Perceived Influence of Parental Background on the Psychological Adjustment of Secondary School Students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State, Nigeria

VillageMath Educational Review, 7(1) https://ngsme.villagemath.net/journals/ver 170 Volume 7, Issue 1 October, 2025 CODEN: VERIAU Perceived Influence of Parental Background on the Psychological Adjustment of Secondary School Students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State, Nigeria Winifred Antiabong OGBONNA, Veronica Jumeyi OJOGBANE and Martina GOSHWE Department of Guidance and Counselling, Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University, Makurdi, Nigeria DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17268489 Article History: Received 19th September, 2025; Revised 4th October, 2025; Published 5th October, 2025. Copyright © 2025 by Author(s) and The VillageMath Network This work is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ How to Cite this Article: Ogbonna, W. A., Ojogbane, V. J. & Goshwe, M. (2025). Perceived Influence of Parental Background on the Psychological Adjustment of Secondary School Students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State, Nigeria. VillageMath Educational Review (VER), 7(1), 170179. https://ngsme.villagemath.net/journals/ver/v7i1/ogbonna-ojogbane-goshwe Abstract This study investigated the perceived influence of parental background on the psychological adjustment of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State, Nigeria. The study specifically examined the influence on students’ self-esteem and selfconcept. The research adopted an analytical survey design. A sample of 370 students was selected from a target population of 30,010 using a multi-stage sampling procedure. Data were collected using a self-designed instrument titled “Parental Background and Psychological Adjustment Questionnaire (PBAPAQ),” which demonstrated good validity and a high reliability coefficient of 0.889. Data analysis involved descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) to answer the research questions and inferential statistics (ChiVillageMath Educational Review An International/Multidisciplinary Journal of Network for Grassroots Science and Mathematics Education (The VillageMath Network) A publication of VillageMath Educational Services (CAC RC: 4097888) VillageMath Educational Review, 7(1) https://ngsme.villagemath.net/journals/ver 171 Ogbonna, Ojogbane & Goshwe square) to test the two null hypotheses at a 0.05 significance level. The findings revealed that parental background has a significant positive influence on both the self-esteem and selfconcept of students. The Chi-square results further confirmed a significant perceived influence for both self-esteem (p-value = 0.00) and self-concept (p-value = 0.00), leading to the rejection of both null hypotheses. The study concludes that factors such as parental education, socioeconomic status, and involvement are crucial determinants of students’ psychological well-being. It is recommended that schools implement parental education programmes and strengthen school-parent collaboration to foster a more supportive environment for students’ holistic development. Keywords: Parental Background, Psychological Adjustment, Self-Esteem, Self-Concept, Secondary School Students, Guidance and Counseling Introduction Psychological factors play a significant role in shaping human daily activities. The outcome of various everyday tasks often depends heavily on an individual’s psychological condition. For students, this can mean facing a variety of psychological difficulties that interfere with their regular routines. These difficulties often stem from issues like low self-esteem, test anxiety, poor self-concept, stress, depression, lack of motivation, loneliness, helplessness, and specific phobias. When problems such as test anxiety, diminished self-confidence, irrational fears, and constant feelings of unease disrupt students’ functioning, their academic performance, especially at the secondary school level, can be negatively affected. Building on this, psychological factors represent a multidimensional construct. Researchers in the field of psychology have posited that students must internally address three critical questions in any learning context: “Can I do this activity?”, “Do I want to do this activity and why?”, and “What do I need to do to succeed?” (Wigfield & Eccles, 2013). These internal reflections shape students’ motivation, persistence, and achievement. Despite the recognized role of education in national development, there is growing concern in Nigeria that educational standards are declining, alongside a noticeable erosion of moral values. Increasing public discourse and academic research reflect anxiety over students’ poor performance, especially in critical subjects like Mathematics, English, and Science (Ema & Ajayi, 2014). A comparative evaluation of student performance in the past and present suggests a significant decline, which raises questions about contributing factors, one of which may be the influence of parental background. In connection with this, both physical and psychological consequences are often associated with students’ family environments. Students from unstable or disadvantaged backgrounds are more likely to experience low self-esteem, negative self-concept, anxiety, depression, poor relationship quality, and issues related to locus of control, all of which can contribute to diminished psychological adjustment. Parental background refers to the combined social, economic, educational, and cultural conditions of a child’s parents or guardians, which shape the child’s developmental environment and opportunities. It includes factors such as parental education levels, income, employment status, and parenting style all of which play a critical role in influencing VillageMath Educational Review, 7(1) https://ngsme.villagemath.net/journals/ver 172 children’s academic adjustment, mental health, and behavioral outcomes (Zhang & Chen, 2021; Garcia & Weiss, 2020). Recent studies emphasize that disparities in parental background can contribute to long-term inequalities in educational and psychological outcomes among children (Garcia & Weiss, 2020, Li, 2023). Furthermore, adjustment refers to the process by which an individual adapts to changes in their environment or circumstances in order to maintain psychological well-being and effective functioning. It involves behavioural, emotional, and cognitive efforts to cope with internal needs and external demands, allowing the person to achieve harmony between themselves and their surroundings (Ward & Kennedy, 2013). In adolescents, successful adjustment is crucial for academic performance, social relationships, and mental health. Additionally, psychological adjustment refers to the emotional and mental well-being an individual’s experiences in response to life’s challenges. It encompasses the ability to cope with stress, especially when adjusting to new environments (Ward & Kennedy, 2013). Adjustment is influenced by personality traits, coping mechanisms, life transitions, and available social support systems. Consequently, adolescents with poor psychological adjustment often exhibit low academic performance, behavioral problems, and a higher risk of school dropout (Cetinkaya-Yildiz, 2015). Hence, successful psychological adjustment is crucial to both academic and social success. One of the most essential components of psychological well-being is self-esteem, which refers to an individual’s overall sense of self-worth or personal value, encompassing beliefs about oneself as well as emotional states such as pride and shame (Orth & Robins, 2022). It plays a critical role in adolescents’ academic performance, social relationships, and emotional resilience. Parental background significantly influences the self-esteem of secondary school students, as factors such as parental education, income level, and parenting style shape the emotional and psychological environment in which adolescents develop. Adolescents from families with higher socioeconomic status often report higher self-esteem due to increased access to resources, supportive communication, and positive reinforcement (Ahmed., 2021). In contrast, students from less privileged backgrounds may struggle with lower self-worth, often stemming from limited parental involvement or economic stressors that affect emotional support at home (Nguyen & La, 2022). Moreover, authoritative parenting styles more common in educated and economically stable households are positively correlated with higher levels of adolescent self-esteem (Khalid & Aslam, 2020), highlighting the importance of a nurturing and structured home environment. Similarly, self-concept refers to an individual’s perception of themselves, encompassing beliefs about their abilities, appearance, personality, and social relationships (Marsh & Craven, 2021). For secondary school students, self-concept plays a vital role in shaping academic motivation, behaviour, and overall psychological development. Parental background particularly parental education, occupation, and socioeconomic status, have significant impact on how students perceive themselves. Adolescents from supportive and well-educated families are more likely to develop a positive self-concept due to consistent encouragement, role modeling, and access to educational resources (Chen, 2020). In contrast, students from disadvantaged backgrounds may experience lower self-concept, often due to limited parental engagement or socioeconomic stressors that hinder emotional VillageMath Educational Review, 7(1) https://ngsme.villagemath.net/journals/ver 173 Ogbonna, Ojogbane & Goshwe and academic support (Obi & Yusuf, 2022). Parenting style also plays a critical role, as authoritative parenting has been linked to higher self-concept in adolescents, whereas neglectful or authoritarian styles may have the opposite effect (Rahman & Ali, 2023). It is against this comprehensive background that the current study investigates the influence of parental background on the psychological adjustment of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State, Nigeria. Statement of the Problem The secondary education period is a critical stage of development characterized by significant physical, emotional, and psychological changes. During this time, students’ psychological adjustment, encompassing their self-esteem and self-concept, is paramount to their academic achievement, social integration, and overall well-being. A primary factor believed to shape this adjustment is the parental background, which includes socioeconomic status, educational level, occupation, and cultural values. Within Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State, a region with its unique sociocultural and economic dynamics, there is a growing concern among educators and stakeholders regarding the psychological well-being of students. Anecdotal evidence and preliminary observations suggest that disparities in parental background may be contributing to variations in students’ confidence, academic engagement, and social behaviour. However, the specific ways in which students themselves perceive the influence of their parental background on their psychological makeup remain inadequately explored and documented. Therefore, the problem this study addresses is the lack of empirical understanding of the perceived influence of parental background on the psychological adjustment, specifically the self-esteem and self-concept, of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District. Without a clear investigation into this relationship, educational interventions and guidance programmes may be ineffective in addressing the root causes of poor psychological adjustment among students. This gap in knowledge hinders the development of targeted support systems that could help mitigate negative influences and foster healthier adolescent development in the district. Objectives of the Study The objective of the study is to investigate the perceived influence of parental background on the psychological adjustment of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State. Specifically, this study sought to: i. Examine the perceived influence of parental background on the self-esteem of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State. ii. Determine the perceived influence of parental background on the self-concept of secondary school students. Research Questions The following research questions were raised to guide the study: i. What is the perceived influence of parental background on the self-esteem of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State? VillageMath Educational Review, 7(1) https://ngsme.villagemath.net/journals/ver 174 ii. What is the perceived influence of parental background on the self-concept of secondary school students? Research Hypotheses The following null hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. i. There is no significant perceived influence of parental background on the selfesteem of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State. ii. There is no significant perceived influence of parental background on the selfconcept of secondary school students. Methodology The study adopted an analytical survey research design to examine how parental background influences the psychological adjustment of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State. Zone C, which comprises nine local government areas and 99 government-owned and grant-aided schools, was chosen because of the observed prevalence of maladaptive behaviours and poor academic performance among students in the area. The target population consisted of 30,010 students across the district, from which a sample of 395 was determined using Taro Yamane’s formula. A multi-stage sampling technique was employed: first, three local government areas were randomly selected, followed by the random selection of two schools from each area, proportionate stratified random sampling of students from the six schools, and finally, simple random sampling of individual students to ensure fairness, representativeness, and reduced bias. Data was collected using a self-designed questionnaire titled Parental Background and Psychological Adjustment Questionnaire (PBAPAQ), which contained 10 items distributed across two clusters and rated on a four-point Likert scale. The instrument was validated by three experts in Guidance, Counselling, and Measurement and Evaluation, who reviewed it for clarity, relevance, and simplicity, leading to revisions that strengthened its validity. Reliability was established through a pilot test conducted in Nasarawa State, where Cronbach’s Alpha yielded a coefficient of 0.889, indicating good internal consistency. For data collection, the research team, assisted by two trained research aides, administered the questionnaires in person after obtaining permission from school authorities. Respondents were assured of confidentiality, and completed questionnaires were retrieved on the spot to avoid data loss. Data analysis involved both descriptive and inferential statistics: mean and standard deviation were used to address the research questions, while Chi-square tests were applied to test the null hypotheses at the 0.05 significance level. A criterion mean of 2.50 was used, with scores at or above this threshold signifying acceptance of an item and those below indicating rejection. The Chi-square test was considered appropriate for assessing the extent to which parental background variables significantly influenced students’ psychological adjustment. Results This section presents the findings derived from the analysis of data collected through the research instruments. Of the 395 questionnaires administered, 370 were successfully completed and returned, resulting in a high response rate of 93.7%. The analysis integrates VillageMath Educational Review, 7(1) https://ngsme.villagemath.net/journals/ver 175 Ogbonna, Ojogbane & Goshwe both descriptive and inferential statistical methods, aligned with the study’s research questions and hypotheses. Results are systematically organized and interpreted to examine the perceived influence of parental background on the psychological adjustment of secondary school students. Furthermore, the findings are discussed in relation to existing literature and the theoretical frameworks that informed the study, providing deeper insight into the implications and relevance of the results. The results of the descriptive and inferential analysis are presented below. Descriptive statistics summarize the data, while inferential statistics test the hypotheses. Research Question One What is the influence of parental background on the self-esteem of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State? Table 1: Mean and standard deviation of respondents on the influence of parental background on the self-esteem of secondary school students S/N Statement N Mean SD Remark 1 My self-esteem is positively influenced by my parents’ level of education. 370 2.88 0.65 Agree 2 I feel more confident when my parents actively support my academic progress. 370 2.67 0.83 Agree 3 I compare myself with peers based on my family's financial standing, which affects my self-worth. 370 2.96 0.92 Agree 4 Limited resources at home sometimes lower how I feel about myself. 370 2.56 0.89 Agree 5 My parents’ participation in school-related activities strengthens my sense of self. 370 2.98 0.69 Agree 6 I occasionally feel less capable because of my parents’ low educational background. 370 2.74 0.75 Agree 7 The moral guidance and values I receive from my parents help build my self-respect. 370 2.61 0.85 Agree Cluster Mean 2.77 0.80 Agree Table 1 shows that the mean ratings for items 1–7 were all above the cut-off point of 2.50. The cluster mean of 2.77 with a standard deviation of 0.80 is also above the cut-off point of 2.50. This implies that parental background has a significant positive influence on the self-esteem of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State. Research Question Two What is the influence of parental background on the self-concept of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State? VillageMath Educational Review, 7(1) https://ngsme.villagemath.net/journals/ver 176 Table 2: Mean and standard deviation of respondents on the influence of parental background on the self-concept of secondary school students S/N Item N Mean SD Remark 8 The financial situation of my family influences how I see myself. 370 2.79 0.61 Agree 9 I feel more confident at school because my parents are emotionally supportive. 370 2.54 0.79 Agree 10 My parents’ occupation affects how I value myself. 370 3.03 0.91 Agree 11 I feel proud of my family background when interacting with classmates. 370 2.58 0.63 Agree 12 My self-image is shaped by the social status of my family. 370 2.89 0.72 Agree 13 My parents’ expectations influence how I perceive myself. 370 2.70 0.66 Agree 14 My parents’ involvement in my education contributes to how I understand myself. 370 2.65 0.86 Agree Cluster Mean 2.74 0.74 Agree Table 2 shows that the mean ratings for items 8–14 were all above the cut-off point of 2.50. The cluster mean of 2.74 with a standard deviation of 0.74 is also above the cut-off point of 2.50. This implies that parental background has a significant positive influence on the self-concept of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State. Research Hypothesis One Parental background has no significant influence on the self-esteem of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State. Table 3: Chi-square goodness of the influence of parental background on the selfesteem of secondary school students Observed N Expected N df p-value ChiSquare Sig. value Remark SD 45 92.5 3 0.00 161.438 a 0.05 S, Reject H 01 D 28 92.5 A 115 92.5 SA 182 92.5 Total 370 df = degree of freedom, S = significant The result presented in Table 3 shows that the p-value of 0.00 is less than the set significant value of 0.05 and this shows that the test of hypothesis is significant. This implies that parental background has significant positive influence on the self-esteem of secondary VillageMath Educational Review, 7(1) https://ngsme.villagemath.net/journals/ver 177 Ogbonna, Ojogbane & Goshwe school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State. Therefore, the hypothesis is rejected. Research Hypothesis Two Parental background has no significant influence on the self-concept of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State. Table 4: Chi-square goodness of the influence of parental background on the selfconcept of secondary school students Observed N Expected N df Pvalue ChiSquare Sig. value Remark SD 30 92.5 3 0.00 143.146 a 0.05 S, Reject H02 D 43 92.5 A 131 92.5 SA 166 92.5 Total 370 df = degree of freedom, S = significant The result presented in Table 4 shows that the Pvalue of 0.00 is less that the set significant value of 0.05 and this shows that the test of hypothesis is significant. This implies that parental background has significant formative influence on the self-concept of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State. Therefore, the hypothesis is rejected. Discussion of Findings The findings of this study reveal that parental background significantly influences the selfesteem of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State, Nigeria. In simple terms, this means that students who come from homes where parents provide emotional support, stability, and adequate financial resources tend to feel more confident and develop a stronger sense of self-worth. On the other hand, students whose parents are absent, overly critical, or unable to provide support may struggle with low self-esteem. This finding aligns with previous research by Brezina (2016), who noted that students from nurturing and supportive families tend to display higher levels of self-esteem. Similarly, Pomerantz et al. (2023) emphasized that parental education and financial stability play a key role in shaping adolescents’ confidence and emotional health. From a counselling perspective, this means schools must pay special attention to students who show signs of low self-esteem. Counsellors can offer targeted interventions such as group discussions, confidence-building activities, and peer mentoring. It is also important to involve parents through awareness programs that emphasize the importance of positive reinforcement and emotional availability at home. The study also showed that parental background has a strong influence on students’ self-concept, which refers to how students see and understand themselves in terms of their abilities, identity, and role in society. Students from well-structured and involved families are more likely to have a positive self-concept they believe in their abilities, see themselves in a good light, and tend to set goals for the future. Conversely, those from less supportive or VillageMath Educational Review, 7(1) https://ngsme.villagemath.net/journals/ver 178 unstable backgrounds may develop a negative or confused self-image. This finding is consistent with the work of Ahmed and Hassan (2021), who observed that children with active and involved parents tend to have healthier self-perceptions. This highlights the need for counsellors to help students build a strong and positive self-concept. This can be achieved through personal development sessions, journaling activities, value clarification exercises, and identity-strengthening programs. Additionally, parental education sessions can help families learn how to support their children's self-image more effectively. Conclusion The study concluded that parental background plays a significant role in influencing the psychological adjustment of secondary school students in Zone C Senatorial District of Benue State, Nigeria. The findings revealed that parental background has a high and significant impact on students’ self-esteem and self-concept. The implication of these findings is that the home environment, including parental education level, socioeconomic status, and parenting style, cannot be overlooked in efforts to improve student outcomes. Interventions aimed at enhancing student performance and psychological health must therefore consider family-related variables as core components. Stakeholders in the education sector, including parents, teachers, counselors, and policymakers, should collaborate to create support systems that bridge the gap for students from less favorable backgrounds. Ultimately, fostering a psychologically supportive and academically enabling environment both at home and in school is essential for the holistic development of secondary school students. Recommendations In view of the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made. i. Parental Education Programmes: Schools, in collaboration with community organizations, should organize regular workshops and seminars to educate parents on the importance of their involvement in their children's psychological and academic development. Topics should include positive parenting, emotional support, and communication strategies. ii. Strengthen School-Parent Collaboration: School administrators should create structured platforms such as Parent-Teacher Associations (PTAs) and home visitation programs to enhance engagement between schools and parents, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds. REFERENCES Ahmed, S., & Hassan, K. (2021). Parental involvement and its impact on adolescent selfperception and academic engagement. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 30 (8), 2051– 2063. Ahmed, W., Minnaert, A., van der Werf, G., & Kuyper, H. (2021). Perceived social support and early adolescents’ achievement: The mediational roles of motivational beliefs and emotions. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 50(12), 2383-2395. Brezina, T. (2016). Parenting and the psychological development of the adolescent. Oxford University Press.