The way we see others in intercultural relations: The role of stereotypes in the acculturation preferences of Spanish and Moroccan-origin adolescents

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348439885 The Way We See Others in Intercultural Relations: The Role of Stereotypes in the Acculturation Preferences of Spanish and Moroccan-Origin Adolescents ArticleinFrontiers in Psychology · January 2021 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.610644 CITATIONS 5 READS 326 5 authors, including: Ana Urbiola Universidad de Almería 20 PUBLICATIONS147 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Lucía López-Rodríguez Universidad de Almería 74 PUBLICATIONS1,072 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE María Sánchez-Castelló Universidad de Almería 20 PUBLICATIONS34 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Marisol Navas Universidad de Almería 129 PUBLICATIONS2,359 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Ana Urbiola on 14 January 2021. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 610644 ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 11 January 2021 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.610644 Edited by: John W. Berry, Queen’s University, Canada Reviewed by: Derya Güngör, KU Leuven, Belgium Fanli Jia, Seton Hall University, UnitedStates *Correspondence: Lucía López-Rodríguez [email protected] Specialty section: This article was submitted to Personality and Social Psychology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology Received: 26 September 2020 Accepted: 07 December 2020 Published: 11 January 2021 Citation: Urbiola A, López-Rodríguez L, Sánchez-Castelló M, Navas M and Cuadrado I (2021) The Way WeSee Others in Intercultural Relations: The Role of Stereotypes in the Acculturation Preferences of Spanish and Moroccan-Origin Adolescents. Front. Psychol. 11:610644. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.610644 The Way WeSee Others in Intercultural Relations: The Role of Stereotypes in the Acculturation Preferences of Spanish and Moroccan-Origin Adolescents AnaUrbiola 1,2, LucíaLópez-Rodríguez 1,2*, MaríaSánchez-Castelló 1,2, MarisolNavas 1,2 and IsabelCuadrado 1,2 1 Center for the Study of Migration and Intercultural Relations, University of Almería, Almeria, Spain, 2 Department of Psychology, University of Almería, Almería, Spain Although the relationship between stereotypes and acculturation preferences has been previously studied from the majority perspective among adults, the perspective of adolescents and minority groups is understudied. This research analyzed the contribution of four stereotype dimensions (i.e., morality, immorality, sociability, and competence) to the acculturation preferences of Spanish adolescents and adolescents of Moroccan-origin, the moderating role of stereotypes in intergroup acculturation discrepancies, and the interaction of stereotypes with acculturation perceptions on acculturation preferences. A sample of 488 Spanish adolescents and 360 adolescents of Moroccan-origin living in Spain, from 12 to 19years old, reported how moral, immoral, social, and competent they perceive each other to be. Spanish adolescents reported their perception about how Moroccan youth were acculturating in terms of maintaining their original culture and adopting the host culture, and their acculturation preferences in the same dimensions. Adolescents of Moroccan-origin reported to what extent they were maintaining their original culture and adopting the host culture, their acculturation preferences, and their ethnic and national (Spanish) identity. Results showed that adolescents of Moroccan-origin reported more positive perceptions of Spanish youth than conversely. The perceived immorality of the outgroup was important for understanding the preferences for adopting the host culture of both groups, but in the opposite direction. The four stereotype dimensions modulated the majority-minority discrepancies in preferences for cultural adoption. An analysis of the interaction between stereotypes and perceived adoption on acculturation preferences showed that when Spanish adolescents perceived that Moroccan youth were not adopting the Spanish culture, perceived morality and sociability played a role in their preferences for adoption. The less moral and sociable Moroccans were perceived, the more preference for cultural adoption. These findings support the importance of considering stereotypes in acculturation studies of majority and minority groups, as well as the relevance of including these perceptions in interventions aimed at improving intercultural relations. Keywords: stereotypes, immorality, morality, acculturation preferences, acculturation perceptions, identity, adolescents, Moroccan immigrants Urbiola et al. Stereotypes and Acculturation Preferences Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 610644 INTRODUCTION The phenomenon of migration has significant consequences on human life. One of the most important forms of consequence is the continuous contact with members of other cultures, triggering noteworthy changes in both the immigrants and the host society (Redfield et al., 1936). These changes are conceptualized in the psychosocial literature as the acculturation process. Berry (2005) defines acculturation as “the dual process of cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result of contact between two or more cultural groups and their individual members” (p. 698). Within Europe, Spain has become an important recipient of immigration in the last two decades. Of the foreign residents in this country, 15.2% are under the age of 16years. Acculturation preferences of adolescents from both the majority and minority groups living in the same context can settle their future peaceful vs. conflictual relationships, and contribute – in the long term – to social inclusion and well-being in contemporary societies. Wefocus on adolescence because of two main reasons. Firstly, because the impact of acculturation processes and the identity development considering both the original and the new host culture are specifically complex and sensitive during adolescence. The relationship between acculturation and identity (ethnic and national) has been claimed in several works (Phinney, 2003; Schwartz et al., 2006). The relevance of identity and identification processes takes more importance in adolescence, and even more for immigrant adolescents (Schwartz et al., 2006). They have to face the challenge of constructing or endorsing an identity that incorporates elements of both the cultural origins and the receiving cultures, in addition to the difficulties of constructing an identity that characterizes this developmental period (Schwartz etal., 2006). Secondly, because at this developmental stage, stereotypes are still flexible and relatively easy to change. Therefore, mapping the relations between stereotypes toward outgroups and intergroup behavior in intercultural encounters is essential to facilitate the change of stereotypes and biased intergroup perceptions at this stage before they get firmly established in adulthood, increasing intergroup hostility (Constantin and Cuadrado, 2019). Given the importance of acculturation preferences for cultural understanding, several researchers have turned to the study of those variables associated with more flexible acculturation preferences that facilitate cultural negotiation and positive coexistence. Among them, the way we see others – that is, intergroup stereotypes – constitute basic dimensions in this process of mutual understanding. Despite the importance of social beliefs about groups in the acculturation process, the evidence of the relationship between stereotypes and acculturation preferences is scarce, especially among adolescents and considering the minority perspective. Although this relationship has been established among adults, the way stereotypes can interact with other variables to predict acculturation preferences or how stereotypes contribute to modulate discrepancies in acculturation preferences between majority and minority groups remain unexplored. Accordingly, the main question that motivated this inquiry was to understand the specific role that distinct stereotype dimensions play in the acculturation preferences of Spanish adolescents and adolescents of Moroccan-origin living in Spain. Moroccans constitute the largest immigrant group in this country (15.9% of foreign residents; INE, 2020) and systematically receive worse evaluations from Spaniards compared to members of other immigrant groups, such as Romanians or Ecuadorians (e.g., Navas et al., 2012; López-Rodríguez et al., 2013, 2016). We first follow a descriptive approach by analyzing mutual stereotypes (Objective 1), and the majority-minority discrepancies in adolescents’ acculturation perceptions and preferences (Objective 2). Then, we analyze the specific contribution of four different stereotype dimensions (i.e., morality, immorality, sociability, and competence), beyond traditional variables of acculturation perceptions (for majority and minority groups) and national and ethnic identities (for the minority group), to predict their acculturation preferences (Objective 3). Based on the diagnostic value of (im)morality, we anticipate that these specific dimensions will bemore relevant than the other stereotype dimensions to adolescents’ acculturation preferences. This research also tests if stereotypes modulate the discrepancies between Spanish adolescents and adolescents of Moroccanorigin in their acculturation preferences (Objective 4). Finally, we address an innovative question by analyzing whether stereotypes might bemore predictive of acculturation preferences depending on acculturation perceptions (Objective 5). As far as we know, no previous research has covered this gap in the theory of acculturation and stereotypes. Coherent to the function of stereotypes as cues to orientate rapid decisions and social judgments, we hypothesize that stereotypes have no isolated effects on acculturation preferences, but they combined with other important factors such as acculturation perceptions. According to this reasoning, stereotypes might have a more prominent role in acculturation preferences under more threatening circumstances, that is, when majority members perceive immigrant-origin adolescents are not adopting the host culture. The Complex Process of Acculturation According to the extremely influential acculturation model developed by Berry (1997), immigrants must face two fundamental questions when living in the host country: (1) To what extent is it important to maintain my cultural heritage? and (2) To what extent is it important to establish relations with the host society and adopt the host culture? Regarding identity, these two questions refer to maintaining a sense of belonging to one’s ethnic community (ethnic identity), and to developing a sense of host national belonging (national identity), respectively (Zhang et al., 2018). Initially considered orthogonal, these two dimensions were combined to yield four acculturation categories. Nowadays, however, several researchers prefer to measure these underlying dimensions of maintenance and contact/adoption due to methodological considerations (Rudmin, 2003), and to avoid losing precious information (Brown and Zagefka, 2011). Although acculturation models were initially focused on the acculturation preferences of minority groups, the importance of examining also the preferences of the majority group was subsequently recognized (Zagefka et al., 2014), given its Urbiola et al. Stereotypes and Acculturation Preferences Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 610644 substantial influence and power in the host society (Geschke et al., 2010). Accordingly, in the last decades, considerable work has focused on the majority perspective (e.g., Bourhis et al., 1997; Piontkowski et al., 2000; Zagefka et al., 2007). Different models recognize the interactive nature of acculturation (for a review see Horenczyk etal., 2013) such as the mutual acculturation model (Berry, 2006), the interactive acculturation model (IAM; Bourhis etal., 1997), the concordance model of acculturation (Piontkowski etal., 2002), or the relative acculturation extended model (RAEM; Navas etal., 2005, 2007). In the present research, we use the RAEM to capture the mutuality in acculturation processes. Similar to previous interactive models, the RAEM takes into account two acculturation dimensions (maintenance of original culture and adoption of host culture) and considers both the majority and minority perspectives in order to understand better the acculturation processes. Moreover, this model differentiates between the real and the ideal plane in the acculturation process. The real plane refers to the acculturation strategies that minority groups declare to practice and the perception of majority members about these strategies. The ideal plane refers to the acculturation preferences (that is, what both minority members and hosts would prefer if they could choose, in terms of cultural adoption and maintenance for minority members). Moreover, the RAEM considers simultaneously different domains as a way to capture the inherent complexity of the acculturation process, asking for different areas of socio-cultural reality (e.g., political, work, social well-being, and consumer habits) or others more central to the cultural process (e.g., social relations, family relations, religion, and values). This model gives particular importance to the acculturation perceptions and preferences of both minority and majority members. This is especially relevant from a psychosocial perspective given that the analysis and potential interventions on biased perceptions and discrepant attitudes take a central stage on intercultural conflict resolution. When comparing majority and minority perspectives, acculturation discrepancies can be found. According to Bourhis et al. (1997), when the profile of acculturation orientations obtained for the host community and the immigrant group match very little or not at all, acculturation discordance between both communities can beproblematic or conflictual, respectively. These discrepancies are usual in acculturation research, with immigrants usually preferring to adopt the host culture less and maintaining the original culture more than what the members of the host country prefer they do (e.g., in Spain, Navas et al., 2007; Navas and Rojas, 2010). In the specific case of adolescents, a research conducted in two Mediterranean countries (Italy and Spain) found that there was little consensus between immigrant and host adolescents in their acculturation preferences (LópezRodríguez et al., 2014a; Mancini et al., 2018): immigrant adolescents living in both countries preferred to maintain their original culture more than what host adolescents preferred. Additionally, young immigrants in Italy preferred to adopt the host culture to a lower extent compared to what their Italian national peers demanded. This discrepancy in preference for adoption was inverted in Spain, with young immigrants preferring to adopt more the host culture compared to what Spanish adolescents demanded (especially in school or consumer habits). This study, however, included immigrants from different backgrounds. As acculturation is context-depended, results might vary when a specific cultural background is considered. The study of majority members’ acculturation preferences is essential because host majority members can influence the acculturation strategies of minority members, “who in turn may also affect the orientations of the host majority” (Bourhis etal., 1997, p. 375). As Van Acker and Vanbeselaere (2011) have claimed, knowing the antecedents of majority members’ preferences regarding the acculturation of different minorities offers chances to modify and intervene on majority members’ preferences and to fill the gap between the positions of both the majority and the minority groups, and consequently, to improve intergroup relations. This research analyzes the contribution of intergroup stereotypes beyond traditional variables of acculturation perceptions to predict acculturation preferences among Spanish adolescents and adolescents of Moroccan-origin living in Spain, the moderating role of stereotypes in intergroup acculturation discrepancies, as well as the interaction between stereotypes and acculturation perceptions on acculturation preferences. Intergroup Stereotypes and the Acculturation Process Acculturation processes are characterized by a remarkable complexity and are contingent to the context of intergroup relations. In this line, studies have related majority and/or minority acculturation preferences to different psychosocial variables, such as prejudice, stereotypes, or perceived discrimination (e.g., Maisonneuve and Testé, 2007; LópezRodríguez etal., 2014b; Rojas etal., 2014; Zagefka etal., 2014; López-Rodríguez and Zagefka, 2015; Cuadrado et al., 2017, 2018). The way we see others is essential to understanding intercultural relations. Stereotypes serve as social keys to guide judgments in complex situations as those involved in intercultural relations. With not much social information, stereotypes fulfill the gaps and shape interpretations of different events, being essential in intercultural relations. From the majority perspective, more flexible acculturation orientations such as integration are more strongly preferred for “valued” than “devalued” immigrants, whereas less tolerant acculturation orientations such as assimilation or exclusion are more endorsed for “devalued” than “valued” immigrants (Montreuil and Bourhis, 2001). As far as we know, no previous research has tested whether intergroup stereotypes could modulate acculturation discrepancies between the minority and majority groups. The stereotype content model (SCM; Fiske et al., 2002) postulates that social group members are evaluated on two basic dimensions of social perception: warmth and competence. The warmth dimension helps to anticipate the intentions of others and includes characteristics such as being sincere or friendly. The dimension of competence allows knowing the capacity of others to achieve their intentions or objectives and includes characteristics such as being intelligent or skillful. Afterward, Leach etal. (2007) demonstrated that warmth consists Urbiola et al. Stereotypes and Acculturation Preferences Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 610644 of two differentiated evaluative components: sociability and morality. According to Brambilla and Leach (2014, p. 398), “sociability pertains to being benevolent to people in ways that facilitate affective relations with them (e.g., friendliness, likeability, and kindness), morality refers to being benevolent to people in ways that facilitate correct and principled relations with them (e.g., honesty, trustworthiness, and sincerity).” Several studies have highlighted the primary and distinctive role of morality on social judgments, impression formation, or in-group and out-group evaluations and reactions (e.g., Brambilla et al., 2011, 2012; López-Rodríguez et al., 2013; Leach et al., 2015; Landy et al., 2016; Cuadrado et al., 2020; see Brambilla and Leach, 2014, for a review). Therefore, there is enough evidence on the importance of analyzing morality and sociability as two separate dimensions of warmth. Studies carried out in Spain with the three-dimensional stereotype content model in adult population confirm the distinctive role of morality (vs. sociability and competence) in outgroup evaluations. These studies have analyzed the perceptions of the majority group toward immigrants from different origins (López-Rodríguez et al., 2013), the perceptions of the minority group toward the majority group (Cuadrado etal., 2017, 2020 Study 2), and the intra-minority perspective where immigrants evaluated other immigrant groups (Cuadrado et al., 2016). Constantin and Cuadrado (2020) have confirmed the superiority of the threefactor model of stereotype content compared to the bi-dimensional one in a study with Spanish adolescents evaluating to Moroccan and Ecuadorian immigrants. That said, recent studies (e.g., Goodwin and Darley, 2012; Sayans-Jiménez et al., 2017) have shown the importance of also considering the negative aspects of morality (i.e., immorality) in impressions formation and out-group evaluations. According to Brambilla and Leach (2014, p. 400), “when people search for the most diagnostic information available about a person, they search for negative information about that person’s morality.” The negative pole of morality has more evaluative weight than the positive pole. Attributes associated with badness in negative moral actions (e.g., theft, cheating) are more reliable and objective than those related to the goodness of positive moral actions (e.g., donate money; Goodwin and Darley, 2012). The cue-diagnosticity of negative traits related to morality in the impression-formation process is well-known. Skowronski and Carlston (1987) found “that negative behaviors are perceived as more diagnostic than positive behaviors when the former are morality related (honesty-dishonesty)” (p.689). The negativity effect of morality has motivational, affective and cognitive bases (for a review see Rusconi et al., 2020). Additionally, the methodological research conducted by Sayans-Jiménez et al. (2017) indicated that the addition of negative items of morality (i.e., immorality) allows researchers to explain a bigger amount of variance than when only positive items are used. Perceived morality and immorality allow us to infer the potential benefits and/or threats that other people or groups represent to our well-being or that of our group (Brambilla etal., 2011, 2012). Therefore, these are prominent stereotypical dimensions in the search for information, impressions formation, and out-group evaluation that must be taken into account. To our knowledge, no studies have yet been conducted using the four dimensional model of stereotype content (i.e., morality, immorality, sociability, and competence) in adolescents from the minority perspective and its relationship with acculturation preferences. The relationship between these stereotype dimensions and acculturation preferences has received scarce attention in the literature. There are some exceptions. López-Rodríguez et al. (2014b) found that stereotypes (and the perceived threat associated to them) mediated the relationship between perceived adoption and preference for maintenance and adoption of a sample of Spaniards regarding Moroccan immigrants. In this case, positive evaluations were associated to more preference for culture maintenance and less preference for culture adoption via perceived threat. When stereotype dimensions were experimentally manipulated, the dimension of morality was the only dimension that affected the desire of majority members for minority group’s maintenance of the original culture (LópezRodríguez and Zagefka, 2015). From the minority perspective, Cuadrado etal. (2017) found that, especially perceived morality, but also perceived competence, indirectly and positively predicted the preference of immigrants for adopting Spanish customs through positive emotions toward Spaniards. These studies have not simultaneously considered the majority and minority perspective, the real (perceptions) and ideal plane (preferences) in the acculturation process, and they have only taken into account three (but not four) stereotype dimensions, ignoring the role of perceived immorality, the most threatening stereotype dimension. Moreover, previous research has not inquired about under which circumstances stereotypes might be more closely related to acculturation preferences. Kosic and Phalet (2006) found a significant interaction effect between perceived maintenance of the Moroccan culture of origin and prejudice on overcategorization. This finding suggests that the interaction between high prejudice and high perceived maintenance is associated with a highly threatening situation displayed as an overcategorization of photographs as Moroccans. Therefore, although prejudice has been found to interact with acculturation perceptions, there is no evidence that stereotypes interact with these perceptions to predict acculturation preferences. Objectives and Hypotheses The main question that motivated this inquiry was to understand the role that distinct stereotype dimensions play in the acculturation preferences of Spanish adolescents and adolescents of Moroccan-origin living in Spain. To achieve this goal, wefirst described the participants’ perceptions and preferences. Specifically, we analyze the majority-minority discrepancies in adolescents’ acculturation perceptions and preferences, and their mutual stereotypes. We expect Spanish adolescents to have a more negative perception of Moroccan youth than vice versa (H1). Based on previous findings with minority and majority samples of adolescents (e.g., López-Rodríguez et al., 2014a; Mancini et al., 2018), we expect that adolescents of Moroccan origin will report adopting more and maintaining less than what Spanish adolescents perceive them to do (H2a), and prefer to adopt less and maintain more than what host adolescents demand (H2b). Urbiola et al. Stereotypes and Acculturation Preferences Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 5 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 610644 Then, we analyzed the specific contribution of four different stereotype dimensions (i.e., morality, immorality, sociability, and competence), beyond traditional variables of acculturation perceptions (for majority and minority groups) and national and ethnic identity (for the minority group), to predict their acculturation preferences. The main categories of identification considered as important variables in acculturation processes are the ethnic and national categories. Because of that, we include also these categories of identity as classical predictors of acculturation preferences for the minority group. Wehypothesize that dimensions of stereotypes will predict acculturation preferences beyond acculturation perceptions (for majority and minority groups) and identity (for the minority group). Based on the diagnostic value of (im)morality (e.g., Skowronski and Carlston, 1987; Sayans-Jiménez et al., 2017), we expect that these two dimensions will be more relevant to adolescents’ acculturation preferences than the other dimensions of stereotypes (H3). This research also tests whether stereotypes could modulate the discrepancies between Spanish adolescents and adolescents of Moroccan-origin in their acculturation preferences. Previous research has found that less tolerant acculturation orientations such as assimilation or exclusion are more endorsed for “devalued” immigrants toward whom there are negative stereotypes (Montreuil and Bourhis, 2001). We might infer that mutual negative stereotypes would harden acculturation discrepancies, whereas positive mutual perceptions might soften such discrepancies (H4). Finally, weaddress an innovative question by analyzing under which circumstances stereotypes might be more predictive of acculturation preferences. Previous research has shown that acculturation perceptions can interact with prejudice (Kosic and Phalet, 2006) as well as the central role that perceived adoption (compared to perceived maintenance) can play in acculturation preferences (López-Rodríguez et al., 2014b). This innovative exploration is relevant since it connects the literature of acculturation and intergroup relations in an interactive way instead of studying the predictive role of stereotypes or acculturation perceptions in isolation, which is likely to often oversimplify people’s psychosocial realities. We hypothesize that stereotypes would play a major role in majority members’ acculturation preferences when they perceived that Moroccan youth were not adopting the Spanish culture because it is a more threatening situation than when minority group members are adopting the host culture (H5). MATERIALS AND METHODS Participants A sample of 488 Spanish adolescents (Mage=14.79, SDage=1.23; 52.4% girls) and 360 adolescents of Moroccan origin living in Spain (Mage = 15.16, SDage = 1.36; 58.7% girls) from 12 to 19 years old volunteered to participate in this study. They were enrolled in different public secondary schools in Spain. The 36.4% of adolescents of Moroccan origin were born in Spain and 62.2% in Morocco. Most of their parents (97.8%of fathers and 98.6% of mothers) were born in Morocco. For participants who were born in Morocco, the average age of arrival to Spain was 4.84 years (SD = 4.39). Variables and Instruments Participants answered one of two similar versions of a questionnaire, changing the out-group evaluated. Spanish adolescents answered the questionnaire assessing Moroccan youth, and adolescents of Moroccan origin assessed Spanish youth. The questionnaires contained instruments to measure the following variables. All items were measured on a fivepoint Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much). Stereotypes This variable was measured through a 17-item scale (from López-Rodríguez etal., 2013; Sayans-Jiménez etal., 2017). The scale consisted of four subdimensions: morality (four items: honest, trustworthy, sincere, and respectful), immorality (five items: aggressive, malicious, harmful, treacherous, and false), sociability (four items: friendly, warm, likeable, and kind) and competence (four items: intelligent, skilful, competent, and efficient). Participants were asked to what extent each adjective described the out-group (Spaniards or Moroccans). The estimated reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha and split-half with Spearman-Brown correction) are included in Table 1. Acculturation Perceptions They were measured through two scales adapted from the RAEM to adolescent populations (López-Rodríguez etal., 2014a; Mancini and Bottura, 2014; Mancini et al., 2018): one for maintaining the customs of origin and another for adopting Spanish customs. Spanish adolescents indicated to what extent they perceived that Moroccan youth maintained the origin customs and to what extent they perceived they have adopted or practiced Spanish customs across six domains (academic, economic, social, family, religion, and values). One example of an item is the following: “To what extent do you think that Moroccan youth living in Spain maintain nowadays the customs of their country in social relations (ways of socializing, usual places for socializing, the way in which they spend their free time, ways of having fun, etc.)?” Adolescents of Moroccan origin indicated to what extent they maintained the Moroccan customs (of their parents’ country of origin) and adopted or TABLE1 | Estimated reliability coefficients. Cronbach’s alpha Split-Half (SpearmanBrown) SA MA SA MA Maintenance 0.58 0.68 0.65 0.67 Adoption 0.71 0.66 0.81 0.72 Preferences for maintenance 0.83 0.83 0.86 0.84 Preferences for adoption 0.86 0.77 0.89 0.82 Morality 0.82 0.65 0.84 0.69 Immorality 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.73 Sociability 0.85 0.72 0.86 0.71 Competence 0.76 0.68 0.76 0.63 SA, Spanish adolescents; MA, Moroccan-origin adolescents. Urbiola et al. Stereotypes and Acculturation Preferences Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 6 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 610644 practiced Spanish customs in the same domains. One example of an item is the following: “To what extend do youmaintain nowadays the Moroccan customs in your family relationships (way of relating to their parents, with older people in the family, with their brothers and sisters, tasks that each member of the family does, etc.)?” Average scores on each scale (cultural maintenance and adoption) were obtained. The estimated reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha and split-half with Spearman-Brown correction) are included in Table 1. Acculturation Preferences Participants’ preferences were also measured using two scales: one for maintaining the origin customs and another for the adoption of Spanish customs. Spanish adolescents were asked to what extent they would like Moroccan youth to maintain the origin customs and to adopt the Spanish customs. One example of an item is: “If you could choose, to what extent would you like Moroccan youth living in Spain to adopt or practice the Spanish customs in social relations (ways of socializing, usual places for socializing, the way in which they spend their free time, ways of having fun, etc.)?” Adolescents of Moroccan origin were asked to what extent they would like to maintain the Moroccan customs (of their parents’ country of origin) and to adopt the Spanish customs (the items were the same as for Spanish adolescents but asking “To what extent would you like to adopt or practice the Spanish customs?”). Each scale contains six items referring to the same RAEM domains. Average scores on each scale (cultural maintenance and adoption) were obtained. The estimated reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha and split-half with Spearman-Brown correction) are included in Table 1. Group Identity Ethnic and national identities were measured in Moroccanorigin adolescents with four questions. They indicated their identification with and valuation of their ethnic group (Moroccan) through two questions: “To what degree do youfeel Moroccan?” and “how do you value being Moroccan?” (ethnic identity, r=0.63, p<0.001). They were also asked about their identification with and valuation of the host country with two questions: “To what degree do youfeel Spanish?” and “how do youvalue being Spanish?” (national identity, r=0.70, p<0.001). Average scores in both questions (for each identity) were obtained. Socio-Demographic Variables Participants reported their sex, age, country of birth, country of birth of parents (father and mother), and age of arrival in Spain (for Moroccan participants). The questionnaire included more variables since it was part of a broader national project but only those relevant for the objectives of this study are reported. Procedure Analysis of population registers (INE, 2019) was carried out to determine the number, geographical distribution, and countries of origin of foreign adolescents living in Spain. Subsequently, public secondary schools with a high number of adolescents of Moroccan origin were selected in provinces with a high presence of this population. Schools were contacted and the appropriate permits were requested to carry out the study. The parents/legal guardians of the adolescents signed an informed consent form that was collected at the time of application of the questionnaire. Teachers, families, and adolescents were informed of the objectives of the research, the people in charge, their voluntary participation, and the possibility of stopping at any time. Likewise, they were informed that the data collected would be treated anonymously and confidentially. The questionnaires were completed in paper and pencil format, and applied by trained personnel, in the classrooms of 16 public secondary schools of five Spanish provinces. The study was approved by the Human Research Bioethics Committee of the researchers’ university. The database used in this research has been made publicly available and can beaccessed at Open Science Framework (OSF) https://osf.io/khmvu/?view_only=f4 1e41bf48a349c689469481baf63eaf. RESULTS Preliminary Analyses Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to test the fit of the four-factor stereotypes model, which included the dimensions of morality, immorality, sociability, and competence. In addition, the fit of the two-factor model (warmth and competence; Fiske et al., 2002) and the three-factor model (morality sociability, and competence; Leach etal., 2007) were checked out. Weused the chi-square test and calculated the root mean square error approximation (RMSEA), the comparative fit index (CFI), and the Tuker-Lewis index (TLI) to test the fit of these models. For general interpretation, models with RMSEA values greater than 0.10 and CFI and TLI values below 0.90 should berejected (Brown, 2015). Wealso report the Akaike information criterion (AIC) and the Bayesian information criterion (BIC). Smaller values of these indices indicate better model fit. The maximum likelihood (ML) method was used to estimate the parameters and correlation between the factors were freed. The four-factor stereotypes model showed a good fit of the data for both groups: Spanish adolescents, c 2 (113)= 278.05, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.05, AIC = 19863.10, BIC = 20030.13; and Moroccan-origin adolescents, c 2 (113) = 191.42, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.94, TLI= 0.93, RMSEA= 0.04, AIC=15489.01, BIC= 15642.63. All factor loadings were statistically significant (see Figure 1). Results of the CFA for the three-factor and two-factor models for both groups indicated that they should bediscarded: Threefactor model for Spanish adolescents, c2 (116) = 500.32, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.90, TLI = 0.88, RMSEA = 0.08, AIC = 20209.63, BIC = 20364.37; and for Moroccan-origin adolescents, c 2 (116) = 325.98, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.85, TLI= 0.83, RMSEA= 0.07, AIC=15778.15, BIC= 15920.68; Two-factor model for Spanish adolescents, c 2 (118)=554.22, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.88, TLI = 0.86, RMSEA = 0.09, AIC = 20259.53, BIC = 20405.90; and for Moroccan-origin adolescents, c2 (118) = 440.03, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.77, TLI = 0.74, RMSEA = 0.09, AIC = 1588.21, BIC = 16023.03. Urbiola et al. Stereotypes and Acculturation Preferences Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 7 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 610644 Descriptive statistics and bi-variate Pearson correlations among variables for both Spanish and Moroccan-origin adolescents are reported in Table 2. Intergroup Differences in Stereotypes In order to compare intergroup stereotypes and acculturation perceptions and preferences, two multivariate analysis of variances (MANOVAs) were performed: stereotype dimensions and acculturation perceptions and preferences were included as dependent variables and the target/group (Moroccan youth evaluated by Spanish adolescents vs. Spanish youth evaluated by adolescents of Moroccan origin) as independent variable. Results of the MANOVA showed that there was a multivariate effect of the group in the stereotype dimensions as combined dependent variables, Wilk’s λ=0.86, F(4, 820)=33.37, p<0.001, η2p = 0.14. As shown in Figure 2 (see also means and SDs in Table2), adolescents of Moroccan origin had a more positive perception of Spanish youth compared to the perception that Spanish adolescents had of Moroccan youth (H1). Statistically significant differences appeared in all four stereotype dimensions analyzed. Moroccan youth were perceived by Spanish adolescents as less moral, F(1,823) = 91.72, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.10; more immoral, F(1,823) =45.49, p< 0.001, η2p= 0.05; less sociable, F(1,823) = 119.32, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.13; and less competent, F(1,823) = 23.44, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.03, compared to the perception that Moroccan-origin adolescents had about Spanish youth. Homogeneity of variances for between-subjects comparison was not assumed. However, t-tests with corrections revealed the same results. Intergroup Differences in Acculturation Orientations Results of the MANOVA showed that there was a multivariate effect of the group in the acculturation perceptions and preferences as combined dependent variables, Wilk’s λ=0.78, F(4, 807)=54.65, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.21. As shown in Figure 3, there were some discrepancies between what Spanish adolescents perceived that Moroccan youth were doing and what Moroccan-origin adolescents admitted doing (H2a). Spanish adolescents perceived that Moroccan youth were adopting less than they claimed to do, FIGURE1 | Results of confirmatory factor analysis for the four-factor model for Spanish and Moroccan-origin adolescents. All factor loadings are standardized and statistically significant. Urbiola et al. Stereotypes and Acculturation Preferences Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 8 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 610644 F(1,810) = 103.10, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.11; but also maintaining less than they claimed to do, F(1,810) = 28.71, p < 0.001, η2p=0.03. Regarding their preferences, in line with H2b, Spanish adolescents preferred Moroccan youth to maintain less than Moroccan-origin adolescents wanted to do, F(1,810) = 132.33, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.14; and preferred more adoption than the latter desired to do, F(1,810) = 4.79, p = 0.029, η2p = 0.01. Preference for Adopting the Host Culture Four multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to analyze the effect of stereotypes in acculturation preferences (two multiple linear regressions for each group: one for preferences for maintenance and one for preferences for adoption). In order to control the effect of acculturation perceptions (for both groups) and ethnic and national identity (only for Moroccan-origin adolescents), these variables were included in Step1. In Step2, stereotype dimensions were added. For adolescents of Moroccan origin, the results of the multiple regression analysis are shown in Table 3. Adopting the host culture and national identity were positively related to the desire to adopt the Spanish culture in Step 1. There was a statistically significant increase in the explained variance (∆R2=0.019) in Step2. Interestingly, perceiving Spanish youth as immoral (e.g., aggressive, malicious, and false) significantly contributed to the model. The more immoral Spanish youth were perceived, the less willingness to adopt the Spanish culture. For Spanish adolescents, results of the multiple regression analysis are shown in Table 4. Only perception of adoption of the host culture was marginally related to their preference for Moroccan youth to adopt the Spanish culture in Step 1. There was a statistically significant increase in the explained variance (∆R2 = 0.021) in Step 2. Perceiving Moroccan youth as immoral (e.g., aggressive, malicious, and false) also contributed to the model. The more immoral Moroccan youth were perceived, the more the preference for them to adopt the Spanish culture. These findings suggest that perceived immorality might be important for understanding preference for adopting the host culture for both majority and minority groups. The Moderating Role of Stereotypes in Discrepancies of Preference for Adoption To verify if stereotypes can moderate the discrepancies between majority and minority members in their acculturation preferences, weconducted four multiple regression analyses with the macro PROCESS 3.5 for SPSS, Model 1 (Hayes, 2018) using a biascorrected bootstrap of 5,000 samples. Group was defined each time as predictor (1 = Spanish adolescents; 0 = Moroccanorigin adolescents) of preference for adoption and each stereotype dimension was defined as moderator (+SD, Mean, and −SD). The other stereotype dimensions were controlled as covariates. A heteroscedasticity consistent standard error and covariance matrix estimator was used. The regression analyses yielded a significant interaction between group and perceived immorality, B=0.37, SE=0.08, t(802) = 4.62, ∆R2 = 0.027, p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.213, 0.527]; perceived morality, B = −0.32, SE = 0.09, t(802) = −3.50, TABLE2 | Correlations among variables for Spanish and Moroccan-origin adolescents. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Spanish adolescents Moroccan-origin adolescents M SD M SD 1. Maintenance 0.08 0.05 0.01 - - 0.19** −0.06 0.18** 0.22** 3.57 0.60 3.83 0.71 2. Adoption 0.11*0.34** 0.09*- - 0.49** −0.29** 0.47** 0.28** 2.78 0.72 3.31 0.73 3. Preference for maintenance 0.62** 0.11** −0.03 - - 0.33** −0.17** 0.38** 0.28** 3.11 0.92 3.85 0.85 4. Preference for adoption 0.08 0.60** 0.20** - - −0.01 0.11*0.01 0.01 3.44 0.91 3.31 0.83 5. Ethnic identity 0.36** −0.05 0.34** −0.12*- - - - - - - 4.37 0.79 6. National identity −0.04 0.11*0.02 0.26** −0.19** - - - - - - 3.06 1.11 7. Morality 0.13*0.24** 0.13*0.23** −0.01 0.07 −0.58** 0.80** 0.59** 2.77 0.79 3.28 0.70 8. Immorality 0.01 −0.06 −0.06 −0.20** 0.08 −0.06 −0.43** −0.54** −0.40** 2.98 0.79 2.60 0.82 9. Sociability 0.06 0.22** 0.12*0.22** −0.04 0.17** 0.53** −0.32** 0.61** 3.04 0.85 3.66 0.74 10. Competence 0.09 0.14** 0.16** 0.18** −0.01 0.11*0.46** −0.25** 0.49** 3.26 0.74 3.50 0.66 Correlations for Spanish adolescents are reported above diagonal; correlations for Moroccan-origin adolescents are reported below diagonal. **p<0.01; *p<0.05. Urbiola et al. Stereotypes and Acculturation Preferences Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 15 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 610644 Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardian/next of kin. AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS LL-R, AU, MN, MS-C, and IC developed the study concept and design, drafted the manuscript, provided critical revisions, and approved the final version of the manuscript for submission. Data collection was performed by MS-C and MN. MS-C, LL-R, and AU performed the data analysis. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. FUNDING This study was conducted within the project “Prejudiced attitudes, acculturation process, and adjustment of immigrant and host adolescents” (Reference PS2016-80123-P), funded by the Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness. REFERENCES Arends-Tóth, J., and Van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2003). Multiculturalism and acculturation: views of Dutch and Turkish-Dutch. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 33, 249–266. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.143 Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Appl. Psychol. Int. Rev. 46, 5–68. doi: 10.1080/026999497378467 Berry, J. W. (2005). Acculturation: living successfully in two cultures. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 29, 697–712. doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.07.013 Berry, J. W. (2006). Mutual attitudes among immigrants and ethnocultural groups in Canada. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 30, 719–734. doi: 10.1016/j. ijintrel.2006.06.004 Bourhis, R. Y., Moïse, L. C., Perreault, S., and Senécal, S. (1997). Towards an interactive acculturation model: a social psychological approach. Int. J. Psychol. 32, 369–386. doi: 10.1080/002075997400629 Brambilla, M., and Leach, C. W. (2014). On the importance of being moral: the distinctive role of morality in social judgment. Soc. Cogn. 32, 397–408. doi: 10.1521/soco.2014.32.4.397 Brambilla, M., Rusconi, P., Sacchi, S., and Cherubini, P. (2011). Looking for honesty: the primary role of morality (vs. sociability and competence) in information gathering. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 41, 135–143. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.744 Brambilla, M., Sacchi, S., Rusconi, P., Cherubini, P., and Yzerbyt, V. Y. (2012). You want to bea good impression? Behonest! Moral traits dominate groups impression formation. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 51, 149–166. doi: 10.1111/j. 2044-8309.2010.02011.x Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. 2nd Edn. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Brown, R., and Zagefka, H. (2011). The dynamics of acculturation: an intergroup perspective. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 44, 129–184. doi: 10.1016/ B978-0-12-385522-0.00003-2 Constantin, A. A., and Cuadrado, I. (2019). Perceived intergroup competition and adolescents’ behavioural intentions toward minorities: the role of threat, stereotypes and emotions. Curr. Psychol. 1–11. doi: 10.1007/s12144-019-00297-8 Constantin, A. A., and Cuadrado, I. (2020). “We believe, we feel, we act”: testing the BIAS map predictions during adolescence. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 50, 22–32. doi: 10.1111/jasp.12638 Cuadrado, I., García-Ael, C., Molero, F., Recio, P., and Pérez-Garín, D. (2018). Acculturation process in Romanian immigrants in Spain: the role of social support and perceived discrimination. Curr. Psychol. 1–10. doi: 10.1007/ s12144-018-0072-8 Cuadrado, I., López-Rodríguez, L., and Constantin, A. (2020). “A matter of trust”: perception of morality increases willingness to help through positive emotions. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. 23, 462–480. doi: 10.1177/1368430219838606 Cuadrado, I., López-Rodríguez, L., and Navas, M. (2016). La perspectiva de la minoría: estereotipos y emociones entre grupos inmigrantes [The minority’s perspective: stereotypes and emotions between immigrant groups]. Anales de Psicología 32, 535–544. doi: 10.6018/analesps.32.2.205341 Cuadrado, I., López-Rodríguez, L., and Navas, M. (2017). “Si eres moral y competente adoptaré elementos de tu cultura”: el rol mediador de las emociones positivas en el proceso de aculturación de inmigrantes ecuatorianos en España [“If you are moral and competent, Iwill adopt elements of your culture”: The mediating role of positive emotions in the acculturation process of Ecuadorian immigrants in Spain]. Universitas Psychologica 16, 1–14. doi: 10.11144/Javeriana.upsy16-5.mcae Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., Glick, P., and Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 82, 878–902. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878 Geschke, D., Mummendey, A., Kessler, T., and Funke, F. (2010). Majority members’ acculturation goals as predictors and effects of attitudes and behaviours towards migrants. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 49, 489–506. doi: 10.1348/ 014466609X470544 Goodwin, G. P., and Darley, J. M. (2012). Why are some moral beliefs perceived to be more objective than others? J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 48, 250–256. doi: 10.1177/01461672982412001 Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. 2nd Edn. New York: Guilford Press. Horenczyk, G., Jasinskaja-Lahti, I., Sam, D. L., and Vedder, P. (2013). Mutuality in acculturation: toward an integration. Z. Psychol. 221, 205–213. doi: 10.1027/2151-2604/a000150 INE (2019). Estadística del padrón continuo. Datos provisionales a 1 de enero de 2019. [Register of inhabitants’ statistics. Provisional data at 1st of January 2019]. Available at: http://www.ine.es/dynt3/inebase/index.htm?type=pcaxis&path=/t20/ e245/p04/provi&file=pcaxis&dh=0&capsel=0 (Accessed January 2019). INE (2020). Cifras de población a 1 de enero de 2020. Estadística de Migraciones [Population figures at 1st of January 2020. Migration Statistics]. Available at: https://www.ine.es/prensa/pad_2020_p.pdf (Accessed August 2020). Kosic, A., and Phalet, K. (2006). Ethnic categorization of immigrants: the role of prejudice, perceived acculturation strategies and group size. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 30, 769–782. doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2006.06.003 Landy, J. F., Piazza, J., and Goodwin, G. P. (2016). When it’s bad to be friendly and smart: the desirability of sociability and competence depends on morality. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 42, 1272–1290. doi: 10.1177/0146167216655984 Leach, C. W., Bilali, R., and Pagliaro, S. (2015). “Groups and morality” in APA handbook of personality and social psychology, Vol. 2: Group processes. eds. M. Mikulincer, P. R. Shaver, J. F. Dovidio and J. Simpson (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association), 123–149. Leach, C. W., Ellemers, N., and Barreto, M. (2007). Group virtue: the importance of morality (vs. competence and sociability) in the positive evaluation of in-groups. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 93, 234–249. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.93.2.234 López-Rodríguez, L., Bottura, B., Navas, M., and Mancini, T. (2014a). Acculturation strategies and attitudes in immigrant and host adolescents. The RAEM in different national contexts. Psicologia Sociale 2, 133–158. doi: 10.1482/77473 López-Rodríguez, L., Cuadrado, I., and Navas, M. (2013). Aplicación extendida del Modelo del Contenido de los Estereotipos (MCE) hacia tres grupos de inmigrantes en España [Extended application of the Stereotype Content Model (SCM) towards three immigrant groups in Spain]. Estud. Psicol. 34, 197–208. doi: 10.1174/021093913806751375 López-Rodríguez, L., Cuadrado, I., and Navas, M. (2016). Acculturation preferences and behavioral tendencies between majority and minority groups: the mediating role of emotions. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 46, 401–417. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2181 López-Rodríguez, L., and Zagefka, H. (2015). The effects of stereotype content on acculturation preferences and prosocial tendencies: the prominent role of morality. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 45, 36–46. doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel. 2014.12.006 López-Rodríguez, L., Zagefka, H., Navas, M., and Cuadrado, I. (2014b). Explaining majority members’ acculturation preferences for minority members: a mediation model. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 38, 36–46. doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.07.001 Urbiola et al. Stereotypes and Acculturation Preferences Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 16 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 610644 Maisonneuve, C., and Testé, B. (2007). Acculturation preferences of a host community: the effects of immigrant acculturation strategies on evaluations and impression formation. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 31, 669–688. doi: 10.1016/j. ijintrel.2007.06.001 Mancini, T., and Bottura, B. (2014). Acculturation processes and intercultural relations in peripheral and central domains among native Italian and migrant adolescents. An application of the Relative Acculturation Extended Model (RAEM). Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 40, 49–63. doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.12.002 Mancini, T., Navas, M., López-Rodríguez, L., and Bottura, B. (2018). Variants of biculturalism in migrant and host adolescents living in Italy and Spain: testing the importance of life domains through the Relative Acculturation Extended Model (RAEM). Int. J. Psychol. 53, 71–80. doi: 10.1002/ijop.12432 Montreuil, A., and Bourhis, R. Y. (2001). Majority acculturation orientations toward valued and devalued immigrants. J. Cross-Cult. Psychol. 32, 698–719. doi: 10.1177/0022022101032006004 Navas, M. S., Cuadrado, I., and López-Rodríguez, L. (2012). Escala de Percepción de Amenaza Exogrupal (EPAE): fiabilidad y evidencias de validez [Outgroup Threat Perception Scale: Reliability and validity evidences]. Psicothema 24, 477–482. Navas, M. S., García, M. C., Sánchez, J., Rojas, A. J., Pumares, P., and Fernández, J. S. (2005). Relative acculturation extended model: new contributions with regard to the study of acculturation. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 29, 21–37. doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.04.001 Navas, M. S., and Rojas, A. J. (2010). Aplicación del Modelo Ampliado de Aculturación relativa (MAAR) a nuevos colectivos de inmigrantes en Andalucía: rumanos y ecuatorianos [Application of the Relative Acculturation Extended Model (RAEM) to new collectives of immigrants in Andalusia]. Junta de Andalucía. Navas, M. S., Rojas, A. J., García, M. C., and Pumares, P. (2007). Acculturation strategies and attitudes according to the Relative Acculturation Extended Model (RAEM): the perspectives of natives versus immigrants. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 31, 67–86. doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2006.08.002 Phinney, J. S. (2003). “Ethnic identity and acculturation” in Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement, and applied research. eds. K. M. Chun, P. Balls Organista and G. Marín (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association), 63–81. Piontkowski, U., Florack, A., Hoelker, P., and Obdrzálck, P. (2000). Predicting acculturation attitudes of dominant and non-dominant groups. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 21, 1–26. doi: 10.1016/S0147-1767(99)00020-6 Piontkowski, U., Rohmann, A., and Florack, A. (2002). Concordance of acculturation attitudes and perceived threat. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. 5, 221–232. doi: 10.1177/1368430202005003003 Redfield, R., Linton, R., and Herskovits, M. J. (1936). Memorandum on the study of acculturation. Am. Anthropol. 38, 149–152. Rojas, A., Navas, M., Sayans-Jiménez, P., and Cuadrado, I. (2014). Acculturation preference profiles of Spaniards and Romanian immigrants: the role of prejudice and public and private acculturation areas. J. Soc. Psychol. 154, 339–351. doi: 10.1080/00224545.2014.903223 Rudmin, F. W. (2003). Critical history of the acculturation psychology of assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 7, 3–37. doi: 10.1037/1089-2680.7.1.3 Rusconi, P., Sacchi, S., Brambilla, M., Capellini, R., and Cherubini, P. (2020). Being honest and acting consistently: boundary conditions of the negativity effect in the attribution of morality. Soc. Cogn. 38, 146–178. doi: 10.1521/ SOCO.2020.38.2.146 Sayans-Jiménez, P., Rojas, A. J., and Cuadrado, I. (2017). Is it advisable to include negative attributes to assess the stereotype content? Yes, but only in the morality dimension. Scand. J. Psychol. 58, 170–178. doi: 10.1111/ sjop.12346 Schwartz, S. J., Montgomery, M. J., and Briones, E. (2006). The role of identity in acculturation among immigrant people: theoretical propositions, empirical questions, and applied recommendations. Hum. Dev. 49, 1–30. doi: 10.1159/000090300 Skowronski, J. J., and Carlston, D. E. (1987). Social judgment and social memory: the role of cue diagnosticity in negativity, positivity, and extremity biases. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 52, 689–699. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.52.4.689 Stephan, W. G., Ybarra, O., and Rios, K. (2016). “Intergroup threat theory” in Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination. 2nd Edn. ed. T. D. Nelson (New York: Psychology Press), 255–278. Tausch, N., Saguy, T., and Bryson, J. (2015). How does intergroup contact affect social change? Its impact on collective action and individual mobility intentions among members of a disadvantaged group. J. Soc. Issues 71, 536–553. doi: 10.1111/josi.12127 Tip, L., Zagefka, H., Gonzalez, R., Brown, R., Cinirella, M., and Na, X. (2012). Is support for multiculturalism threatened by…threat itself? Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 36, 22–30. doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.09.011 Van Acker, K., and Vanbeselaere, N. (2011). Bringing together acculturation theory and intergroup contact theory: Predictors of Flemings’ expectations of Turks’ acculturation behavior. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 35, 334–345. doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.06.004 Zagefka, H., Binder, J., Brown, R., Kessler, T., Mummendey, A., Funke, F., et al. (2014). The relationship between acculturation preferences and prejudice: longitudinal evidence from majority and minority groups in three European countries. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 44, 578–589. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2044 Zagefka, H., Brown, R., Broquard, M., and Leventoglu Martin, S. (2007). Predictors and consequences of negative attitudes toward immigrants in Belgium and Turkey: the role of acculturation preferences and economic competition. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 46, 153–169. doi: 10.1348/014466606X111185 Zhang, S., Verkuyten, M., and Weesie, J. (2018). Dual identity and psychological adjustment: a study among immigrant-origin member. J. Res. Pers. 74, 66–77. doi: 10.1016/j.jrp.2018.02.008 Zick, A., Wagner, U., van Dick, R., and Petzel, T. (2001). Acculturation and prejudice in Germany: majority and minority perspectives. J. Soc. Issues 57, 541–557. doi: 10.1111/0022-4537.00228 Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Copyright © 2021 Urbiola, López-Rodríguez, Sánchez-Castelló, Navas and Cuadrado. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. View publication stats