Insect applications to open wounds by chimpanzees in the wild: first insights from East African chimpanzees

Insec applica ions o open wounds by chimpanzees in he wild: i s insigh s om Eas A ican chimpanzees Kayla Kol 1, Daniela Acos a Fló ez2, Alessand a Masca o1 & Simone Pika1 Medica i e beha iou s a e widesp ead among animals, and chimpanzees in he wild may exhibi a newly iden i ied o m in ol ing he applica ion o insec s o open wounds. To da e, insec applica ions o wounds ha e only been epo ed in a single communi y o Cen al chimpanzees (Pan oglody es oglody es). Thus, we epo obse a ions o simila beha iou s in Eas e n chimpanzees (P. . schwein u hii) o he Ngogo chimpanzee popula ion, in Kibale Na ional Pa k, Uganda. Be ween No embe 2021 and July 2022, we obse ed six indi iduals ( h ee males, h ee emales) applying lying insec s o hei own wounds (N = 5) and, in one ins ance, o he wound o a conspeci ic. These obse a ions demons a e a gene ally consis en sequen ial pa e n o insec applica ions in bo h Eas e n and Cen al chimpanzees. Al hough he ex en and po en ial medicinal unc ion o his beha iou emain unclea , we p opose h ee hypo heses o in o m u u e esea ch, ocusing on insec selec i i y, social ansmission, and p osociali y. In conclusion, he indings sugges ha insec applica ions a e mo e widesp ead han cu en ly documen ed, and p o ide a basis o in es iga ing hei acquisi ion, social dynamics, and po en ial ele ance o he e olu ion o human medicinal beha iou s. Keywo ds Animal medica ion, Sel -medica ion, O he - ega ding ca e, Pan oglody es schwein u hii, P osocial beha iou , En omo he apy T adi ional medicinal beha iou s a e a cul u al cha ac e is ic1 ha human socie ies ha e assembled o e housands o yea s2–4. These beha iou s ha e been passed on h ough o al ansmission, obse a ion, and di ec copying (i.e., social lea ning)5, wi h adi ional medicine con inuing o play a i al ole in global heal hca e6,7 (bu see also8,9. Unde s anding he o igins o hese medicinal beha iou s – such as he de elopmen o use o he bal medicines, oin men s, en omo he apy ( he medicinal use o insec s3, and mode n pha maceu icals – equi es examining how knowledge o medicinal compounds may ha e eme ged, been ansmi ed, and e ined o e ime. E idence sugges s ha medicinal plan s and ungi we e used by ou ex inc hominin ances o s, he Neande hals (Homo neande halensis) as ea ly as 50,000 yea s ago, wi h some o hese plan s s ill in use oday4,10. Fo ins ance, Ge man chamomile (Ma ica ia chamomilla) shown o ha e li le nu i ional alue10, and oday used o di e en pu poses including an i-in lamma o y, an ispasmodic, and seda i e e ec s, as well as he ea men o gas op o ec i e dis u bances11. Simila ly, en omo he apy3,12,13 has been used in some cul u es o cen u ies. Fo ins ance, in China, app oxima ely 300 insec species ac oss 70 di e en gene a ha e been iden i ied as ha ing medicinal p ope ies and a e included in adi ional Chinese medicine14. Simila ly, in Bu kina Faso, adi ional heale s use insec species om six di e en o de s o a a ie y o medicinal pu poses15. The insec s a e used o ea a wide ange o ailmen s, including diges i e and skin diso de s3, and hei documen ed e ec s en ail an i-in lamma o y, an imic obial, an i i al, immunological, analgesic, an ibac e ial, diu e ic, anaes he ic, and an i heuma ic e ec s3,12. This aises a cen al ques ion: how did humans i s ecognise and ha ness such medicinal p ope ies, and how migh his ha e e ol ed? One explana ion, sugges ed by schola s, is ha h oughou human his o y, people ha e obse ed nonhuman animals (he ea e animals) ea ing hei illnesses using plan seconda y compounds, non- nu i ional subs ances, o bioac i e subs ances16–18. These obse a ions ha e con ibu ed o he iden i ica ion 1Compa a i e BioCogni ion, Ins i u e o Cogni i e Science, Osnab ück Uni e si y, Osnab ück, Ge many. 2Depa men o An h opology, Facul y o A s and Sciences, Yale uni e si y, New Ha en, Uni ed S a es o Ame ica. email: kk[email p o ec ed] OPEN Scien i ic Repo s | (2025) 15:31242 1 | h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41598-025-16582-5 www.na u e.com/scien i ic epo s o plan -based ea men s wi h po en ial bene i s o humans19. This explana ion aises a u he ques ion: how did such beha iou s eme ge in animals hemsel es? A g owing body o esea ch ac oss he animal kingdom – om in e eb a es o p ima es20–30 – has shown ha a ious animals engage in medica i e beha iou s. These include he use o na u al subs ances such as plan ma e 31–33, clay29, o millipedes (Sechellep us spp.)34 o o p ophylac ic o he apeu ic pu poses, o en in ol ing an ipa asi ic e ec s (see also35. Mos exis ing esea ch has ocused on cases o sel -medica ion in ol ing plan ma e ials, wi h only limi ed examples o animal-de i ed subs ances35. Fu he mo e, un il ecen ly, he use o medicinal subs ances o ea o he s was hough o be a e in animals, howe e , eme ging e idence sugges s i may be mo e widesp ead han p e iously assumed35–37. These indings con ibu e o he ongoing deba e abou he exis ence o p osocial beha iou s in nonhuman p ima es38,39, de ined as ac ions in ended o bene i ano he and, in humans, p ima ily d i en by empa hic conce ns o o he s40,41. Hence, he social con ex o wound ending may ep esen a c ucial candida e o enhancing ou unde s anding o p osocial and he apeu ic beha iou s in animals and he e olu ion o human medicinal ca e. One compelling example o such beha iou comes om ecen obse a ions on Cen al chimpanzees (Pan oglody es oglody es) om he Loango Na ional Pa k, Gabon. These obse a ions documen ed a po en ially signi ican example o bo h sel - and o he -di ec ed medica ion in ol ing he applica ion o insec s o open wounds – no only hei own bu also hose o ela ed and un ela ed g oup membe s37. O e a pe iod o 15 mon hs, a o al o 19 sel -di ec ed e en s ( i e adul males, one adul emale, one ju enile emale) and h ee o he -di ec ed e en s (one emale, wo males; one kin-di ec ed and wo non-kin-di ec ed e en s) we e obse ed. These e en s ollowed a consis en beha iou al sequence: • A lying insec was caugh . • I was immobilised by being placed and/o squeezed be ween he lips. • The insec was applied o he exposed su ace o he wound wi h he inge s and mo ed ac oss i using he inge s o lips. • I was emo ed om he wound using ei he he mou h o inge s and disca ded. These obse a ions expand ou exis ing knowledge o animal medica ion o include allo-medica ion o open wounds in ol ing he use o animal ma e 37. In addi ion, since documen ed e en s o insec applica ion in chimpanzees in he wild ha e only ecen ly been obse ed, ques ions a ise ega ding he beha iou ’s uniqueness, dis ibu ion, con ex -speci ici y, and links o ecological and sociodemog aphic ac o s. Unde s anding hese aspec s helps de e mine whe he he beha iou e lec s an in insic esponse, a communi y-speci ic inno a ion, o pa o a b oade pa e n, wi h implica ions o chimpanzee sel -medica ion, social ansmission, and p osocial beha iou . He e, we p o ide i s insigh s in o insec applica ion in ano he chimpanzee subspecies – Eas e n chimpanzees (Pan oglody es schwein u hii) – om he Ngogo popula ion, Kibale Na ional Pa k, Uganda. We epo h ee e en s: wo e en s o sel -di ec ed applica ion, and one o o he -di ec ed applica ion. These obse a ions o e compa a i e insigh in o he dis ibu ion and signi icance o insec -based wound ea men in chimpanzees and i s ele ance o he e olu ion o p osocial and heal h- ela ed beha iou s. Resul s In o al, we obse ed i e e en s in ol ing insec - ela ed beha iou wi h wounds. These e en s a ied in e ms o indi idual iden i y, sex, and age class o he applica o , wound loca ion, and pee ing occu ence (Table1). We u he epo on h ee e en s due o he a ailabili y o ideo oo age and isibili y, en ailing wo sel -di ec ed applica ions, and one o he -di ec ed applica ion. E en 1 (see Video S1). An adolescen emale chimpanzee, F icka, sel -applied a lying insec o an open wound on he inne igh high This e en in ol ed an adolescen emale, F icka, who was obse ed applying an immobilised insec o an open wound on he inne igh high (app oxima ely < 5cm in diame e ; Fig.1; Video S1, 00:16 − 01:42). She p essed Da e ID Sex Age class Wound loca ion Applica o Pee ing Video oo age Example e en s Wes e n communi y 23/11/21 Damien M Adolescen Le leg Sel Yes Yes 2 23/11/21 Damien M Adolescen Le leg E a James Yes Yes 3 Cen al Communi y 28/11/21 Clay on M Adolescen Le leg Sel No No 3/12/21 Ab ams MAdul Righ lowe back Sel No Yes 13/12/21 Fishe FAdul Le uppe a m Sel No No 18/03/22 F icka F Adolescen Righ leg Sel Yes Yes 1 Table 1. Summa y o epo ed e en s o insec applica ions based on ideo oo age and abula ed obse a ional da a as a unc ion o da e, ID (wounded indi idual), sex (M = Male; F = Female), age class o he wounded indi idual (adolescen s: 8 < x < 16; adul s: x ≥ 1642, wound loca ion, applica o (sel -applied, N = 5; o applied by a conspeci ic, N = 1), p esence o bys ande pee ing du ing insec applica ion, and a ailabili y o ideo oo age. The numbe s in he example e en s ma ch he h ee e en s desc ibed in he esul s. Scien i ic Repo s | (2025) 15:31242 2 | h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41598-025-16582-5 www.na u e.com/scien i ic epo s/ he insec (wi h only he abdomen isible) on o he wound su ace and picked mul iple ins ances o whi e esidue om he insec . A one poin , while g ooming he wound wi h he inge s, he insec was pushed aside on o nea by u , bu she subsequen ly e ie ed i and placed i back on o he wound su ace (Video S1; 01:23 − 01:30). Du ing he applica ion, whi e esidue was obse ed on se en sepa a e occasions on he lowe lip and humb (Video S1; imes amps: 00:16, 00:33 [a which ime whi e esidue was also isible on he insec pa ], 00:36, 00:41, 01:04, 01:18), and whi e iscous esidue was also obse ed a ached o he insec pa when disca ded om he wound (Video S1; 01:43). O hese ins ances, wo demons a ed clea inges ion (Video S1; 00:41, 01:18), whils in o he cases he esidue was obse ed o adhe e o he lowe lip and chin a ea a e being b ough o he mou h (Video S1; 00:17 − 00:27, 00:35 − 00:36, 00:38), making i unclea whe he inges ion occu ed. Th oughou he insec applica ion ac i i y, she p oduced o o acial sounds – ee h clacks and lip smacks43,44. E en 2 (see Video S2). An adolescen male chimpanzee, Damien, caugh and applied a lying insec o an open wound on his inne igh cal The e en in ol ed Damien, an adolescen male, who cap u ed a lying insec wi hin wo a emp s, using a g asping mo emen on lea es while locomo ing (Video S2; 00:04 − 00:18). Damien p oceeded o p ess he cap u ed and immobilised insec o his wound on his inne igh cal (app oxima ely < 5cm in diame e ) and was obse ed e-applying he insec on wo occasions. He held he insec in his mou h o be ween his lips wo imes be o e eapplying (Video S2; 00:56 − 01:02, 01:06 − 01:08). A he end o he applica ion, he placed he insec on he edge o his lowe , looked a i be o e disca ding i (Video S2; 01:44 − 01:56). An un ela ed adul male, Wayne and Damien’s younge adolescen sis e pee ed a he ac i i y a di e en poin s; Wayne s opped pee ing and walked away be o e he end o he e en (Video S2; 00:22 − 01:58) and E a-James con inued pee ing un il Damien s a ed o g oom he (Video S2; 01:10 − 02:23). E en 3 (see Video S3). An adolescen emale chimpanzee, E a James, applied a lying insec o an open wound on he inne igh cal o he adolescen b o he , Damien This e en ook place sho ly a e E en 2 (app oxima ely 90s). An adolescen emale and sis e o Damien, E a James, was obse ed applying an immobilised lying insec o Damien’s open wound (app oxima ely < 5cm in diame e ). E a James had success ully cap u ed a lying insec by using a quick g asping mo emen on he nea by lea es (obse a ional eco ding) be o e p oceeding o p ess he insec on Damien’s wound (Video S3; 00:04 − 00:22). Du ing he applica ion, she p essed he insec on Damien’s wound and held be ween he lips in o he mou h h ee imes, once be o e eapplica ion (Video S3; 00:10 − 00:13) and wice be o e a emp ed eapplica ion (Video S3; 00:25 − 00:30, 00:51 − 00:54). A e , he second a emp ed applica ion, she walked away wi h he insec s ill in hand (Video S3; 00:55 − 01:14) es ed nea by and inspec ed he insec be o e disca ding i (K.K. pe sonal obse a ion). Thei olde adul ma e nal b o he , Rollins, was es ing nea by, who began Fig. 1. An adolescen emale, F icka, applied a lying insec o a wound on he inne igh high. The wound is indica ed by he whi e squa e, and he insec , isible as a blue-colou ed objec be ween he humbs, is shown in he zoomed-in iew wi hin he whi e-bo de ed squa e in he op- igh co ne . Scien i ic Repo s | (2025) 15:31242 3 | h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41598-025-16582-5 www.na u e.com/scien i ic epo s/ pee ing a he ac i i y du ing he i s a emp ed eapplica ion un il Damien eposi ioned himsel (Video S3; 00:34 − 00:56). Discussion The p esen s udy aimed o p o ide insigh in o insec applica ion o wounds in a di e en chimpanzee subspecies. We obse ed i e e en s and desc ibe h ee in de ail in ol ing he applica ion o a lying insec on o an open wound, esul ing in wo sel -di ec ed and one o he -di ec ed applica ion by Eas e n chimpanzees om he Ngogo popula ion. The obse a ions sugges a gene al sequen ial pa e n in he applica ion o insec s o wounds: i s , he insec was cap u ed om nea by ege a ion, such as lea es; second, he immobilised insec o insec pa s we e applied o he exposed wound su ace using he inge s, o en epea edly, and in some ins ances empo a ily held in he mou h o be ween he lips be o e being eapplied; and hi d, he insec was ei he disca ded and emo ed om he wound a ea, wi h no cases o inges ion eco ded. This sequence mi o s ha epo ed in Cen al chimpanzees, sugges ing a po en ial consis ency in echniques ac oss subspecies. Al hough based on a small sample size, he indings sugges ha he beha iou is mo e widesp ead han p e iously assumed37, adding o cu en unde s anding o beha iou al social ansmission and p osocial beha iou in chimpanzees. Hence, as a ca alys o guide u u e esea ch in o insec applica ions, hei possible eme gence and unc ion, as well as hei ele ance o he e olu ion o human medical beha iou s, we pos ula e h ee di e en hypo heses ocusing speci ically on (i) selec i i y o he applied insec , (ii) social ansmission o insec applica ion, and (iii) o he - di ec ed applica ion as a p osocial beha iou . Insec selec i i y All obse ed e en s in ol ed lying insec s a he han o he ypes o insec s such as g ound-dwelling o c awling insec s, consis en wi h epo s om Cen al chimpanzees37. This epea ed obse a ion may sugges some deg ee o selec i i y in he ypes o insec s chosen o applica ion. A key ques ion is whe he chimpanzees selec o hese lying insec s and a speci ic axa o applica ion on hei open wounds and whe he hese applied insec s ha e medicinal alue. In humans, lying insec s used o wound healing such as common g een bo le lies (Lucilia se ica a)45–50, blow lies (Sa conesiopsis magellanica)51,52, as well as honeybees (Apis melli e a)53, and silk mo hs (Bombyx mo i)54,55, se e se e al opical unc ions, including disin ec ion, an ibac e ial p ope ies, enhanced healing, issue econs uc ion, and in lamma ion educ ion3. Gi en hese es ablished he apeu ic p ope ies o a ious lying insec species in humans, chimpanzees may simila ly selec lying insec s wi h medicinal p ope ies o wound- ela ed applica ions. Howe e , chimpanzees may use hese insec s h ough mechanisms ha also in ol e sys emic e ec s. E en 1, whe e a whi e esidue was consumed, could indica e sys emic bene i s alongside opical applica ion. Whe he he inges ion se es a unc ion, and wha mechanisms (solely opical, o bo h opical and sys emic) migh be in ol ed in he insec applica ion, equi es u he in es iga ion. Gi en he di icul y o de e mining species-speci ic selec ion by chimpanzees in eal ime, u u e esea ch could add ess his h ough a wo- old app oach. Fi s , species iden i ica ion can be achie ed h ough collec ing insec emains om applica ion e en s and iden i ying hem based on mo phological cha ac e is ics o h ough molecula echniques such as DNA ba coding56. These iden i ica ions should be con ex ualised wi hin he local insec di e si y, o enable assessmen o whe he chimpanzees p e e en ially selec speci ic species om a wide ange o a ailable axa. Second, assessing whe he iden i ied insec s ha e medicinal alue and con ain compounds ele an o wound healing, such as an ibac e ial enzymes, an i-in lamma o y agen s, o o he pha macologically ac i e subs ances, may be achie ed h ough molecula p o iling57. Compa ing insec s used ac oss di e en chimpanzee popula ions may o e u he insigh in o whe he insec applica ion e lec s an adap i e esponse. I insec applica ion aids wound disin ec ion, i may p o ide bo h he apeu ic and p ophylac ic bene i s, wi h immedia e e ec s (e.g. an imic obial ac ion) and longe - e m bene i s (e.g. quicke eco e y o educed in ec ion isk), ep esen ing a beha iou wi h clea i ness ad an ages. Such in o ma ion may also p o ide insigh in o he po en ial social ansmission o he beha iou – i he same o simila insec species a e consis en ly applied – and in o he possibili y o o he -di ec ed applica ion as a o m o p osocial beha iou , pa icula ly i he applied insec s ha e medicinal alue (discussed u he in he subsequen sec ions). Social ansmission o insec applica ion When del ing in o he insec applica ion i sel and i s gene al sequen ial pa e n, insec applica ions may necessi a e he ecogni ion and handling o speci ic insec species, which could equi e social lea ning o be eliably exp essed. One beha iou ha may acili a e he ansmission o insec applica ion and he sequence is pee ing58,59, as i can p o ide an oppo uni y o acqui e he knowledge o he beha iou . This is suppo ed by oppo uni ies o obse e conspeci ics, pa icula ly socially ole an indi iduals60, who allow close p oximi y and epea ed exposu e o hei beha iou 61. Such oppo uni ies a e mo e likely among kin, such as mo he -in an pai s, bonded indi iduals62, o ole models such as olde indi iduals60. In chimpanzees, ission– usion dynamics lead o changes in g oup composi ion and pa y size63, esul ing in a ia ion in he a ailabili y o ole models and a high deg ee o social ole ance60. The acquisi ion o mo e complex beha iou s, such as insec applica ion, may he e o e depend on ex ended exposu e o expe ienced chimpanzees in ole an con ex s, allowing o mo e de ailed and eliable ansmission o in o ma ion64. In his s udy, hi d-pa y pee ing was obse ed du ing insec applica ion e en s (Table1, N = 3 o i e e en s), sugges ing ha hese in e ac ions may o e oppo uni ies o he social ansmission o he beha iou and i s sequence. P e ious s udies ha e linked pee ing o he acquisi ion o ool-use beha iou s, p ima ily in eeding con ex s65–67. In he case o insec applica ion, pee ing may simila ly suppo he ansmission o he beha iou o aspec s o i s sequence, pa icula ly h ough in e ac ions wi h socially ole an indi iduals o ole models. The e o e, we sugges ha u u e esea ch pay pa icula a en ion o he p esence o pee ing du ing insec Scien i ic Repo s | (2025) 15:31242 4 | h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41598-025-16582-5 www.na u e.com/scien i ic epo s/ applica ion e en s. S udies may examine whe he pee ing p edic s subsequen occu ences o insec applica ion (ei he sel -di ec ed o o he -di ec ed) by he obse ing indi idual, including simila sequences and insec selec ion. Fo ins ance, wi h E en 3 which was a ollow-up o E en 2 wi h E a-James who pee ed du ing he sel -di ec ed applica ion o Damien, soon applied an insec o he b o he Damien’s wound. Ano he addi ional conside a ion on he insec selec ion, is i hose indi iduals ha pee also applying insec s wi h medicinal alue (gi en ha he applied insec s possess such p ope ies) o a e hey eplica ing he sequence wi hou selec ing e ec i e insec s, which could lead o di e en ou comes. S udies should also conside he iden i y o he model (e.g. kin, olde indi iduals), he ole ance le el (du a ion spen pee ing du ing applica ion wi hou a eac ion by he model, e.g., mo ing away o di ec ed agg ession), and whe he he pee ing occu ed h oughou he en i e applica ion o pa ially, as his may in luence lea ning ou comes68. Insec o he -di ec ed applica ion as a o m o p osocial beha iou In humans, empa hic esponses o ano he ’s pain a e sugges ed o unde lie he eme gence o p osocial beha iou 69,70 (see also71. These esponses a e cha ac e ised as au oma ic emo ional eac ions o he a ec i e s a e o o he s, modula ed by highe -o de cogni i e p ocesses70. A chaeological e idence sugges s ha se e ely inju ed and disabled Neande hals su i ed o ex ended pe iods, implying ha hey ecei ed ca e and suppo om conspeci ics72. This kind o o he - ega ding beha iou (i.e., a ge ed helping), po en ially d i en by empa hic esponses o ano he ’s pain, may ha e oo s in ou las common ances o wi h chimpanzees. Al hough some schola s a gue ha chimpanzees lack human-like empa hy39,73, o he s udies sugges ha hei beha iou e lec s empa hy- ela ed endencies, suppo ed by e idence o a ge ed helping in he wild as a o m o epimele ic beha iou 36,74–80. The obse ed e en s o o he -di ec ed insec applica ions in Eas e n and Cen al chimpanzees37, con ibu e o he ongoing deba e on p osocial beha iou s in chimpanzees38,39. Insec applica ion was obse ed be ween ela ed indi iduals in bo h chimpanzee subspecies: in Eas e n chimpanzees, be ween siblings; and in Cen al chimpanzees, be ween a mo he and he son. The emaining wo e en s in Cen al chimpanzees in ol ed un ela ed indi iduals, sugges ing ha , while some ins ances may e lec kin medica ion35, o he s poin owa d a b oade pa e n o social medica ion35 ha ex ends beyond kinship ies, i shown o ha e a medicinal unc ion. Howe e , in his s udy, e en s we e eco ded ad libi um; hus, ins ances o o he -di ec ed insec applica ion may be unde ep esen ed. Fu u e esea ch could he e o e explo e he possibili y ha o he -di ec ed applica ion is a o m o p osocial beha iou . Speci ically, i he insec s iden i ied in o he -di ec ed applica ions possess medicinal p ope ies, such as an imic obial o an i-in lamma o y e ec s, his beha iou may be adap i e and could he e o e quali y as a ge ed helping. In his con ex , he applica ion o insec s o o he s may p o ide e idence o empa hy- ela ed capaci ies in chimpanzees, linked o p osociali y. Consequen ly, insec applica ion and he ma ked asymme y be ween sel - and o he -di ec ed ins ances o e s an oppo uni y o explo e he cogni i e and emo ional mechanisms ha unde lie ea ly o ms o empa hy and p osocial beha iou . Insec applica ion as a medica i e beha iou ? Insec applica ion has no ye been classi ied as medica i e acco ding o he sel -medica ion c i e ia27,81. These c i e ia ypically include: (1) ecogni ion o symp oms o inju y, (2) use o a subs ance no pa o he egula die , (3) obse able heal h bene i s ollowing use, and (4) e idence ha he subs ance has biological o pha macological ac i i y27,81. These c i e ia we e o iginally de eloped o plan use and sel -medica ion. The e o e, we adap ed hem o help de e mine whe he sel -di ec ed and o he -di ec ed insec applica ion is a medica i e beha iou : (1) Recogni ion o wounds. (2) The iden i ied insec and i s de i ed ma e ial p o ide li le o no nu i ional bene i i consumed. (3) Obse able wound healing ollowing use. (4) E idence ha he applied insec has biological o pha macological ac i i y. C i e ia (1), (2), and (4) can be in es iga ed ela i ely easily h ough beha iou al obse a ion, die a y analysis, and chemical o mic obiological es ing. In con as , c i e ion (3) may pose mo e challenges, as healing ou comes can be a ec ed by a ious con ounding ac o s, including he se e i y and loca ion o he wound, indi idual a ia ion in immune esponse, and en i onmen al condi ions. Ne e heless, i c i e ia (1), (2), and (4) a e clea ly sa is ied, his may p o ide s ong e idence in a ou o classi ying insec applica ion as a medica i e beha iou . Conclusion This s udy p esen s he i s documen ed e idence o insec applica ion in Eas e n chimpanzees, ex ending a beha iou p e iously epo ed only in Cen al chimpanzees. This inding expands he known epe oi e o wound ca e in chimpanzees and sugges s ha insec applica ion may be mo e p e alen han p e iously ecognised. The documen a ion o bo h sel -di ec ed and o he -di ec ed insec applica ions poin s o i s po en ial ole wi hin he b oade medicinal beha iou al epe oi e o chimpanzees, o e s insigh in o hei cogni i e complexi y, and in oduces a c ucial candida e beha iou o unde s anding he e olu ion o human medical beha iou s. Mo e b oadly, hese indings highligh he impo ance o p ese ing wild chimpanzee popula ions, no only o hei con inued su i al bu also o main aining he beha iou al di e si y o which insec applica ion may meaning ully con ibu e82. Scien i ic Repo s | (2025) 15:31242 5 | h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41598-025-16582-5 www.na u e.com/scien i ic epo s/ Me hods S udy si e and subjec s The indi iduals obse ed we e membe s o he Ngogo chimpanzee popula ion li ing in he Kibale Na ional Pa k in Uganda. A he ime o his s udy, was di ided in o wo dis inc communi ies: Cen al and Wes e n83, and he membe size o he popula ion a ied be ween 180 and 220 indi iduals. Al hough o iginally a single communi y wi h blu ed socio-spa ial bounda ies be ween h ee subg oups (Wes e n, Cen al, and Eas e n), a se ies o agonis ic e en s led o a pe manen spli in 2017, esul ing in he o ma ion o wo dis inc communi ies wi hin he Ngogo popula ion83. The s udy a ea is app oxima ely 30 km2 and consis s o mos ly ma u e and egene a ing o es ansi ional be ween lowland and mon ane mois e e g een o es s, bu also smalle a eas o swamp o es 84. Beha iou al obse a ions F om No embe 2021 o Ma ch 2022, all e en s in ol ing insec applica ion we e collec ed by K.K. and D.A.F. ad libi um85. All occu ences o open wounds we e eco ded, and i possible, he cause o he wound was documen ed. Open wounds included punc u es, lesions, lace a ions, and small cu s. Healed sca s and scabs we e excluded. Sel -di ec ed and o he -di ec ed insec applica ions we e eco ded digi ally using he Cybe T acke p og amme ( e sion 3.514) on a wa e p oo sma phone. When possible, ideo oo age o he e en was eco ded using a digi al high-de ini ion came a (Sony FDR-AX53 4K). The ID o he wounded indi idual and applica o , beha iou al sequence o insec applica ion, wound loca ion, and in ol emen o pee ing (i.e., close- ange and sus ained obse a ion o a conspeci ic’s ac i i ies86 we e no ed o each obse ed e en . E hics s a emen The esea ch conduc ed on he chimpanzees was s ic ly non-in asi e and obse a ional, and was classi ied as a non-animal expe imen unde Sec ion V, A icle 7 o he Ge man Animal Wel a e Ac (25 May 1998). I was app o ed by he Ugandan Wildli e Au ho i y ( e : COD/96/05), he Ugandan Na ional Council o Science and Technology (no. NS295ES), he Make e e Uni e si y Biological Field S a ion, and he Ngogo Chimpanzee P ojec . The esea ch adhe ed o he ASAB Guidelines87 and he IUCN Bes P ac ice Guidelines88, bo h o which se in e na ionally ecognised s anda ds o e hical, non-in asi e beha iou al ield esea ch on animals, including p ima es. These s anda ds guided all aspec s o ieldwo k, including p e- ieldwo k qua an ine p ocedu es, he use o su gical masks, and main aining a dis ance o app oxima ely 10m om he chimpanzees. Da a a ailabili y Da a is p o ided wi hin he manusc ip and ideo oo age o epo ed e en s is a ailable a he ollowing epos- i o y: h ps: //o s .io/a j5 8 /? i ew_only=575674748 c254725b 91a9a b2542cd . Recei ed: 19 June 2025; Accep ed: 18 Augus 2025 Re e ences 1. Ki maye , L. J. The cul u al di e si y o healing: meaning, me apho and mechanism. B . Med. Bull. 69, 33–48 (2004). 2. Reid, A. M. e al. Else ie ,. T adi ional Medicine. in Medicinal Plan s o Holis ic Heal h and Well-Being (ed. Lall, N.) 1–11 (2018). 3. Siddiqui, S. A. e al. 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We a e hank ul o he Ugandan Wildli e Au ho i y, he Make e e Uni e si y Biological Field S a ion, and he Ugandan Na ional Council o Science and Technology o hei pe mission o conduc esea ch a he Kibale Na ional Pa k. We hank Samuel Angedakin o assis ance wi h he necessa y adminis a ion and pe mi s. We a e indeb ed o Sebas ian Rami ez-Amaya o his suppo and e o in assis ing wi h da a collec- ion. Las ly, we hank he membe s o he Compa a i e BioCogni ion Resea ch G oup o ui ul discussions and adminis a i e suppo , and he chimpanzees a Ngogo, whose ole ance made his esea ch possible. Au ho con ibu ions Concep ualisa ion: K.K., and S.P.; Manusc ip shaping: S.P.;Da a Cu a ion: K.K.; Fo mal Analysis: K.K.; Funding acquisi ion: S.P.; In es iga ion: K.K., and D.A.F.; Resou ces: S.P.; W i ing – o iginal d a : K.K.; W i ing – e iew- ing and edi ing: K.K., D.A.F., A.M., and S.P.; Visualisa ion: K.K.; Supe ision: S.P. Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL. 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