n u al a eas whe e women a e esponsible o ga he ing ood o wood). In hese con ex s, policies ha e ocused on helping women and hei child en, who a e he objec and no he subjec o policies. Thi d, he no ion o “women as he p oblem” Fig. 4. Concep s iden i ied as p esen and absen in he analysis. Fig. 5. P esence and absence o powe ela ions and mains eaming concep s. Table 3 Deg ee o in eg a ion o gende in he analysis. To al 1s au ho s’ gende Clima e policy a ea Loca ion Female Male Adap a ion Mi iga ion Mi iga ion and adap a ion Global No h Global Sou h Wo ld Low 48 % 40 % 67 % 20 % 63 % 20 % 60 % 53 % 29 % Medium 21 % 25 % 11 % 40 % 11 % 40 % 0 % 35 % 0 % High 31 % 35 % 22 % 40 % 26 % 40 % 40 % 12 % 71 % 11 Acco ding o Eps ein [78], a discou se is “a cohesi e se o ideas, concep s and ca ego iza ions abou a speci ic objec ha ame ha objec in a ce ain way and, he e o e, delimi he possibili ies o ac ing in ela ion o i ”, whose c i ical analysis helps us unde s and how humans “make sense o hemsel es, hei in e es s and ways o beha ing, and he wo ld ha su ounds hem.” 12 This no ion is consis en wi h he p inciples o ecological eminism [79]. E. Alonso-Epelde e al. Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 112 (2024) 103511 8 highligh s ha e e y hing ha su ounds women has implica ions o he en i onmen . A good example o his is he discou se ha wa ns abou he o e popula ion o he plane and he need o con ol bi h a es in LMIC coun ies, wi hou ocusing on he high a e o con- sump ion in high income coun ies. The e o e, he way in which gende is in oduced in o esea ch needs o be e hough in an a emp o mo e away om he discou se ha classi ies women as ic ims, sa io s o “ he p oblem” [62,71]. Howe e , in addi ion o he way in which ideological cons uc ions shape he ma e ial eali ies abou gende inequali y and he plane a y c isis, he e a e o he mechanisms ha ensu e ha gende con inues o be unde s ood as women (losing i s meaning as a ela ional p ocess). One o hem has been he inabili y o bo h scien is s and policymake s o concep ualize he sub le ope a ions o powe . Acco ding o Lukes [80], he powe ha allows one o be decisi e in se ing he agenda depends on h ee dimensions: he abili y o pu issues on he agenda when a public deba e is aking place; he abili y o emo e i ems om he agenda by c ea ing he alse belie ha including hem would be useless o coun e p oduc i e; and he abili y o p e en p oblems om being no iced in he i s place. Thus, s uc u al powe has been a he se ice o he exclusion o women, bo h in public and p i a e spaces, ensu ing hei poli ical subo dina ion and economic exploi a ion ( h ough he sexual di ision o labou ) and, in u n, he way in which i ope a es has con ibu ed o ou inabili y o unde s and he ull meaning and impli- ca ions o gende [71]. All hese discou ses and mechanisms h ough which s uc u al powe ope a es a e no alien o science and ha e also been e lec ed in aca- demic wo k. And ocen ism has been (and con inues o be) e y p esen in science [81]. In ac , i was he c i icism by eminis s du ing he second wa e o eminism ha ale ed o he p esence o and ocen ism in science [82]. La e on, he 5 ways in which and ocen ism is p esen in science a e iden i ied: he low p opo ion o emale esea che s, esea ch opics domina ed by men, me hods and in e p e a ions es ic ed by sexism o male pe spec i es, he use o science o jus i y sexis social p ojec s and dis o ion in he way scien is s wo k [83,84,85]. Thus, a p esen , he masculine bias ha pe sis s in science, he sub le way in which s uc u al powe con inues o ope a e and he dis- cou ses ha ca ego ize women as “sa io s”, “ ic ims” and “ he p oblem” make he meaning o gende as a ela ional p ocess is los and educed o he ca ego y “woman”. All his has led o he de elopmen o esea ch and he implemen a ion o policy measu es ha ein o ce “ adi ional” gende oles. Because o ha , i is necessa y o e- hink he deba e, engage wi h he unc ioning o powe , and add ess issues o ans- o ma ion, jus ice, and democ a ic clima e go e nance [86]. 3.2.3. In e sec ionali y Likewise, ou s udy has iden i ied a lack o in eg a ion o in e - sec ionali y, which no only e e s o “ he phenomenon by which each indi idual su e s opp ession o holds p i ilege based on hei belonging o mul iple social ca ego ies” [63,64,65,66,67] bu should also be un- de s ood as an analy ical ool o analyzing he a icula ion o di e en socioeconomic ca ego ies (e.g. class, gende , ace, e c.) ins ead o conside ing hem as independen o ms o powe /gende ela ions [87]. Including his app oach in clima e policy esea ch is hus a e y use ul way o analyze impac s on he mos ulne able g oups om a gende pe spec i e, as p e ious eminis schola s ha e also shown in he anal- ysis o he impac o clima e change and esponses o i [64,67,88,89,90,91,92]. In e sec ionali y is “a p ism o looking a complexi y in he wo ld” [65], so i is also aluable o desc ibe how di e en impac s in e sec dynamically wi h each o he [93]. Howe e , an in e sec ional app oach means mo ing away om a cumula i e pe spec i e whe e impac s a e ea ed as simple add-ons o exis ing inequali ies: I equi es a mul idi- mensional, mul i-scale impac assessmen p ocess ha akes in o ac- coun he speci ic impac s and o ms o disc imina ion ha ha e aken place and been ep oduced his o ically [69]. Howe e , as no ed in Sec ion 3.1, he way in which social ca ego ies a e in eg a ed in o an- alyses is no exhaus i e in mos pape s, because hey a e usually included as explana o y a iables ha in e ac wi h gende inequali y. Bu in an in e sec ional app oach i is necessa y o ca y ou an in-dep h analysis o he in e connec ions be ween hem and he powe ela ions/ s uc u es ha pe pe ua e inequali y [94]. The e o e, as men ioned abo e, he deg ee o which social ca ego ies a e in eg a ed in o he pape s e iewed is no enough om an in e sec ionali y iewpoin because a mo e complex app oach is needed o add ess he sys em ha c ea es powe di e en ials [67,69,70]. 3.2.4. Focus on low and middle income coun ies Ano he ele an end is ha mos o he pape s analyzed ocus almos exclusi ely on LMIC, bu gende issues ela ed o ene gy and clima e policies a e also ound in high income coun ies. In ac , despi e he ac ha 17 % o he pape s ha e a uni e sal ocus and do no dis inguish be ween coun ies, mo e han 30 % e e o policies applied in A ican coun ies (ca ego ized by he Wo ld Bank as low o lowe - middle income), 12 % ocus on Asian coun ies (such as Nepal, Bangladesh, India o Indonesia) and 10 % in coun ies loca ed in Sou h Ame ica (See Fig. 6). This is ecognized and he inclusion o such issues is ecommended by in e na ional ins i u ions such as he UN and he Eu opean Com- mission. In ac , i has been poin ed ou as a sho coming in esea ch ha seeks o be gende sensi i e, because i is common ha he gende app oach in such s udies is limi ed o add essing he ole o women in socie y, so ha hey a e educed o ulne able consume s in a ma gin- alized posi ion, ep oducing he ic imizing discou se ha many emi- nis s a e ying o decons uc [61,62,63]. In his sense, i is impo an o mo e away om he assump ion ha ulne able g oups do no ha e he skills and capaci ies o d i e social change [95]. 3.2.5. Gende mains eaming in impac assessmen As men ioned be o e, we obse e ha , despi e con inued ecom- menda ions o include a gende pe spec i e in clima e policy, he concep o gende mains eaming has no ye pene a ed deeply in o academia in he ield explo ed. In any case, i is necessa y o poin ou ha he e has been a wide deba e on he concep and p ac ice o gende mains eaming [72,96,97,98,99,100]. Thus, he e a e some doub s as o whe he gende mains eaming eally places women on he poli ical agenda o has he opposi e e ec . On he one hand, i has i s oo s in eminis heo y, 13 which p oposes i as “an agenda-se ing idea wi h adical eminis po en ial” o ans o m policy app oaches o gende inequali ies [96]. Bu on he o he hand, he e is widesp ead c i icism o he in eg a ionis o m ha he concep has aken in p ac ice, since gende mains eaming has been “inco po a ed as a policy ool in o s uc u es, p ocesses, and no ms ha emain unchanged” [97,102,103,104,105]. Feminis schola s ha e e e ed o his inabili y o gende main- s eaming o b ing abou adical changes in gende and powe ela ions as he “ adical po en ial pa adox”. Se e al mu ually complemen a y explana ions ha e been p oposed o add ess his pa adox [106]. The i s is he di icul y o ans e ing a adical eminis amewo k ha ope - a es a a ansna ional le el o a local le el whe e he na ional con ex can collide wi h he eminis concep ualiza ion [100]. The e has also been a lack o unde s anding o i s ision: Some ha e in e p e ed ha he objec i e was o encou age women o in eg a e in o a sys em whe e 13 The e m “ heo y” e e s o he cons uc ion o a se o in e ela ed s a e- men s abou how some aspec o he wo ld ope a es. When we speak abou eminis heo y, we e e o he pe spec i es ha guide he sea ch o answe s o a cen al se ies o ques ions and dilemmas abou sex and gende . Feminis heo e ical amewo ks add ess, abo e all, he ques ion o he subo dina ion o women o men ( o example, how i is c ea ed, how and why i is pe pe ua ed o how i could be o e come) [101]. E. Alonso-Epelde e al. Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 112 (2024) 103511 9 masculine no ms p e ail o o ensu e ha women’s con ibu ions a e also alued in gende ed socie ies, o ge ing ha he eal goal is o ca y ou ans o ma i e ac ions ha b ing abou a ans o ma ion o inequi- able gende ela ions [100,107]. Ano he possible explana ion o he ailu e o gende mains eaming is he unwillingness o key ac o s o commi hemsel es o subs an i e gende equali y goals and ou comes ins ead o in eg a ing he gende pe spec i e h ough bu eauc a ic p ocesses [108]. Gi en ha gende mains eaming is inco po a ed in o ins i u ional s uc u es ha ha e adi ionally suppo ed male p i ilege and gi en ha hose bodies a e hemsel es highly gende ed, a his poin he adical goals o gende mains eaming end up becoming echno- c a ic exe cises [106]. Howe e , despi e all hese c i icisms, he e is a ce ain eluc ance o enounce he inco po a ion o gende main- s eaming due o i s ans o ma i e, e olu iona y po en ial [109] and unde s anding he ba ie s ha ha e hinde ed i s e ec i eness is key o ecommi ing o adical social jus ice goals and he c i ical ans- o ma i e po en ial o gende mains eaming [106]. Gi en he conce n o many eminis s ha mains eaming in p ac ice becomes a simple check box which does no a o a ans o ma i e app oach ha pe mi s p og ess owa ds equali y [97,100,103,104,105,110], Gains [72] sugges s ha o be e ec i e in he poli ical sphe e gende impac assessmen mus : “i) Unde ake an in e sec ional analysis and powe analysis; ii) ensu e capaci y and capabili y in go e nmen o unde ake gende impac assessmen (o he wise i will become a ‘ ick- he-box’ exe cise); and iii) include expe iews along wi h dialogue, o ma ion o alliances, e c. o ensu e ha i does no become echnoc a ic”. Simila ly, Hanki sky [99] a gues ha “gende mains eaming should econnec wi h eminis heo y and in e sec ional unde s andings o mo e away om essen ialis and echnoc a ic endencies in gende mains eaming”; and Walby [100] sugges s ha “dialogue and delibe a i e democ acy could be used o add ess gende in conjunc ion wi h o he complex inequali ies o mo e owa ds a mo e in e sec ional app oach”. Impac assessmen s a e a key ool o iden i y he po en ial impac s o p oposed policies as well as a key componen o gende mains eaming [96], so o add ess he conce ns o eminis schola s and ha ness he ans o ma i e po en ial o eminis heo y i is impo an o expand knowledge and gende -sensi i e quan i a i e ools ha enable ex an e assessmen s. This can open he doo s o mo e in o med decisions in he design phase o clima e policies, so ha hey a e inclusi e and do no unde mine social jus ice. 14 3.2.6. Lack o in eg a ion o he eminis discou se All his shows a lack o in eg a ion o he eminis discou se in clima e policy esea ch. Feminis heo is s and academics ha e been heo izing o decades abou he causes, consequences, and ac o s ha ha e his o ically in luenced he inequali y su e ed by women. I is qui e ema kable ha wi h he di e ences be ween sex and gende ha ing been emphasized o so long, he e a e s ill s udies in which he concep s a e misused. I is equally s iking ha gende has no ye been ully in eg a ed in o analyses and ha i con inues o be ea ed as one mo e independen a iable among many o he s. Feminis s ha e been poin ing o ac o s, sys ems, expe iences, and eali ies ha pe pe ua e he opp ession o women o cen u ies, bu he and ocen ism p esen in science seems o ha e p e en ed hese heo ies and concep s om being deeply in eg a ed in o esea ch o a long ime [89,111]. This is he case, o example, o he concep o in e sec ion- ali y. The concep was i s coined by C enshaw in 1990, bu he oun- da ions o in e sec ionali y a e ma ked in 1851 wi h Sojou ne T u h’s speech “Ain’ I a Woman?” coinciding wi h he ise o black eminism in he Uni ed S a es [112]. Bu e en so, ou e iew shows ha he e a e s ill e y ew pape s ha de elop his concep and consciously apply his app oach. Al hough some ideas based on hese eminis heo ies a e beginning o be in oduced in o academic li e a u e and esea ch, i is impo an o name hem in gende -sensi i e esea ch, because naming ypi ies expe iences and p o ides powe ul, new language o desc ibe componen s o iden i y o membe s o ma ginalized g oups [113,114]. The e o e, one o he challenges in ca ying ou inclusi e esea ch is s ill he de elopmen o a deepe gende analysis whe e “empi ical esea ch is complemen ed by c i ical eminis heo izing o he discu si e con- s uc ions and ca ego ies ha shape clima e poli ics oday” [62]. The inclusion o he pe spec i es o gende ad oca es is also impo an o a oid s e eo yped, pa e nalis ic, Eu ocen ic ideas abou gende equali y and hus acili a e a con ex -based e lec ion on he quali y o poli ics in e ms o equali y [115]. Fig. 6. Pape s analyzed by egion (%). 14 MacG ego [62] illus a es he p oblems which a ise when policies a e no in o med by gende analysis. E. Alonso-Epelde e al.